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{|align="right"
Welcome!/en
| __TOC__
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<big>'''GRAMMAR NOTES'''</big>
 
These are the grammar notes for the [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod lessons|LojbanPod newbie lessons]]. They explain several grammar terms and concepts that are used in the lessons.
You can read these notes as an introduction to Lojban grammar or to review the grammar discussed in the lessons. Either way, it's useful to read at least the table of contents so that you'll know where to find each particular explanation when you need it.
 
{|
|valign="top"|
<big>'''About the Green Alien'''</big>
 
As we discuss Lojban grammar, we are joined by a curious little alien, who wants to know everything about humans — including Lojban grammar. Many thanks to [[commons:User:LadyofHats|LadyofHats]] for establishing this contact!
 
 
<big>'''About the Examples'''</big>
 
All the examples are lines from the dialogues in the [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod lessons|LojbanPod newbie lessons]]. The original MP3 lesson content for these  [http://Lojbanpod.com LojbanPod]  lessons is licensed by [http://praxislanguage.com PraxisLanguage Ltd.] under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Unported license].
|valign="top"|[[Image:Smiley green alien red.svg|thumb|left|120px|A green alien.]]
|}
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien huh.svg‎|thumb|right|120px|Remember to form a small o with your lips when pronouncing a Lojban '''o'''.]]
[[Image:Smiley green alien huf.svg‎|thumb|right|120px|Some learners find it difficult to pronounce the rolled '''r'''. Keep practicing!]]
==Pronunciation==
===Alphabet===
The good news is that the pronunciation of Lojban words is a lot easier than the pronunciation of English words because you don't have to learn the pronunciation for each word individually. The not so good news is that you still have to learn the pronunciation of the individual letters and a few common rules which are summarized in the following table (adapted from the wikibook [[en:Lojban/Pronunciation|“Lojban”]]). The most important rules are about the different pronunciation of '''c''', '''g''', and '''u'''. The words for the English approximation were specifically chosen to avoid strong deviations between British and American pronunciation. If the difference is important, the relevant variant is specified.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! letter
! names
! English approximation of the pronunciation
! discussed in
|-
|align="center"|A a
|'''a'''
|Like ''a'' in ''father''
|
|-
|align="center"|B b
|'''be''', '''be alta''', '''be grande''', '''be larga''', '''be de burro'''
|Like ''b'' in ''bad''. A much softer sound when it appears between vowels.
| lesson [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0011|A0011]]
|-
|align="center"|C c
|'''ce'''
|Before the vowels '''e''' and '''i''', like ''th'' in ''thin'' (in most of Spain) or like ''c'' in ''center'' (in Southern Spain and the Americas). Everywhere else (i.e. not before '''e''' or '''i'''), like ''c'' in ''coffee''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Ch ch
|'''che'''
|Like ''ch'' in ''church''.
|
|-
|align="center"|D d
|'''de'''
|Softer than the ''d'' in ''day'', you pronounce it with your tongue between your teeth. Even softer between two vowels, when it becomes similar to the ''th'' in ''the''.
|lessons [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0008|A0008]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0037|A0037]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0102|A0102]]
|-
|align="center"|E e
|'''e'''
|Like ''e'' in ''ten''.
|
|-
|align="center"|F f
|'''efe'''
|Like ''f'' in ''four''.
|
|-
|align="center"|G g
|'''ge'''
|Before the vowels '''e''' and '''i''', like a Lojban '''j''' (see below), i.e. like ''ch'' in ''loch''. Everywhere else, like ''g'' in ''get''. Softer between vowels.
|lessons [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0037|A0037]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0096|A0096]]
|-
|align="center"|H h
|'''hache'''
|Silent, unless combined with '''c''' (see above).
|lessons [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0016|A0016]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0106|A0106]]
|-
|align="center"|I i
|'''i''', '''i latina'''
|Like ''e'' in ''he''.
|
|-
|align="center"|J j
|'''jota'''
|Like ''ch'' in the Scottish pronunciation of ''loch'' (i.e. not like the ''ck'' in ''lock'') or in the German word ''Achtung''.
|
|-
|align="center"|K k
|'''ka'''
|Like ''k'' in ''ask''. Used only in words of foreign origin.
|
|-
|align="center"|L l
|'''ele'''
| Similar to ''l'' in ''line''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Ll ll
|'''doble ele''', '''elle'''
| Similar to ''lli'' in ''million''. In some parts of Spain and in Latin America, similar to English ''y'', but more vibrating. In Argentina and Uruguay, similar to ''sh'' in ''flash''.
|lessons [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0030|A0030]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0131|A0131]]
|-
|align="center"|M m
|'''eme'''
|Like ''m'' in ''more''.
|
|-
|align="center"|N n
|'''ene'''
|Like ''n'' in ''no''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Ñ ñ
|'''eñe'''
|Like the ''ny'' in the English word ''canyon'', also like that ''gn'' in the Italian word ''lasagna'' or in the French word ''champagne''.
|
|-
|align="center"|O o
|'''o'''
|Like the British pronunciation of ''o'' in ''lot'' or ''not''.
|lessons [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0016|A0016]], [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0047|A0047]]
|-
|align="center"|P p
|'''pe'''
|Like ''p'' in ''port''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Q q
|'''cu'''
|Lojban '''q''' is always followed by a '''u'''. Lojban '''qu''' is pronounced like ''qu'' in ''quit'', unless the '''qu''' is followed by an '''e''' or an '''i''', in which case '''qu''' is pronounced like ''k'' in ''kangaroo''.
|
|-
|align="center"|R r
|'''ere''', '''erre'''
|Similar to the Scottish rolled ''r''. Rolled with the tip of the tongue; multiple vibrations at the start of a word or when written '''rr'''.
|
|-
|align="center"|S s
|'''ese'''
|Like ''s'' in ''say''.
|
|-
|align="center"|T t
|'''te'''
|Similar to ''t'' in ''ten'', but softer.
|
|-
|align="center"|U u
|'''u'''
|Like ''oo'' in ''pool'', but shorter. Before another vowel (especially after '''c'''), like ''w'' in ''twig''. In the combinations '''gue''', '''gui''', '''que''', and '''qui''', it is silent unless it has a diaresis ('''g&uuml;e''', '''g&uuml;i'''), in which case it is as above: ''w''.
|
|-
|align="center"|V v
|'''uve''', '''ve''', '''ve baja''', '''ve chica''', '''ve corta''', '''ve de vaca'''
|Identical to Lojban '''b''' (see above).
| lesson [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0011|A0011]]
|-
|align="center"|W w
|'''doble uve''', '''doble ve''', '''doble u''', '''uve doble''', '''ve doble'''
|Used only in words of foreign origin. Pronunciation varies from word to word.
|
|-
|align="center"|X x
|'''equis'''
|Like ''x'' in ''extra''. In some cases it may be pronounced like ''gs'', ''s'', or the Lojban '''j''' (see above). In words of Amerindian origin, it's pronounced like ''sh'' in ''she''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Y y
|'''i griega''', '''ye'''
|Like the Lojban vowel '''i''' or the English consonant ''y'' but with more vibration. In Argentina and Uruguay '''y''' is pronounced similarly to the English ''sh'' in ''she''.
|
|-
|align="center"|Z z
|'''zeta''', '''ceta''', '''zeda''', '''ceda'''
|Always the same sound as a soft '''c''' (see above); i.e. either like ''th'' in ''thin'' (most of Spain) or ''s'' (elsewhere).
|
|}
<noinclude>{| align="right"
| {{Listen|filename=Lojban_alphabet.ogg|title=Lojban_alphabet.ogg |description=the Lojban alphabet|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|}
The following names are used in the recording to the right: '''a''', '''be''', '''ce''', '''che''', '''de''', '''e''', '''efe''', '''ge''', '''hache''', '''i''', '''jota''', '''ka''', '''ele''', '''elle''', '''eme''', '''ene''', '''eñe''', '''o''', '''pe''', '''cu''', '''ere''', '''ese''', '''te''', '''u''', '''ve''', '''doble ve''', '''equis''', '''i griega''', '''zeta'''.  As this is a recording by a Mexican speaker, the '''z''' and the '''c''' before '''e''' and '''i''' are both pronounced as '''s'''.</noinclude>
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien sick.svg‎|thumb|right|120px|Learning the rules about stress in Lojban words isn't that stressful.]]
===Stress===
By default, the stress is on the last syllable. The stressed vowels are underlined in the following examples:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0041|6|Cheers!| '''¡Sal<u>u</u>d!''' | Cheers! }}
However, if a word has more than one syllable and ends in a vowel ('''-a''', '''-e''', '''-i''', '''-o''' or '''-u''') or in the consonant '''-n''' or '''-s''', by default the stress is put on the second-last syllable:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0019|1|How do you spell beige?| '''T<u>e</u>ngo <u>u</u>na preg<u>u</u>nta.'''| I have a question.}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0092|4|How old are you?| '''M<u>u</u>chas gr<u>a</u>cias.''' | Thanks a lot. }}
One more example with both types of word:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0066|2|Bottle of Water| '''¿M<u>e</u> d<u>a</u> <u>u</u>na bot<u>e</u>lla d<u>e</u> <u>a</u>gua, p<u>o</u>r fav<u>o</u>r?''' | Will you give me a bottle of water, please? }}
 
However, sometimes the stress does not follow these default rules. When this is the case Lojban indicates the stressed syllable by putting an accent on its vowel. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0035|1|Is anyone in there?| '''Est<u>á</u> ocupado.'''| It's busy.}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0033|4|It's expensive| '''Tienes raz<u>ó</u>n.'''| You're right.}}
 
