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Lojban - Die Logische Sprache

la lojban po'u le logji bangu

  • {ALINK(aname=>einführung)}Einführung{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>warum)}Warum wurde Lojban entwickelt?{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>einsatzgebiete)}Andere Einsatzgebiete für Lojban{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>aufbau)}Der Aufbau von Lojban{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>zustand)}Momentaner Zustand und Nutzung{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>eindeutigkeit)}Lojbans Eindeutigkeit{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>sapirwhorf)}Lojban und Sapir-Whorf{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>linguistisch)}Andere linguistische Anwendungen{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>international)}Lojban als internationale Hilfssprache{ALINK}
  • {ALINK(aname=>gründe)}Einige Gründe, Lojban jetzt zu lernen{ALINK}

Introduction{ANAME()}einführung{ANAME}

Lojban (/LOHsch-bahn/)

ist eine Plansprache. Anfangs wurde sie „Lojban“ vom Projektgründer Dr. James Cooke Brown genannt, der die Entwicklung der Sprache in 1955 anfing. Die Ziele der Sprache wurden im Artikel „Lojban” im Scientific American, Juni, 1960 beschrieben. Loglan/Lojban wurde über fünf Jahrzehnte von dutzenden Projektmitarbeitern und hunderten Unterstützern entwickelt, die seit 1987 von der Logical Language Group geleitet werden.

Es gibt viele künstliche Sprachen, aber Loglan/Lojban hat einige Eigenschaften, die es einzigartig machen. Das sind die Haupteigenschaften von Lojban:

  • Lojban wurde entwickelt, um von Leuten zur Verständigung untereinander, und in der Zukunft mit Computern benutzt, zu werden.
  • Lojban wurde dafür ausgelegt, kulturell neutral zu sein.
  • Lojban hat eine eindeutige Grammatik, die auf den Prinzipien der Logik beruht.
  • Lojban erlaubt eine eindeutige Zuweisung von Worten zu deren Aussprache und umgekehrt.
  • Lojban ist im vergleich zu natürlichen Sprachen simpel; es zu lernen ist leicht.
  • Lojbans 1300 Grundwörter können leicht zu einem Wortschatz von millionen Worten kombiniert werden.
  • Lojban ist regelmäßig; die Regeln der Sprache sind frei von Ausnahmen.
  • Lojban versucht Beschränkungen zu entfernen, um kreative und klare Gedanken und Kommunikation zu erleichtern.
  • Lojban hat einen Menge Einsatzmöglichkeiten, die vom Kreativen zum Wissenschaftlichen und vom Theoretischen zum Praktischen reichen.

Warum wurde Lojban entwickelt?{ANAME()}warum{ANAME}

Lojban wurde anfangs entwickelt, um ein Konzept, das unter dem Namen Sapir-Whorf Hypothese bekannt ist: „Die Struktur einer Sprache begrenzt die Gedanken der Leute, die diese Sprache benutzen“. Lojban hat die selbe Ausdruckskraft wie natürliche Sprachen, aber die Struktur unterscheidet sich enorm von anderen Sprachen. Das erlaubt es, Lojban als Werkzeug zu benutzen, um die Beziehungen von Sprache, Gedanken und Kultur wissenschaftlich zu erforschen.

Andere Einsatzgebiete für Lojban{ANAME()}einsatzgebiete{ANAME}

Lojban wurde als Menschensprache, nicht als Computersprache entwickelt. Darum ist es für den Einsatz zum Schreiben, Lesen, Sprechen und Denken gedacht. Da Lojban allerdings von einem Computer sehr viel leichter verarbeitet werden kann als natürliche Sprachen, ist die Nutzung von Lojban für Computer ein logischer nächster Schritt. Durch die eindeutige Grammatik und die simple Struktur kann Lojban von Computern leicht verstander werden, was dazu führt, dass Einsätze fur Computer-Mensch-Interaktion und Konversation in der Zukunft denkbar sind. Der Einsatz von Prädikatlogik in Lojban ähnelt dem in dem Feld der Künstlichen Intelligenz. Deshalb ist es denkbar, dass Lojban sich sehr für solche Einsatzmöglichkeiten eignet. Linguisten interessieren sich für Lojbans Eignung als Zwischensprache für Computerübersetzung. Andere Menschen interessieren sich für Lojban als internationale Hilfssprache.