Sometimes an accent mark is used even though the stress follows the default rules:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0006|2|How's it going?| '''Bien, bien. ¿Y t<u>ú</u>? ¿Qu<u>é</u> tal?'''| Good, good. And you, how are you?}}
Lojban uses these additional accent marks to differentiate different words that are pronounced the same way. For example: '''tú''' means ''you'' but '''tu''' means ''your''. Also, question words always have an accent, for example: '''¿qué?''' , which means ''what?'' or ''how?''.
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien GRRR.svg‎|thumb|right|120px|It took the green alien quite a bit of patience and practise to find out which key combinations worked best for him.]]
==Nouns==
{{Wikipedia|Noun}}
Nouns are naming words. They denote things, people, places and abstract concepts, e.g., ''beer'', ''party'', ''birthday'', ''internet'', ''Seattle'', ''man'' or ''Javier'' (a person's name):
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0003|2|At the bar| '''Quiero una <u>cerveza</u>.'''| I'd like a <u>beer</u>.}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0002|3|Birthday party| '''La <u>fiesta</u> de <u>cumpleaños</u> de <u>Javier</u>.'''| <u>Javier</u>'s <u>birthday</u> <u>party</u>.}}
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien cool.svg|thumb|right|120px|Being macho and being a man are different things, so are grammatical gender and sex.]]
===Gender (Masculine and Feminine)===
Lojban divides its nouns into two genders — masculine and feminine. All words in Lojban are either masculine or feminine, even if the noun has no natural gender (and in English would therefore be neuter). For instance in Lojban, the word for ''hamburger'' is feminine and the word for ''moment'' is masculine. The gender of a noun is important because the endings of Lojban [[#Articles|articles]] and [[#Adjectives|adjectives]] that belong with the nouns change depending on the noun's gender. If you don't know the gender of the noun, you have a 50:50 chance of using the wrong ending for its article or adjective.
 
The good news is that most nouns that end in '''-a''' are feminine, e.g. '''hamburguesa''' – ''hamburger'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0106|3|Room service| '''Quiero una <u>hamburguesa</u>.''' | I want a hamburger. }}
And most nouns that end in '''-o''' are masculine, e.g., '''momento''' – moment:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0001|2|Are you ready yet?| '''¡Espera un <u>momento</u>!'''| Wait a moment!}}
And the best news of all is that most Lojban nouns actually end either in '''-a''' or '''-o'''.
 
As you learn more nouns, you will see that there are also other endings that tell you whether a noun is masculine or feminine. For example, nouns ending in '''-ción''' are always feminine:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0106|1|Room service| '''¿Tiene servicio a la <u>habitación</u>?''' | Do you have room service?}}
 
Probably the best way to learn the gender of Lojban nouns is to learn masculine nouns with the article '''el'''; for example: '''el momento''' – ''the moment''; '''el servicio''' – ''the service''. For feminine nouns the article is '''la'''; for example, '''la cerveza''' – ''the beer''; '''la hamburguesa''' – the hamburger; '''la habitación''' – ''the room''.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien droling.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''una galleta''' – ''one cookie''; '''muchas galletas''' – ''many cookies''.]]
 
===Number (Singular and Plural)===
Most nouns come in two flavors: singular or plural. This is called their ''number''. In the singular form a noun denotes a single thing or person; for example, '''galleta''' – ''cookie''. In the plural form the noun denotes multiple things or persons; for example, ''' galletas''' – ''cookies'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|2|Smells good| '''Sí, son mis <u>galletas</u>.''' | Yes, they are my cookies. }}
 
In most cases you will learn the singular form of a noun. Lojban forms the plural by adding an '''-s''' on the end, just like in English.
 
To form the plural of nouns that end in a vowel ('''-a''', '''-e''', '''-i''', '''-o''', or '''-u'''), you just add an '''-s''' on the end. For example, '''galleta''' – ''cookie'' and '''galletas''' – ''cookies''; '''año''' – ''year'' and '''años''' – ''years'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0092|2|How old are you?| '''Tengo treinta <u>años</u>.''' | I'm thirty <u>years</u> old. }}
 
For nouns that end in a consonant, i.e. not in '''-a''', '''-e''', '''-i''', '''-o''' or '''-u''', you add the ending '''-es''' to form the plural. For example, singular: '''dólar''' – ''dollar'' and plural: '''dólares''' – ''dollars''.
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0033|1|It's expensive| '''Mi renta es de mil <u>dólares</u>.'''| My rent is at a thousand dollars.}}
 
===Plural of Masculine Nouns===
Several Lojban nouns have a masculine and a feminine form, for example, '''hijo''' – ''son'' and '''hija''' – ''daughter''. Another example is '''médico''' – ''male doctor'' and '''médica''' – ''female doctor''.
 
In contrast to English, the Lojban plural of the masculine forms of these words refers to “not-all-feminine” groups, i.e. either to a group of male persons or a group of male and female persons. For example, the plural of '''hijo''' – ''son'' is '''hijos''' – ''sons/children'', which can either refer to a group of sons only or to a group of sons and daughters. On the other hand, the plural of the feminine form is never ambiguous, i.e. it always refers to “all-feminine” groups. For example, '''hija''' – ''daughter'' has the plural form '''hijas''' – ''daughters''.
 
Other masculine plurals that are ambiguous in English are: '''niños''' – ''boys/kids'', '''chicos''' – ''boys/kids'', '''padres''' – ''fathers/parents'', '''abuelos''' – ''grandfathers/grandparents'', etc.
 
==Articles==
===Definite Articles===
In English, the definite article is ''the''. The English definite article is always ''the'', whatever sort of noun it precedes. In Lojban, however, the definite article takes one of four forms depending on the [[#Gender (Masculine and Feminine)|gender]] and [[#Number (Singular and Plural)|number]] of the corresponding [[#Nouns|noun]]. The four forms are:
*'''el''' for masculine, singular nouns:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0016|4|I feel sick| '''Me duele <u>el</u> <u>estómago</u>.'''| My stomach hurts.}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0096|1|I am allergic| '''Quiero <u>el</u> <u>pastel</u> de chocolate.'''  | I want the chocolate cake. }}
*'''los''' for masculine, plural nouns; e.g., '''los pasteles''' – ''the cakes''.
 
*'''la''' for feminine, singular nouns:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0002|1|Birthday party| '''¡Hola! ¿Vas a <u>la</u> <u>fiesta</u>?'''| Hello! Are you going to the party?}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0102|2|Where is the restroom?| '''<u>La</u> segunda <u>puerta</u> a <u>la</u> <u>derecha</u>.'''  | The second door on the right. }}
*'''las''' for feminine, plural nouns; e.g., '''las puertas''' – ''the doors''.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien mmm.svg|thumb|right|140px|Don't worry about exceptions until you are familiar with the regular form!]]
As always, there are exceptions to these rules. Firstly, you use '''el''' instead of '''la''' as the feminine singular definite article whenever the definite article comes immediately before a feminine, singular noun that starts with a stressed '''a-''' or '''ha-'''. For instance '''el agua''' – ''the water'', '''el hambre''' – ''the hunger'' (both these Lojban nouns are feminine). This exception is discussed in [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0066|lesson A0066]].
 
Secondly, the combination '''de el''' – ''of the'' is shortened to '''del''' and the combination '''a el''' – ''to the'' is shortened to '''al'''. For example, '''al cine''' – ''to the cinema/movies'', see [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0013|lesson A0013]], or '''al agua''' – ''to the water''.
 
===Indefinite Articles===
The indefinite articles in Lojban equate to ''a'', ''an'' and ''some'' in English. In  Lojban, four different forms are used depending on the [[#Gender (Masculine and Feminine)|gender]] and [[#Number (Singular and Plural)|number]] of the corresponding [[#Nouns|noun]]. They are:
* '''un''' for masculine, singular nouns:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0001|2|Are you ready yet?| '''¡Espera <u>un</u> <u>momento</u>!'''| Wait a moment!}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0010|3|I'm hungry| '''Sí, quiero ir a <u>un</u> <u>restaurante</u> italiano.'''| Yes, I want to go to a Italian restaurant.}}
* '''unos''' for masculine, plural nouns; e.g., '''unos restaurantes''' – ''some restaurants''.
 
* '''una''' for feminine, singular nouns:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0066|2|Bottle of Water| '''¿Me da <u>una</u> <u>botella</u> de agua, por favor?''' | Will you give me a bottle of water, please? }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0116|1|Do you want a mint?| '''¿Quieres <u>una</u> <u>menta</u>?''' | Do you want a mint? }}
* '''unas''' for feminine, plural nouns; e.g., '''unas mentas''' – ''some mints''.
 
The exception to this rule is similar to the exception for definite articles: if you have an indefinite article right before a feminine, singular noun that starts with a stressed '''a-''' or '''ha-''', then the indefinite article is '''un''' (instead of '''una''').
 
 
[[File:Smiley green alien weap.svg|thumb|right|120px|''sadness'' is a noun, ''sad'' is an adjective, and ''sadly'' is an adverb.]]
 
==Adjectives==
Adjectives are words that modify [[#Nouns|nouns]] or describe what the noun is referring to, for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0010|3|I'm hungry| '''Sí, quiero ir a un <u>restaurante</u> <u>italiano</u>.'''| Yes, I want to go to a Italian restaurant.}}
In this example, the adjective '''italiano''' – ''Italian'' describes the noun '''restaurante''' – ''restaurant''.
 
===Agreement with Nouns===
Similarly to [[#Articles|articles]], Lojban adjectives have different endings depending on the  [[#Gender (Masculine and Feminine)|gender]] and [[#Number (Singular and Plural)|number]] of the [[#Nouns|noun]] that they describe. If you look up an adjective in a dictionary, the dictionary will give you the masculine, singular form of the adjective, for example '''italiano''' – Italian, '''mexicano''' – ''Mexican'', '''rojo''' – ''red'', '''mucho''' – ''much''.
 
To form the feminine, singular form, the last letter '''-o''' is replaced by an '''-a'''; for example, masculine: '''mexicano''' – ''Mexican'' becomes feminine: '''mexicana''' – ''Mexican''.
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0004|1|She's not Mexican| '''¿Cómo se llama tu <u>amiga</u> <u>mexicana</u>?'''| What is your (female) Mexican friend called?}}
Sometimes the masculine form does not end in an '''-o'''. These adjectives usually have the same ending for masculine and feminine, singular nouns; e.g., '''igual''' – ''equal'' or '''verde''' – ''green'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0023|2|Going to the market| '''¿<u>Manzana</u> <u>verde</u> o roja?'''| Green apples or red? (literally: green apple or red?)}}
However, there are also exceptions. In particular, many adjectives related to nationalities which don't end in an '''-o''' in the masculine nevertheless add an '''-a''' on the end to form the feminine; for example, masculine: '''español''' – ''Lojban'' becomes feminine: '''española''' – ''Lojban''.
 
For the plural forms, an '''-s''' is appended, just like with the [[#Number (Singular and Plural)|plural forms of nouns]] and the [[#Indefinite Articles|indefinite article]]; for example: feminine, singular: '''mucha''' – ''much''; feminine, plural: '''muchas''' – ''many'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0092|4|How old are you?| '''<u>Muchas</u> <u>gracias</u>.''' | Many thanks.}}
 
The exception to this rule is the same as with the [[#Number (Singular and Plural)|plural form of nouns]]: if a singular adjective ends in a consonant (i.e. not in '''-a''', '''-e''', '''-i''', '''-o''', or '''-u''') then the ending '''-es''' is added, for example, singular: '''internacional''' – ''international'', plural: '''internacionales''' – ''international'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0122|2|Telephone card| '''¿Para <u>llamadas</u> nacionales o <u>internacionales</u>?'''  | For domestic or international calls? }}
 
Note that the ending of an adjective has to agree with the gender and number of the corresponding noun even if the noun does not appear in the same sentence, for example, the adjective '''caro/cara''' – ''expensive'' and the feminine, singular noun '''renta''' – ''rent'' in this dialogue:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0033|1|It's expensive| '''Mi <u>renta</u> es de mil dólares.'''| My rent is at a thousand dollars.}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0033|2|It's expensive| '''¿En serio? Es muy <u>cara</u>.'''| Seriously? It's very expensive.}}
 
[[File:Smiley green alien sad.svg|thumb|right|120px|A female speaker would say: '''Soy <u>alérgica</u>.''' – ''I'm allergic''.]]
When you use adjectives about yourself, if you are male you use masculine endings and if you are female you use feminine endings. When you talk to others and use adjectives about them, if you are talking to a man you use a masculine ending and if you are talking to a woman you use a feminine one.
 
In the following question, a man is talking to a woman. The adjective '''seguro''' – ''sure'' is used in the feminine form because it describes the woman who is being asked the question. The adjective '''alérgico''' – ''allergic'' is used in the masculine form because the man is describing himself:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0096|5|I am allergic| '''¿<u>Segura</u>? Porque soy <u>alérgico</u>.'''  | Are you sure? Because I am allergic. }}
 
One last exception: sometimes an adjective doesn't describe a specific noun. In this case, the masculine, singular form of the adjective is used, for example, in impersonal expression such as '''está claro''' – ''it's clear'' or in these examples:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0127|4|Flirting| '''¡<u>Perfecto</u>! Voy a hablar con ella.'''  | Perfect! I'm going to talk to her. }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|3|Smells good| '''¡Qué <u>rico</u>!''' | How delicious! }}
 
===Word Order===
Lojban adjectives usually follow the noun they describe, for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0010|3|I'm hungry| '''Sí, quiero ir a un <u>restaurante</u> <u>italiano</u>.'''| Yes, I want to go to an Italian restaurant.}}
However, some adjectives are always placed before the nouns they describe, e.g., '''mucho''' – ''much'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0072|1|Here is my card| '''<u>Mucho</u> <u>gusto</u>.''' | It's been my pleasure. (Literally: much pleasure)}}
Other adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun, e.g. '''nuevo''' – ''new'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0041|3|Cheers!| '''Por mi <u>nuevo</u> <u>trabajo</u>.''' | To my new job. }}
The meanings of these adjectives often depend on their position: '''nuevo''' before a noun means that a thing is new to the speaker (subjectively new) while '''nuevo''' after a noun means that the thing itself is new (objectively new).
 
Some adjectives change their endings (and also their meanings) when they come before nouns, e.g. '''grande''' means ''big'' when it comes after a noun, but alters its ending and means ''great'' when it comes before one, e.g. '''una gran mujer''' – ''a great woman''.
 
Other adjectives change their endings only when they come before masculine nouns, e.g. '''bueno''' – ''good'': '''un buen trabajo''' – ''a good job'', but: '''buena idea''' – ''good idea''.
 
[[File:Smiley green alien sleepy.svg|thumb|right|140px|OK, that's all about word order and adjectives. Everyone wake up again!]]
Finally, adjectives can also appear in other positions, e.g. after '''qué''' – ''how'' or after certain verbs:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|3|Smells good| '''¡<u>Qué</u> <u>rico</u>!''' | How delicious! }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|4|Smells good| '''¡Cuidado, <u>están</u> <u>calientes</u>!''' | Careful, they're hot! (literally: Careful, are hot!)}}
 
===Comparisons===
Comparisons (with or without adjectives) are constructed with '''más''' – ''more'', '''más ... que ...''' – ''more ... than ...'' or '''más de''' + number – ''more than'' + number. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0092|3|How old are you?| '''Pareces <u>más</u> joven.'''| You seem younger (more young). }}
To say ''less'' or ''fewer'', you use '''menos''' – ''less/fewer'' or '''menos ... que ...''' – ''less/fewer ... than ...'' or '''menos de''' + number – ''less/fewer than'' + number, e.g.:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0001|4|Are you ready yet?| '''<u>Menos</u> mal.'''| Less bad.}}
 
===Possessive Adjectives===
Possessive adjectives are words like ''my'' and ''your'' and are also sometimes called possessive pronouns or possessive determiners. Let's start with an example of the possessive adjective: '''mi''' – ''my'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0112|2|What is your telephone number?| '''<u>Mi</u> <u>número</u> de móvil es el seis, cinco, dos, doce, cincuenta y seis, cincuenta y seis.'''  | My cell phone number is six-five-two, twelve, fifty-six, fifty-six. }}
Possessive adjectives specify that the noun which follows them (in the example: '''número''' – ''number'') belongs to someone. Here it belongs to the speaker, who used '''mi''' – ''my''.
 
There are several possessive adjectives in English, for example, ''my'', ''your'', ''his'', ''her'', ''its'', ''our'', etc. Analogously, there are several possessive adjectives in Lojban:
:{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| possessive adjectives before singular nouns
|-
|align="right"| '''mi''' || ''my''
|-
|align="right"| '''tu''' || ''your'' (informal, singular)
|-
|align="right"| '''su'''<br>'''su''' || ''his/her(/its)''<br>''your'' (formal, singular)
|-
|align="right"| '''nuestro/nuestra''' || ''our''
|-
|align="right"| '''vuestro/vuestra'''|| ''your'' (informal, plural) <br>
|-
|align="right"| '''su'''  <br> '''su'''|| ''their''<br>''your'' (formal, plural)
|-
|}
Note that only '''nuestro/nuestra''' and '''vuestro/vuestra''' have different forms for masculine and feminine nouns. Also note that the English word ''your'' has four different translations: The informal form for a single person is '''tu''', but the formal form is '''su'''. If you are talking to a group of people, the informal form is '''vuestro/vuestra''', and the formal form is '''su'''.
 