Der Aufbau von Lojban{ANAME()}aufbau{ANAME}

Lojban's character set uses only standard keyboard keys;

capitalization is rare; punctuation is spoken as words. Written language

corresponds exactly to the sounds of the spoken language; spelling is

phonetic and unambiguous, and the flowing sounds of the language break

down uniquely into words. These features make computer speech

recognition and transcription more practical. Learning to write and

spell Lojban is trivial.

Lojban's predicate grammar was derived

from that of formal logic. Lojban sentences are stated as sets of

arguments tied together by predicates. These predicate structures can be

used to express 'non-logical' thought; logicians are able to analyze all

manner of verbal expressions by converting them into predicate notation.

But while Lojban will already be expressed in a predicate-based system,

allowing easy logical analysis, it also contains the wide variety of

elements found in natural language for expression of attitudes,

emotions, and rich metaphor.

Lojban has none of the standard

parts of speech. Lojban's 'predicate words' can serve as the equivalent

of a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. Action and existence are equally

accessible to a speaker; the distinction can be ignored, or can be

explicitly expressed. A variety of operators deal with abstractions such

as events, states, properties, amounts, ideas, experience, and truth,

and with at least four pre-defined varieties of causality.

Lojban

has no mandatory inflections and declensions on nouns, verbs, and

adjectives. Natural languages evolved such variations to reduce

ambiguity as to how words are related in a sentence. Evolutionary

development made these inflections and declensions highly irregular and

thus difficult to learn. The simple but flexible predicate relationship

erases both the irregularity and the declensions.

Tense and

location markers (inflections), adverbs, and prepositions are combined

into one part of speech. New preposition-like forms can be built at will

from predicates; these allow the user to expand upon a sentence by

attaching and relating clauses not normally implied in the meaning of a

word.

Numbers and quantifiers are conceptually expanded from

natural languages. "Many", "enough", "too

much", "a few", and "at least" are among

concepts that are expressed as numbers in Lojban. Core concepts of

logic, mathematics, and science are built into the root vocabulary. On

top of the core concepts of predicate logic, Lojban adds in non-logical

constructs that do not affect or obscure the logical structure, allowing

communications that are not amenable to logical analysis. For example,

Lojban has a full set of emotional indicators, similar to such

ejaculations in English as "Oh!", "Aha!", and

"Wheee!", except that each has a specific meaning. Similarly,

Lojban has indicators of the speaker's relationship to what is said,

similar to those found in some American Indian languages.

Lojban

supports metalinguistic discussion about the sentences being spoken

while remaining unambiguous. Lojban also supports a 'tense' logic that

allows extreme specificity of time and space relationships, even those

implied by time travel. Lojban's grammar is designed to support

unambiguous statement of mathematical expressions and relations in a

manner compatible both with international usage and Lojban's

non-mathematical grammar.

Lojban is much simpler than natural

languages. Its grammar is comparable in complexity with the current

generation of computer languages (such as ADA). Lojban's pronunciation,

spelling, word formation, and grammar rules are fixed, and the language

is free of exceptions to these rules.

Aktueller Zustand und Nutzung{ANAME()}zustand{ANAME}

The language, then

called Loglan, was first described in the 1950's, by Dr. James

Cooke Brown. The 1960 Scientific American article "Loglan" was

his call for assistance in developing the language. A revolution in

linguistics was simultaneously taking place; the resulting increase in

knowledge of the nature of language changed the requirements for Loglan.

The first widely distributed Loglan dictionary and language description

did not appear until 1975; this description was incomplete, and

continued development work discouraged learning the language. Computers

caught up with Loglan just then, making it possible to refine the

grammar, eliminate ambiguity and mathematically prove its absence; this

work has just been completed. For over 35 years, this work has been

performed by volunteers, and without financial support. Now, after

several versions of the language, people are learning and using the

current version, which is the first called Lojban (from

the roots "logical-language" in Lojban).