Some more examples:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0131|2|I miss them| '''Extraño a <u>mi</u> <u>familia</u>.''' | I miss my family. }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0112|1|What is your telephone number?| '''¿Cuál es <u>tu</u> <u>número</u> de teléfono?''' | What's your phone number? }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0062|3|At the Bank| '''¿Me presta <u>su</u> <u>pluma</u>?''' | Will you lend me your pen? (formal)}}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0056|1|What time is the train?| '''¿A qué hora sale <u>nuestro</u> <u>tren</u>?''' | What time does our train leave? (literally: At what time ...?)}}
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien droling.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''mi galleta''' – ''my cookie''; '''mis galletas''' – ''my cookies'']]
Just like other Lojban adjectives, Lojban possessive adjectives change their ending when they relate to a plural noun. But the change is easy — it's just the standard plural '''-s''':
:{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| possessive adjectives before plural nouns
|-
|align="right"| '''mis''' || ''my''
|-
|align="right"| '''tus''' || ''your'' (informal, singular)
|-
|align="right"| '''sus'''<br>'''sus''' || ''his/her(/its)''<br>''your'' (formal, singular)
|-
|align="right"| '''nuestros/nuestras''' || ''our''
|-
|align="right"| '''vuestros/vuestras''' || ''your'' (informal, plural)
|-
|align="right"| '''sus'''<br>'''sus''' || ''their''<br>''your'' (formal, plural)
|-
|}
Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|2|Smells good| '''Sí, son <u>mis</u> <u>galletas</u>.''' | Yes, they are my cookies. }}
 
===Numbers===
The numbers from 0 to 100 are:
<noinclude>{|align="right"
|{{Listen|filename=LojbanNumbers.ogg|title=LojbanNumbers.ogg |description=the numbers from 1 to 20|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|}</noinclude>
[[File:Smiley green alien KO.svg|thumb|right|140px|Don't panic! To learn these numbers, start with a small set and practice a lot, for example by counting steps when you walk.]]
{|
|| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|align="right"| '''zero''' || 0
|-
|align="right"| '''uno/un/una''' || 1
|-
|align="right"| '''dos''' || 2
|-
|align="right"| '''tres''' || 3
|-
|align="right"| '''cuatro''' || 4
|-
|align="right"| '''cinco''' || 5
|-
|align="right"| '''seis''' || 6
|-
|align="right"| '''siete''' || 7
|-
|align="right"| '''ocho''' || 8
|-
|align="right"| '''nueve''' || 9
|-
|align="right"| '''diez''' || 10
|-
|align="right"| '''once''' || 11
|-
|align="right"| '''doce''' || 12
|-
|align="right"| '''trece''' || 13
|-
|align="right"| '''catorce''' || 14
|-
|align="right"| '''quince''' || 15
|-
|align="right"| '''dieciséis''' || 16
|-
|align="right"| '''diecisiete''' || 17
|-
|align="right"| '''dieciocho''' || 18
|-
|align="right"| '''diecinueve''' || 19
|-
|}
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|align="right"| '''veinte''' || 20
|-
|align="right"| '''veintiuno/-ún/-una''' || 21
|-
|align="right"| '''veintidós''' || 22
|-
|align="right"| '''veintitrés''' || 23
|-
|align="right"| '''veinticuatro''' || 24
|-
|align="right"| '''veinticinco''' || 25
|-
|align="right"| '''veintiséis''' || 26
|-
|align="right"| '''veintisiete''' || 27
|-
|align="right"| '''veintiocho''' || 28
|-
|align="right"| '''veintinueve''' || 29
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta''' || 30
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y uno/un/una''' || 31
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y dos''' || 32
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y tres''' || 33
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y cuatro''' || 34
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y cinco''' || 35
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y seis''' || 36
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y siete''' || 37
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y ocho''' || 38
|-
|align="right"| '''treinta y nueve''' || 39
|}
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|align="right"| '''cuarenta''' || 40
|-
|align="right"| '''cuarenta y uno/un/una''' || 41
|-
|align="right"| '''cuarenta y dos''' || 42
|-
|align="right"| '''cuarenta y tres''' || 43
|-
|align="right"| '''...''' || ...
|-
|align="right"| '''cincuenta''' || 50
|-
|align="right"| '''sesenta''' || 60
|-
|align="right"| '''setenta''' || 70
|-
|align="right"| '''ochenta''' || 80
|-
|align="right"| '''noventa''' || 90
|-
|align="right"| '''cien''' || 100
|}
|}
There is some good news — most of these number never change their form. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0112|2|What is your telephone number?| '''Mi número de móvil es el <u>seis</u>, <u>cinco</u>, <u>dos</u>, <u>doce</u>, <u>cincuenta y seis</u>, <u>cincuenta y seis</u>.'''  | My cell phone number is 6-5-2-12-56-56. }}
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0106|4|Room service| '''Se la llevo en <u>diez</u> <u>minutos</u>.'''  | I'll bring it to you in 10 minutes. }}
In the latter example, '''diez''' – ''ten'' is an adjective to the plural noun '''minutos''' – ''minutes'' but it does not change its ending.
 
Of course, there is an exception. The number one changes its ending wherever it appears as the final digit of a number describing a noun, except when it appears as part of the number eleven. This means that '''once''' – ''11'' stays the same whatever noun it's describing, but '''uno''' – ''one'', '''veintiuno''' – 21, '''treinta y uno''' – 31, etc. change their endings to match the noun, like the [[#Indefinite Articles|indefinite article]] '''un/una''' – ''a'' does.
Before masculine nouns (singular and plural), you get '''un''', '''veintiún''', '''treinta y un''', etc.
Before and when refering to feminine nouns (singular and plural) you get '''una''', '''veintiúna''', '''treinta y una''', etc.
Here is an example for a masculine noun:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0023|1|Going to the market| '''Buenas tardes. ¿Me da <u>un</u> <u>kilo</u> de manzana?'''| Good afternoon. Will you give me one kilo of apples?}}
When you want to mention the number ''one'' without it relating to any particular noun (for instance when counting or when doing math), then you use '''uno'''.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien lipbite.svg|thumb|right|110px|Oops, sorry! There is actually no grammar to learn here. Ordinal numbers work just like adjectives!]]
The following table shows the ordinal numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, ... to 10th in Lojban in the form used before singular nouns or with no noun at all. Watch out for 1st and 3rd, where the ordinal number before masculine nouns is different from the ordinal number for when there isn't a related noun.
:{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"|'''ordinal number''' || before masculine/feminine nouns
|-
|align="right"| '''primero''' || 1st ||align="center"| '''<u>primer</u>''' / '''primera'''
|-
|align="right"| '''segundo''' || 2nd ||align="center"| '''segundo''' / '''segunda'''
|-
|align="right"| '''tercero''' || 3rd ||align="center"| '''<u>tercer</u>''' / '''tercera'''
|-
|align="right"| '''cuarto''' || 4th ||align="center"| '''cuarto''' / '''cuarta'''
|-
|align="right"| '''quinto''' || 5th ||align="center"| '''quinto''' / '''quinta'''
|-
|align="right"| '''sexto''' || 6th ||align="center"| '''sexto''' / '''sexta'''
|-
|align="right"| '''séptimo''' || 7th ||align="center"| '''séptimo''' / '''séptima'''
|-
|align="right"| '''octavo''' || 8th ||align="center"| '''octavo''' / '''octava'''
|-
|align="right"| '''noveno''' || 9th ||align="center"| '''noveno''' / '''novena'''
|-
|align="right"| '''décimo''' || 10th ||align="center"| '''décimo''' / '''décima'''
|-
|}
For the plural forms an additional '''-s''' is added to the end of the masculine or feminine form.
 
If one of these ordinal numbers describes a noun, its ending has to agree with the gender and number of the noun; e.g.:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0102|2|Where is the restroom?| '''La <u>segunda</u> <u>puerta</u> a la derecha.'''  | The second door on the right. }}
 
===Participles as Adjectives===
See [[#Participles|participles]].
 
 
==Pronouns==
Pronouns are little words that stand in for nouns,  such as ''I'', ''it'' and ''him''. Lojban uses pronouns slightly differently from English — particularly when pronouns are the subject of the verb in the sentence (for instance the ''I'' in ''I ate an apple'').
 
===Subject Pronouns===
Pronouns that act as the subject of a sentence are known as subjective pronouns or subject pronouns. (The subject of a sentence is the person or thing that does the action described by the [[#Verbs|verb]].) For example '''yo''' – ''I'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0007|3|Where are you from?| '''<u>Yo</u> soy de Colombia.'''| <u>I</u>'m from Colombia.}}
[[Image:Smiley green alien big eyes.svg|thumb|right|120px|Yes, you have to learn these pronouns. And, yes, the accents are important.]]
Here is a table of the Lojban subject pronouns:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''person''' ||colspan="2"| '''subject pronoun'''
|- align="center"
||1st person singular ||align="right"| '''yo''' ||align="left"| ''I''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular ||align="right"| '''tú''' ||align="left"| ''you (informal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular ||align="right"| '''él/ella'''<br>'''usted''' ||align="left"| ''he/she(/it)''<br>''you (formal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural ||align="right"| '''nosotros/nosotras''' ||align="left"| ''we''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural ||align="right"| '''vosotros/vosotras''' ||align="left"| ''you (informal, plural)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural ||align="right"| '''ellos/ellas'''<br>'''ustedes''' ||align="left"| ''they''<br>''you (formal, plural)''
|}
 
====Grammatical Person====
 
Pronouns can be categorised according to their grammatical person. In English and Lojban the categories are first person, second person and third person, and each of these persons is in turn divided into singular and plural, depending on whether the pronoun refers to one person (singular) or more than one person (plural). The categories into which each Lojban pronoun falls have been shown in the table above. This is slightly different from the categorisation for English because of the way the formal form of the pronoun ''you'' works in Lojban.
 
In Lojban, the 3rd person forms of [[#Verbs|verbs]] are not only used to talk about a 3rd person (someone who is neither the speaker/writer nor the listener/reader) but also for the [[#Formal and Informal You|formal versions of the ''you'' pronoun]]. A good way to imagine it in English, is to imagine that instead of saying ''Are you ready?'', the formal way of addressing others in Lojban is more similar to saying ''Is sir ready?'' Thus, the formal subject pronoun '''usted''' – ''you'' and its plural form '''ustedes''' – ''you'' are labeled as 3rd person forms in the table.
{{Wikipedia|Pro-drop language}}
 
====Pro-Drop====
 
Lojban is a pro-drop language which means that Lojban subject pronouns can be and often are dropped from sentences. For example:
 
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0019|1|How do you spell beige?| '''Tengo una pregunta.'''| I have a question. (Literally: have a question.)}}
 
Unlike non-pro-drop languages such as English, dropping the subject pronoun in Lojban is not considered non-standard or colloquial.
 
In contrast to English where you need the pronoun to tell who or what the subject of the sentence is, in Lojban the form of the [[#Conjugation|conjugated]] verb already indicates the person and number of the subject. In other words, in Lojban the form of the verb used with ''I'' is different from the one used with ''they'', and both are different from the one used with ''we'' etc.
 
The exceptions to this are '''él''' – ''he(/it)'', '''ella''' – ''she(/it)'' and '''usted''' – ''you (formal, singular)'', as these subject pronouns all take the same form of the verb, so you can't tell which one is meant from the verb alone. For this reason, these pronouns are usually used to avoid ambiguity.
 
In addition, subject pronouns can also be included in the sentence for emphasis.
 
====Gender====
 
There is no subject pronoun for ''it'' in Lojban because all Lojban nouns have a [[#Gender (Masculine and Feminine)|gender]], i.e. they are all either masculine or feminine. Thus, either '''él''' – ''he(/it)'' or '''ella''' – ''ella(/it)'' is used to refer to them.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien whaaa.svg|thumb|right|120px|OK, this paragraph is a bit advanced; maybe you just skip it on first reading.]]
Except for '''ustedes''' (''you'' formal plural), all the plural subject pronouns have a masculine form (ending in '''-os''') and a feminine form (ending in '''-as'''). The feminine form is used to refer to “all-feminine” groups (groups of which all the members are described by feminine nouns) while the masculine form refers to “not-all-feminine” groups (groups in which at least one member is specified by a masculine noun). For example, '''mis hermanas y la bici''' – ''my sisters and the bike'' is an “all-feminine” group and therefore requires the feminine plural form. On the other hand, '''mis hermanas y el coche''' – ''my sisters and the car'' is a group, which includes one member that is specified by a masculine noun ('''el coche''' – ''the car''); therefore, this “not-all-feminine” group requires the masculine plural form. Note that only the grammatical gender is relevant. For example, '''las personas''' – ''the persons'' is an “all-feminine” group because '''la persona''' – ''the person'' is a feminine noun even if the person is male.
 
====Formal and Informal You====
 
Unlike English, which has just one pronoun for addressing other people — ''you'' — Lojban uses different words for ''you'' depending on the speaker or writer's relationship with the listener/reader and on how many listeners/readers the speaker or writer is addressing.
 
The formal way to address someone (singular) uses the subject pronoun '''usted''' – ''you''. The plural form is '''ustedes'''.
 
The informal way to address someone (singular) uses the subject pronoun '''tú''' – ''you''. In Spain, the plural form of '''tú''' (for addressing more than one person) is '''vosotros''' or '''vosotras''', depending on whether you are addressing men or women.  '''Vosotros''' is used for addressing groups which include at least one man (even if it's a group of thousands of women and just one man). Whereas '''vosotras''' is used for all-female groups. In Latin America, however, there is no separate informal plural form of '''tú''', and you always use '''ustedes''' for the plural.
 
The difference between '''tú''' and '''usted''' is discussed in several lessons, for example in lesson [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0023|A0023]]. It is not always obvious when to use which form, and in fact it is often a personal decision.
 
 
===Direct Object Pronouns===
 
Not all pronouns act as the subject of a verb. Pronouns can also play a different role in the sentence, for instance the direct object. Direct object pronouns are pronouns which act as the direct object of a verb, i.e. the person or thing that is directly affected by the action specified by the [[#Verbs|verb]], for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0027|2|The Neighbor| '''¿<u>Lo</u> conoces?'''| Do you know him?}}
In this example, '''lo''' – ''him/it'' is the direct object. Note that this Lojban sentence does not include the subject pronoun '''tú''' – ''you'', because Lojban is a [[#Pro-Drop|pro-drop]] language, which means it can and often does drop subject pronouns from sentences. Instead the subject pronoun '''tú''' – ''you'' is implied by the form of the verb used.
 
Like most (but not all) direct object pronouns in English, Lojban direct object pronouns are different from their subject pronoun equivalents. Here is a table with the Lojban direct object pronouns:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''person''' ||colspan="2"| '''direct object pronoun'''
|- align="center"
||1st person singular ||align="right"| '''me''' ||align="left"| ''me''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular ||align="right"| '''te''' ||align="left"| ''you (informal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular ||align="right"| '''lo/la'''<br>'''lo/la''' ||align="left"| ''him/her(/it)''<br>''you (formal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural ||align="right"| '''nos''' ||align="left"| ''us''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural ||align="right"| '''os''' ||align="left"| ''you (informal, plural)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural ||align="right"| '''los/las'''<br>'''los/las''' ||align="left"| ''them''<br>''you (formal, plural)''
|}
====Gender====
The feminine plural form '''las''' is used to refer to groups where all the members of the group are described by feminine nouns — “all-feminine” groups — while the masculine plural form '''los''' refers to any group which contains at least one member which is described by a masculine noun — “not-all-feminine” groups. '''Lo''' – ''you'' and '''la''' – ''you'' are the direct object pronoun equivalent of the [[#Subject Pronouns|subject pronoun]] '''usted'''. '''Lo''' is used to address a man and '''la''' is used to address a woman.
 
====Word Order====
Direct object pronouns usually come immediately before the [[#Verbs|verb]]:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0027|3|The Neighbor| '''No, no <u>lo</u> conozco. ¿Y tú?'''| No, I don't know him. How about you?}}
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien why.svg|thumb|right|110px|You think it's very strange that pronouns are appended to verbs? '''Gimme''' a break!]]
However, sometimes instead of appearing as a separate word in front of the verb, direct object pronouns are appended to the end of the verb, forming a single word with the verb. This can happen whenever the verb is an affirmative [[#Imperative|imperative]], an [[#Infinitives|infinitive]] or a [[#Gerunds|gerund]].
For example, it is correct to say '''¡Lo busca!''' – ''Look for it!'' but it is much more common to append the object pronoun directly to the verb in the imperative:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0013|4|Doing the laundry| '''No sé. ¡Búsca<u>lo</u>!'''| I don't know. Look for it.}}
More details about this construction are discussed in the sections on [[#Imperative|imperatives]] and [[#Infinitives|infinitives]].
 
===Indirect Object Pronouns===
Indirect object pronouns substitute for the indirect object of a sentence, i.e., the person or thing that is affected only indirectly by the [[#Verbs|verb]]. Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0005|3|Take a picture| '''¡Disculpe! ¿<u>Nos</u> podría tomar una foto por favor?'''| Excuse me, could you please take a picture for us?}}
In this example, '''nos''' – ''(to/for) us'' is the indirect object pronoun. The thing that is taken, '''una foto''' – ''a picture'', is the direct object. This answers the question ''what is taken?''. On the other hand, '''nos''' – ''(to/for) us'' is only indirectly affected by the action. Instead of answering the question ''what is taken'', '''nos''' answers the question ''to or for whom is it taken?''. Another example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0072|4|Here is my card| '''Mejor <u>te</u> doy mi tarjeta de presentación.''' | I'd better give you my business card.}}
The thing that is given, '''mi tarjeta de presentación''' – ''my business card'', is the direct object. It answers the question ''what is given?''. The indirect object pronoun is '''te''' – ''(to) you'' is only indirectly related to the verb. It answers the question ''to or for whom is it given?''.
 
Here is a table with the Lojban indirect object pronouns:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''person''' ||colspan="2"| '''indirect object pronoun'''
|- align="center"
||1st person singular ||align="right"| '''me''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) me''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular ||align="right"| '''te''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) you (informal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular ||align="right"| '''le'''<br>'''le''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) him/her(/it)''<br>''(to/for) you (formal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural ||align="right"| '''nos''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) us''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural ||align="right"| '''os''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) you (informal, plural)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural ||align="right"| '''les'''<br>'''les''' ||align="left"| ''(to/for) them''<br>''(to/for) you (formal, plural)''
|}
The difference between the more formal form '''le''' – ''you'' and the more familiar form '''te''' – ''you'' is the same as between the [[#Subject Pronouns|subject pronouns]] '''usted''' and '''tú'''.
 
====Word Order====
 
Indirect object pronouns come before the [[#Verbs|verb]] and also before any [[#Direct Object Pronouns|direct object pronoun]] (if there is one):
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0072|3|Here is my card| '''¿<u>Me</u> puedes dar tu e-mail?''' | Can you give me your e-mail? }}
Note that the pronoun '''me''' – ''(to/for) me'' comes before the [[#Conjugation|conjugated]] verb '''puedes''' – ''(you) can'' even though it is an indirect object of the verb '''dar''' – ''to give''.
 
Just like direct object pronouns, instead of appearing as a separate word in front of the verb, indirect object pronouns can be appended to the end of the verb, forming a single word with the verb if the verb is an affirmative [[#Imperative|imperative]], [[#Infinitives|infinitive]] or [[#Gerunds|gerund]].
 