This version is the first version with a stable vocabulary, and the

first to have a stable and completely defined grammar (the grammar of

mathematical expressions, for example, was not developed until 1990).

The basic Lojban vocabulary was baselined (stabilized against change) in

the last half of 1988, and the grammar similarly stabilized in

late-1990, after completion of the first Lojban courses, actual usage of

the language, and several iterations of careful analysis. The full

language design was baselined in 1997, and no changes will even be

considered until 5 years after the set of books describing the language

is published (thus at least 2005). Thus, while the language was first

started 35 years ago, Loglan/Lojban is a very new language.

To ensure Lojban remains stable while people learn it, the language

definition is prescribed and closely controlled. When the number of

speakers has grown significantly, and a Lojban literature has developed,

Lojban will be treated like a natural language and allowed to grow and

flourish without constraint, as do other natural languages.

Original text and poetry have been written in Lojban, and some has

been translated into the language. Lojban's powerful metaphor structure

allows building new concepts into words easily, as needed. A Lojban

speaker doesn't need a dictionary to use and understand millions of

words that can potentially exist in the language.

As of 1997, there are about 1200 people on our mailing lists,

including about 300 listed as actively trying to learn the language.

Over 100 of these have

demonstrated communicative ability to use the language in conversation,

translation, or original writing, and one person is sufficiently skilled

to be considered fluent in the language. Several of these regularly get

together in the Washington DC area for conversation, and an annual

meeting/mini-convention is held there every summer. This progress is

remarkable since there is no dictionary for the current language, and a

textbook exists only in partial draft form; people use the language

reference manual as a learning source, and we've evolved methods of

teaching the language at a distance that overcome this handicap.

Lojbans Eindeutigkeit{ANAME()}eindeutigkeit{ANAME}

Lojban

has an unambiguous grammar (proven by computer analysis of a formal

grammar with YACC), pronunciation, and morphology (word forms). The

person who reads or hears a Lojban sentence is never in doubt as to what

words it contains or what roles they play in the sentence. Lojban has no

words that sound alike but have different meanings (like

"herd" and "heard"), that have multiple unrelated

meanings ("set"), or that differ only in punctuation but not

in sound (like the abominable "its" and "it's").

There is never any doubt about where words begin and end ("cargo

shipment" can be heard as 2, 3, or 4 words). The function of each

word is clear; there is nothing like the English "Time flies like

an arrow.", in which any of the first three words could be the

verb. Precision in no way confines the meaning of a Lojban sentence. It

is possible to speak nonsense, to tell a lie, or to be misunderstood.

You can be very specific, or you can be intentionally vague. Your hearer

may not understand what you meant, but will always understand what you

said.

Lojban is NOT entirely unambiguous; human beings

occasionally desire to be ambiguous in their expressions. In Lojban,

this ambiguity is limited to semantics, metaphor, and intentional

omission of information (ellipsis). Semantic ambiguity in language

results because words in natural languages represent families of

concepts rather than individual meanings, often with only weak semantic

relationships to each other. In addition, each individual's personal

experiences provide emotional connotations to words. By providing a

fresh, culturally-neutral start, Lojban attempts to minimize the

transference of these associations as people learn the language. By

intention, most Lojban words do not closely resemble corresponding words

in other languages; the differences aid in making this fresh start

possible. Lojban's powerful metaphor and word-building features make it

easy to make fine distinctions between concepts, discouraging individual

words from having families of meanings. Lojban metaphors are themselves

ambiguous, specifying a relationship between concepts, but not what the

relationship is. That relationship can be made explicit using

unambiguous logical constructs if necessary, or can be left vague as the

speaker (usually) desires. Similarly, portions of the logical structure

of a Lojban expression can be omitted, greatly simplifying the

expression while causing some ambiguity. Unlike in the natural

languages, though, this ambiguity is readily identified by a reader or

listener. Thus all ambiguity in Lojban is constrained and recognizable,

and can be clarified as necessary by further interaction.