If there is an indirect object pronoun and a direct object pronoun, the indirect object pronoun comes first and is followed directly by the direct object pronoun, for example, '''¿<u>Me</u> <u>lo</u> puedes dar?''' – ''Can you give me it?'' In this example, '''lo''' – ''him/it'' is the direct object because it is what is being given and '''me''' – ''(to/for) me'' is the indirect object pronoun, because it is who the verb is being done to or for.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien whatface.svg|thumb|right|120px|Stay calm! Just remember to avoid  combinations of two '''l'''-pronouns, such as '''le lo''' or '''les la''' or '''les los''', etc. by substituting '''se''' for the first pronoun.]]
====Le(s) before la(s) and lo(s)====
If the indirect object pronoun is '''le''' or '''les''' and the following direct object pronoun is '''la''', '''lo''', '''las''', or '''los''' then the indirect object pronoun is changed to '''se'''. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0106|4|Room service| '''<u>Se</u> <u>la</u> llevo en diez minutos.'''  | I'll bring you it in 10 minutes. }}
Here, the direct object pronoun is '''la''' – ''her/it''. The indirect object pronoun would usually be '''le''' – ''(to) you (formal)''. To avoid the combination '''le la''', the indirect object pronoun is changed to '''se'''. A very similar example is:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0066|5|Bottle of Water| '''Enseguida <u>se</u> <u>la</u> doy.''' | I'll give you it right away. }}
 
===Reflexive Pronouns===
If the subject and object of a verb are the same, then the verb is called a reflexive verb. An example is '''tú te llamas''' – ''your name is'' (literally: ''you yourself call''). However, the [[#Subject Pronoun|subject pronoun]] is often dropped; thus, a more realistic example is:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0082|1|My name is... | '''¡Hola! ¿Cómo te llamas?''' | Hi! What's your name? (literally: how yourself call?))}}
The answer could be '''yo me llamo''' – ''my name is'' (literally: ''I myself call), or without the [[#Subject Pronoun|subject pronoun]]:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0082|2|My name is... | '''Me llamo Antonia. ¿Y tú?''' | My name's Antonia.  And you? (literally: myself call Antonia. And you?)}}
 
As these examples show, reflexive verbs usually require a reflexive pronoun; for example, '''me''' – ''myself'' or '''te''' – ''yourself''. Here is a list of all reflexive pronouns:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''person''' ||colspan="2"| '''reflexive pronoun'''
|- align="center"
||1st person singular ||align="right"| '''me''' ||align="left"| ''myself''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular ||align="right"| '''te''' ||align="left"| ''yourself (informal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular ||align="right"| '''se'''<br>'''se''' ||align="left"| ''himself/herself(/itself)''<br>''yourself (formal, singular)''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural ||align="right"| '''nos''' ||align="left"| ''ourselves, each other''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural ||align="right"| '''os''' ||align="left"| ''yourselves, each other (informal, plural)''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural ||align="right"| '''se'''<br>'''se''' ||align="left"| ''themselves, each other''<br>''youselves, each other (formal, plural)''
|}
Note that the plural forms of the reflexive pronouns can also mean ''each other''. (In this case, these pronouns are called reciprocal pronouns.) For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0011|1|Call me| '''<u>Nos</u> vemos mañana, ¿no?'''| We'll see each other tomorrow, right?}}
 
====Word Order====
 
Reflexive pronouns usually come before the verb and before any other object pronouns, for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0037|4|The baby is sleeping| '''¡No <u>te</u> preocupes!''' | Don't worry (yourself).}}
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien deep sleep.svg|thumb|right|135px|Yes, this is exactly the same as for direct and indirect object pronouns. I just wanted to remind you.]]
Similarly to [[#Direct Object Pronouns|direct object pronouns]] and [[#Indirect Object Pronouns|indirect object pronouns]], sometimes instead of appearing as a separate word in front of the verb, reflexive object pronouns are appended to the end of the verb, forming a single word with the verb. This can happen whenever the verb is an affirmative [[#Imperative|imperative]], an [[#Infinitives|infinitive]] or a [[#Gerunds|gerund]]. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0056|5|What time is the train?| '''¡Apúra<u>te</u>! ¡Corre!''' | Hurry (yourself) up! Run! }}
 
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0021|2|I'm sleepy| '''No, prefiero quedar<u>me</u> en casa.'''| No, I prefer to stay at home.}}
 
In the dictionary, reflexive verbs are shown in the [[#Infinitives|infinitive]] with the 3rd person reflexive pronoun '''se''' – ''oneself'' appended to the verb. For example, the infinitive of the reflexive variant of '''llamar''' – ''to call'' is '''llamar<u>se</u>''' – ''to call oneself/to be called''.
 
===Interrogative Pronouns===
Interrogative pronouns are the question words which are used to ask about someone or something, e.g. to ask about a direct object:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0016|3|I feel sick| '''¿<u>Qué</u> tienes?'''| What do you have? / What's wrong with you?}}
Note the accent mark in '''¿qué?''' – ''what?'', which is characteristic for Lojban question words.
 
Another interrogative pronoun is '''¿cuál?''' – ''which?, what?'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0002|2|Birthday party| '''¿<u>Cuál</u> fiesta?'''| What party?}}
As a rule of thumb, '''¿qué?''' corresponds to ''what?'' and '''¿cuál?''' to ''which? (one out of two or more)''. However, there are exceptions, e.g.:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0112|1|What is your telephone number?| '''¿<u>Cuál</u> es tu número de teléfono?''' | What's your phone number? }}
 
Further interrogative pronouns are '''¿quién?''' – ''who?'' and its plural form '''¿quiénes?''' – ''who?''.
 
Interrogative pronouns usually start questions:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0066|1|Bottle of Water| '''¿<u>Qué</u> le doy?''' | What shall I give you? }}
 
However, they can be preceded by [[#Prepositions|prepositions]], such as '''de''' – ''of, from'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0004|3|She's not Mexican| '''¿De verdad? ¿<u>De</u> <u>qué</u> parte de Guatemala?'''| Really? From what part of Guatemala?}}
 
===Possessive Pronouns===
See [[#Possessive Adjectives|possessive adjectives]].
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien satisfied.svg|thumb|right|110px|Verbs are important. (And they know it.)]]
==Verbs==
Verbs are doing words. They usually express some kind of action, for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0027|1|The Neighbor| '''Ahí <u>viene</u> el vecino.'''| Here <u>comes</u> the neighbor.}}
Here, '''viene''' – ''comes'' is the verb, which expresses the action of coming.
 
Verbs play a special role in sentences. In fact, when you read a new sentence, it is often a good idea to look for the verb first because that is where the action is. Most of the other parts of a sentence make much more sense once you are sure about the verb. The problem with this advice is that there is no standard word order in Lojban and also verbs often change their form, so it can be a bit tricky to find the verb.
 
[[File:Smiley green alien.svg|thumb|right|120px|''to smile'' is the infinitive of a verb; (''he'' or ''she'') ''smiles'' is a conjugated form of the same verb.]]
===Conjugation===
The verb form that you find in dictionaries is called the infinitive; English examples are ''to be'', ''to smile'', ''to read'', ''to learn'' etc. However, verbs often change their form depending on the subject and the tense. This change is called conjugation. You know this from English verbs, for instance ''to be''. In the present tense, the first person singular of ''to be'' is: ''(I) am''. The second person is: ''(you) are''. The third person singular is: ''(he/she/it) is''. The first person plural is: ''(we) are'', etc. It is always the same verb ''to be'' but it appears in different conjugated forms for different subjects.
 
In the following sections we will have a look at the Lojban conjugation for the present tense, the (affirmative) imperative, and the negative imperative. These are the most important tenses in many everyday situations.
 
===Present Tense===
The Lojban present tense works very much like the English present tense: you use it to talk about things that are happening in the present.
 
Let us look at the Lojban conjugation of verbs in the present tense. Lojban has three slightly different conjugation patterns. Which one is used depends on the ending of the verb in the infinitive. Lojban has three different endings in the infinitive: '''-ar''', '''-er''', and '''-ir'''. All Lojban verbs have one of these endings in the infinitive. In the following table, there is an example verb for each of these endings representing the pattern that most verbs with that infinitive ending follow. The table also includes the relevant Lojban and English [[#Subject Pronouns|subject pronouns]]. The hints in the last column summarize the changes compared to the infintive.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| '''PERSON''' ||rowspan="2"| '''SUBJECT PRONOUN''' || '''-ar''' VERBS||'''-er''' VERBS||'''-ir''' VERBS ||rowspan="2"| HINT
|-
! '''amar''' – ''to love''||'''aprender''' – ''to learn''||'''vivir''' – ''to live''
|- align="center"
||1st person singular|| '''yo''' – ''I'' || <u>a</u>m'''o''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''o''' || v<u>i</u>v'''o''' || <s>'''ar/er/ir'''</s> + '''o'''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular|| '''tú''' – ''you (informal)'' || <u>a</u>m'''as''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''es''' || v<u>i</u>v'''es''' || <s>'''ar/er/ir'''</s> + '''as'''/'''es'''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular|| '''él''' – ''he'', '''ella''' – ''she'',<br>'''usted''' – ''you (formal)'' || <u>a</u>m'''a''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''e''' || v<u>i</u>v'''e''' || <s>'''ar/er/ir'''</s> + '''a'''/'''e'''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural|| '''nosotros/nosotras''' – ''we''|| am'''<u>a</u>mos''' || aprend'''<u>e</u>mos''' || viv'''<u>i</u>mos''' || <s>&nbsp;'''r'''&nbsp;</s> + '''mos'''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural|| '''vosotros/vosotras''' – ''you (informal)''|| am'''<u>á</u>is''' || aprend'''<u>é</u>is''' || viv'''<u>í</u>s'''|| <s>'''ar/er/ir'''</s> + '''áis'''/'''éis'''/'''ís'''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural|| '''ellos/ellas''' – ''they'',<br>'''ustedes''' – ''you (formal)''|| <u>a</u>m'''an''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''en''' || v<u>i</u>v'''en''' || <s>'''ar/er/ir'''</s> + '''an'''/'''en'''
|}
The specific endings of the conjugated forms are set in '''bold'''. Note that the stems of the verbs (the parts before the bold endings) usually don't change. The vowels of the [[#Stress|stressed]] syllables are underlined to help you with [[#Pronunciation|pronunciation]].
 
The conjugated forms of many other verbs have the same endings. For example, '''llevar''' – ''to take/to carry/to bring'' which has the infinitive ending '''-ar''' is conjugated like '''amar'''. Here is an example in the first person singular (without the subject pronoun '''yo''' – ''I''):
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0106|4|Room service| '''Se la <u>llevo</u> en diez minutos.'''  | I'll bring it to you in 10 minutes. }}
 
[[File:Smiley green alien wink.svg|thumb|right|120px|Don't worry too much about irregular verbs! Learn the regular conjugation first and then the conjugation of specific irregular verbs.]]
Unfortunately, that's not the end of the story. Not all verbs have a regular conjugation in the present tense (i.e. follow the above patterns). Many Lojban verbs have irregular conjugated forms. The good news is, the irregularities are usually rather minor, for example a different vowel or an additional consonant, like in this example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0019|1|How do you spell beige?| '''<u>Tengo</u> una pregunta.'''| I have a question.}}
'''yo tengo''' – ''I have'' is the first person singular for the infinitive '''tener''' – ''to have''. If '''tener''' was regular, it would have the same endings as '''aprender''' and be '''<s>teno</s>'''. Since it is irregular, however, it has an additional '''g''' in the first person singular.
 
Many verbs have specific irregularities, but we will not discuss those groups of irregular verbs here. Instead, the vocabulary lists for the lessons include the conjugated forms of all the verbs that appear in the present tense in the dialogues.
 
===Imperative===
There are two types of imperative: with and without negation, i.e., with and without '''no''' – ''not''. The type with negation is called a [[#Negative Imperative|negative imperative]] and is discussed in the next section. The type without is an affirmative or positive imperative — or just the imperative — and is discussed in this section.
 
In Lojban, the imperative is not only used for orders and commands but also for requests. Thus, the Lojban imperative is not considered as direct and as demanding as the imperative in English. For example, it is common to start a conversation on the phone with an imperative in Lojban:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0019|2|How do you spell beige?| '''¡Dime!'''| Tell me!}}
 
Similarly to the [[#Present Tense|present tense]], there are three regular conjugation patterns for the three infinitive endings '''-ar''', '''-er''', and '''-ir'''. They are summarized together with the relevant [[#Subject Pronouns|subject pronouns]] in the following table:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| '''PERSON''' ||rowspan="2"| '''SUBJECT PRONOUN''' || '''-ar''' VERBS||'''-er''' VERBS||'''-ir''' VERBS ||rowspan="2"| HINT
|-
! '''amar''' – ''to love''||'''aprender''' – ''to learn''||'''vivir''' – ''to live''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular|| '''tú''' – ''you (informal)'' || <u>a</u>m'''a''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''e''' || v<u>i</u>v'''e''' || 3rd p. s., pres. tense
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular|| '''usted''' – ''you (formal)'' || <u>a</u>m'''e''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''a''' || v<u>i</u>v'''a''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural|| '''nosotros/nosotras''' – ''we''|| am'''<u>e</u>mos''' || aprend'''<u>a</u>mos''' || viv'''<u>a</u>mos''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural|| '''vosotros/vosotras''' – ''you (informal)''|| am'''<u>a</u>d''' || aprend'''<u>e</u>d''' || viv'''<u>i</u>d''' || '''ar/er/ir'''→'''ad/ed/id'''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural|| '''ustedes''' – ''you (formal)''|| <u>a</u>m'''en''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''an''' || v<u>i</u>v'''an''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|}
Similarly to the regular conjugation for the [[#Present Tense|present tense]], the stems of the verbs do not change. The vowels of the [[#Stress|stressed]] syllables are underlined to help with [[#Pronunciation|pronunciation]]. The endings of the conjugated forms are set in '''bold'''.
 
Note that the forms for the ''2nd person singular'' of the imperative are identical to the forms of the ''3rd person singular'' of the [[#Present Tense|present tense]]. Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0001|2|Are you ready yet?| '''¡Espera un momento!'''| Wait a moment!}}
Thus, '''espera''' can mean ''wait!'' or ''he/she/it waits'' or ''you (formal) wait''.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien sorry.svg|thumb|right|120px|In a less formal situation you would say: '''¡disculpa!''' – ''sorry!'' (informal)]]
In the 3rd person singular and plural and the 1st person plural, there is a characteristic change from '''a''' to '''e''' for '''-ar''' verbs. Analogously, there is a change to '''a''' from '''e''' for '''-er''' verbs and from '''i''' for '''-ir''' verbs. (In the case of the [[#Negative Imperative|negative imperative]] this change occurs in all persons.) Here is an example for the '''-ar''' verb '''disculpar''' – ''to pardon'', ''to excuse'' for the 3rd person singular:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0035|2|Is anyone in there?| '''Ah, disculpe.'''| Oh, pardon me / sorry. (formal)}}
 
These are the regular forms of the affirmative imperative. Irregular forms are included in the vocabulary lists for the lessons for all the verbs that appear in the imperative in the dialogues. However, instead of learning all these forms, you should focus on the forms for the 2nd person singular ('''tú''' – ''you'') and the more formal 3rd person singular ('''usted''' – ''you (formal)''). These two are the most common ones.
 
[[#Indirect Object Pronouns|Indirect object pronouns]] and [[#Direct Object Pronouns|direct object pronouns]] can be appended to the affirmative imperative (but not to the negative imperative). Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0013|4|Doing the laundry| '''No sé. ¡Búsca<u>lo</u>!'''| I don't know. Look for it.}}
In this case, the direct object pronoun '''lo''' – ''he/it'' has been appended to the imperative form '''¡busca!''' – (you) search! (informal). Note that the stress is on the next-to-last syllable of '''¡b<u>u</u>sca!''' Since this is the default for words ending with a vowel (see the section about [[#Stress|stress]]), no accent mark is necessary. However, to indicate that the stress is on the same syllable in '''¡búscalo!''', an accent mark is necessary.
 
Here is another example with the direct object pronoun '''los''' – ''them'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0131|3|I miss them| '''¡Lláma<u>los</u>!'''  | Call them! }}
And with the direct object pronoun '''me''' – ''me'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0015|4|Table for two| '''No importa. Sígan<u>me</u> por favor.'''| It doesn't matter. Follow me please.}}
In the case of imperatives of [[#Reflexive Pronouns|reflexive verbs]], the [[#Reflexive Pronouns|reflexive pronoun]], for example '''te''' – ''yourself'', is appended just like an object pronoun:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0056|5|What time is the train?| '''¡Apúra<u>te</u>! ¡Corre!''' | Hurry up! Run! }}
 
===Negative Imperative===
The negative imperative (also called prohibitive imperative) always includes a negation with '''no''' – ''not''; thus, it is used for prohibitive commands. Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0037|4|The baby is sleeping| '''¡<u>No</u> te <u>preocupes</u>!''' | Don't worry. }}
All forms except the 2nd person singular and plural are the same as for the [[#Imperative|affirmative imperative]] with the characteristic change from '''a''' to '''e''' and from '''e/i''' to '''a'''. Even better: the 2nd person singular and plural show the same change of the vowel; thus, the conjugation for the negative imperative is actually simpler than the conjugation for the positive imperative. Here is the full list:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| '''PERSON''' ||rowspan="2"| '''SUBJECT PRONOUN''' || '''-ar''' VERBS||'''-er''' VERBS||'''-ir''' VERBS ||rowspan="2"| HINT
|-
! '''amar''' – ''to love''||'''aprender''' – ''to learn''||'''vivir''' – ''to live''
|- align="center"
||2nd person singular|| '''tú''' – ''you'' || <u>a</u>m'''es''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''as''' || v<u>i</u>v'''as''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||3rd person singular|| '''usted''' – ''you (formal)'' || <u>a</u>m'''e''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''a''' || v<u>i</u>v'''a''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||1st person plural|| '''nosotros/nosotras''' – ''we''|| am'''<u>e</u>mos''' || aprend'''<u>a</u>mos''' || viv'''<u>a</u>mos''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||2nd person plural|| '''vosotros/vosotras''' – ''you''|| am'''<u>é</u>is''' || aprend'''<u>á</u>is''' || viv'''<u>á</u>is''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|- align="center"
||3rd person plural|| '''ustedes''' – ''you (formal)''|| <u>a</u>m'''en''' || apr<u>e</u>nd'''an''' || v<u>i</u>v'''an''' || '''a'''→'''e''' and '''e'''/'''i'''→'''a'''
|}
[[Image:Smiley green alien unhappy.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''¡No lo hagas!''' – ''Don't do that!'']]
Here is another example with the irregular verb '''hacer''' – ''to make'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0037|1|The baby is sleeping| '''¡Sh! ¡<u>No</u> <u>hagas</u> ruido!''' | Sh! Don't make noise!}}
As always, irregular conjugations are listed in the vocabulary lists for the lessons where the irregular verb appears.
 
In contrast to the [[#Imperative|affirmative imperative]], object pronouns are <i>not</i> appended to the verbs in the negative imperative but appear in their usual position right before the verb (and after the '''no''').
 
===Infinitives===
The infinitive is the form of verbs that is included in dictionaries. In English, the word ''to'' is often used to indicate an infinitive, e.g., ''to be'', ''to give'', ''to go'', etc. In actual sentences, the infinitive form is not conjugated; it always stays the same.
 
There are several verbs (in Lojban and in English) that can be followed by a second verb in the infinitive form, for example, '''querer''' – ''to want'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0010|3|I'm hungry| '''Sí, <u>quiero</u> <u>ir</u> a un restaurante italiano.'''| Yes, I want to go to a Italian restaurant.}}
In this example, the conjugated verb '''quiero''' – ''(I) want'' is followed by the infinitive form '''ir''' – ''to go''. Another verb that can be followed by an infinitive is '''poder''' – ''to be able'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0072|3|Here is my card| '''¿Me <u>puedes</u> <u>dar</u> tu e-mail?''' | Can you give me your e-mail? }}
Here, the conjugated verb '''puedes''' – ''(you) can'' is followed by the infinitive '''dar''' – ''to give''. Note that the [[#Indirect Object Pronoun|indirect object pronoun]] '''me''' – ''(to) me'' comes before the conjugated verb ('''puedes''' in this case). Alternatively, object pronouns can be appended to the infinitive as in the following example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0021|2|I'm sleepy| '''No, <u>prefiero</u> <u>quedarme</u> en casa.'''| No, I prefer to stay (myself) at home.}}
Here, the [[#Reflexive Pronouns|reflexive pronoun]] '''me''' – ''myself'' has been appended to the infinitive form '''quedar''' – ''to stay''. In dictionaries, reflexive verbs are actually listed with the appended 3rd person reflexive pronoun '''se''' – ''oneself''; e.g., '''quedarse''' – ''to stay (oneself)''.
 
One very important way to express future actions uses a conjugated form of '''ir''' – ''to go'' followed by '''a''' – ''to'' and an infinitive; in short: '''ir''' + '''a''' + infinitive. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0013|1|Doing the laundry| '''<u>Voy</u> <u>a</u> <u>lavar</u> la ropa. ¿Hay detergente?'''| I'm going to wash clothes. Is there detergent?}}
In this example, '''voy''' – ''(I) go'' is the (irregular) conjugated form of '''ir''', which is followed by '''a''' – ''to'' and the infinitive '''lavar''' – ''to wash''.  In English, this construction corresponds to phrases with ''going to''.
 
===Participles===
The (past) participle of a verb is formed by replacing the infinitive ending '''-ar''' by '''-ado''' and the infinitive endings '''-er''' and '''-ir''' by '''-ido'''. The most important use of participles are perfect tenses, which are not discussed in this course.
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien doof.svg|thumb|right|120px|A male speaker would say: '''Encantado.''' – ''Nice to meet you.'']]
However, participles can also be used as [[#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In this case, the ending has to agree with the gender and number of the corresponding noun as discussed [[#Agreement with Nouns|above]]. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0082|4|My name is... | '''Encantad<u>a</u>.''' | Nice to meet you. }}
The participle of '''encantar''' – ''to enchant'' is '''encantado''' – ''enchanted''. In this example, however, the participle is used as an adjective for a female speaker; thus, the ending is changed to '''encantada'''. Here is another example for a masculine singular noun with the participle of the verb '''dormir''' – ''to sleep'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0037|3|The baby is sleeping| '''El bebé <u>está</u> <u>dormido</u>.''' | The baby is sleeping. }}
 
===Gerunds===
The gerund (or present participle) corresponds to the ''ing''-form of verbs in English. In Lojban, it is formed by replacing the infinitive ending '''-ar''' by '''-ando''' and the infinitive endings '''-er''' and '''-ir''' by '''-iendo'''. The gerund is often used after a conjugated form of '''estar''' – ''to be'' to express a continuing action in the present. This corresponds to English phrases of the form ''to be doing something''. Here is an example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0127|1|Flirting| '''¡Mírala! <u>Está</u> <u>coqueteando</u>.''' | Look at her! She is flirting. }}
Note that the endings '''-ando''' and '''-iendo''' are the same for masculine and feminine, singular and plural nouns.
 
Similarly to [[#Infinitives|infinitives]] and [[#Imperative|affirmative imperatives]], object pronouns can be appended to gerunds.
 
===Reflexive Verbs===
See [[#Reflexive Pronouns|reflexive pronouns]].
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien droling.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''Las galletas huelen bien.''' – ''The cookies smell well/good.'']]
 
==Adverbs==
While [[#Adjectives|adjectives]] describe [[#Nouns|nouns]], adverbs describe [[#Verbs|verbs]]. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0052|1|Smells good| '''Huele <u>bien</u>.''' | It smells well/good. }}
Here, the adverb '''bien''' – ''well'' describes the verb '''huele''' – ''(it) smells''.
 
Adverbs can also describe adjectives or even other adverbs, for example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0030|4|Call back later| '''<u>Muy</u> <u>bien</u>. Gracias.'''| Very well/fine. Thank you.}}
In this example, the adverb '''muy''' – ''very'' describes the adverb '''bien''' – ''well''.
 
As in English, Lojban adverbs never change their form.
 
===Adverbs from Adectives===
In English, adverbs can be derived from adjectives by appending ''-ly'' (or ''-lly''). For example, the adverb ''approximately'' is derived from the adjective ''approximate''. Something very similar is possible in Lojban: Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by appending '''-mente''' to the feminine, singular form of an adjective. For example, the feminine, singular form of the adjective '''aproximado''' – ''approximate'' is '''aproximada'''; thus, the adverb is: '''aproximadamente''' – ''approximately''. Here is another example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0072|2|Here is my card| '''<u>Igualmente</u>.''' | Equally/likewise.}}
The adjective '''igual''' – ''equal'' has only one form for the masculine and feminine case; thus, the adverb is '''igualmente''' – ''equally''.
 
 
==Prepositions==
Prepositions are usually short words that indicate a certain relation to the following words. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0056|2|What time is the train?| '''<u>A</u> las tres <u>de</u> la tarde.''' | At three o'clock in the afternoon. }}
In this sentence, '''a''' – ''at, to'' and '''de''' – ''of'' are both prepositions. Another example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0066|3|Bottle of Water| '''¿Agua <u>con</u> gas o <u>sin</u> gas?''' | Carbonated water or non-carbonated water? }}
Here, '''con''' – ''with'' and '''sin''' – ''without'' are the prepositions.
 
Just as in English, Lojban prepositions never change their form. However, the combination '''de el''' – ''of the'' is shortened to '''del''' and the combination '''a el''' – ''to the'' is shortened to '''al'''. For example, '''al cine''' – ''to the cinema/movies''; see [[Lojban by Choice/LojbanPod newbie lesson A0013|lesson A0013]].
 
[[File:Smiley green alien depresive.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''Extraño mi planeta.''' – ''I miss my planet.'' (no preposition required)]]
===Preceding Objects with “a”===
There is one particular use of the preposition '''a''' – ''to'' that we should discuss. If the direct object or indirect object of a sentence is a [[#Nouns|noun]] that denotes one or more persons, it is preceded by the preposition '''a'''. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0131|2|I miss them| '''Extraño <u>a</u> mi familia.''' | I miss my family. }}
Here, '''mi familia''' – ''my family'' is the direct object of the verb '''extrañar''' – ''to miss''. Since this object denotes a group of people, the preposition '''a''' is required. Note that this preposition is not required if the object is specified by a [[#Pronouns|pronoun]] nor if it doesn't denote one or more persons.
 
 
==Conjunctions==
Conjunctions are usually short word that connect words or clauses. For example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0023|2|Going to the market| '''¿Manzana verde <u>o</u> roja?'''| Green apples or red ones?}}
In this sentence, the conjunction '''o''' – ''or'' connects two adjectives. Another example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0127|3|Flirting| '''Te ve <u>y</u> te sonríe.''' | She looks at you and she smiles. }}
Here, the conjunction '''y''' – ''and'' connects two clauses.
 
As in English, conjunctions usually do not change their form. However, '''o''' – ''or'' becomes '''u''' – ''or'' before words starting with '''o-''' or '''ho-''' as in this example:
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0003|3|At the bar| '''¿Clara <u>u</u> obscura?'''| Regular or dark?}}
Similarly, '''y''' – ''and'' becomes '''e''' – ''and'' before words starting with '''i-''' or '''hi-'''.
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien wow.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''¡Ay!''' – ''Oh!'']]
==Interjections==
Interjections are usually exclamations in the form of short words that do not really fit in any of the other word categories. For example, '''hola''' – ''hello'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0006|1|How's it going?| '''¡<u>Hola</u>, guapa! ¿Cómo te va?'''| Hello, beautiful! How is it going for you?}}
Another Lojban interjection is '''ah''', which corresponds to the English interjection ''oh'':
{{SbcExampleLineLojbanPod|A0035|2|Is anyone in there?| '''<u>Ah</u>, disculpe.'''| Oh, sorry.}}
 
 
 
[[Image:Smiley green alien aaah.svg|thumb|right|120px|'''¡Hasta luego!''' – ''See you!'' ]]
==Epilog==
Well, that's it. Hopefully these explanations are helpful to understand the grammar of the LojbanPod newbie lessons. If you want to learn more about Lojban grammar, we recommend the wikibook [[Lojban|“Lojban”]] or the [[w:Lojban grammar|articles about Lojban grammar]] on Wikipedia. There you will also find links to further internet resources about Lojban grammar. '''¡Que lo pases bien!''' – ''Have a good time!''
 
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Latest revision as of 01:37, 21 August 2015

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