Lojban und Sapir-Whorf{ANAME()}sapirwhorf{ANAME}

This hypothesis

states that the structure of a language constrains thought in that

language, and constrains and influences the culture that uses it. In

other words, if concepts or structural patterns are difficult to express

in a language, the society and culture using the language will tend to

avoid them. Individuals might overcome this barrier, but the society as

a whole will not. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is important, and

controversial; it can be used as a sociological argument to justify or

to oppose racism and sexism (and a variety of other 'isms'). For

example, the assertion that since genderless expressions in English use

'masculine' forms, English is 'sexist', presumes the Sapir-Whorf

hypothesis is true. Understanding the potential for Sapir-Whorf effects

could lead to better inter-cultural understanding, promoting

communication and peace.

It is known that people's ideas and

thought change somewhat when they learn a foreign language. It is not

known whether this change is due to exposure to a different culture or

even just getting outside of ones own culture. It is also not known how

much (if any) of the change is due to the nature of the language, as

opposed to the cultural associations.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

was important in linguistics in the 1950's, but interest fell off

partially because properly testing it was so difficult. Loglan/Lojban is

a new approach to such testing. Obviously, if a culture-independent

language could be taught to groups of people, the effects of language

could more easily be separated from those of culture.

Unique

features of Lojban remove constraints on language in the areas of logic,

ambiguity, and expressive power, opening up areas of thought that have

not been easily accessible by human language before. Meanwhile, the

formal rigidity of the language definition allows speakers to carefully

control their expressions (and perhaps therefore their thought

processes). This gives some measure of predictive power that can be used

in designing and preparing for actual Sapir-Whorf experiments.

One of the prerequisites of a Sapir-Whorf experiment is an

international body of Lojban speakers. We need to be able to teach

Lojban to subjects who know only their native (non-English) tongue, and

we need to know in advance the difficulties that people from each

language and culture will have in learning Lojban. Thus, the Lojban

community is actively reaching out to speakers of languages other than

English.

Lojban does not need to prove or disprove the

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in order to be successful. However, if evidence

is produced supporting the Sapir-Whorf effect, Lojban will likely be

perceived as an outstanding tool of analytical and creative thought.

Andere linguistische Anwendungen{ANAME()}linguistisch{ANAME}

An

artificial language is a simple model of a natural language. It is used

for communication like natural languages, simpler, more regular, and

relatively uncontaminated by culture effects. Unlike most natural

languages, an AL has not evolved through natural processes of internal

change or contact with other languages. In addition, to the extent to

which details of an AL is pre-defined, the internal structure of the

language is far better known than that of any natural language.

Such a pre-definition, a language 'prescription', makes an AL a

unique tool for studying the nature of language. As people learn the

language, the way they 'acquire' understanding of that prescription can

tell scientists how 'natural' the prescribed forms are. Actual usage of

the language can be compared to the prescription providing quantitative

data on specific patterns of usage. As the language evolves from its

relatively pristine initial state, it may deviate from its prescription.

Such deviations will better inform researchers as to the properties of a

'natural' language. The process of language change itself will be open

to investigation in a way never before possible. Finally, the existence

of a relatively complete language prescription at the birth of the

language means that a 'description' of actual usage after that initial

state can be more simply created, maintained, and studied.

Lojban

is undoubtedly the most carefully designed and defined AL ever created.

All aspects of its design have been carefully engineered by several

people encompassing expertise in a variety of disciplines, including

linguistics. The language prescription is similarly the most complete of

any language. As such, it serves as a unique basis for the study of

language usage and language change.

A new language like Lojban,

with no native speakers, is a 'pidgin'. As the language evolves, native

speakers of other languages will learn it, and will bring into their

Lojban usage the perspective and patterns of their native language. This

interaction process, called 'creolization', affects all languages, and

may be the principle cause of language change. As Lojban is learned by

speakers of a variety of natural languages, this process can be studied

directly in a way never before possible, with the language prescription

serving as a standard by which deviations associated with speaker ori-

gin, and evolution of usage, can be measured and described in

detail.

An AL like Lojban has neither an associated 'native

accent' nor a culture base. Being much simpler and more regular than a

natural language, an adult speaker should acquire a fluency seldom

achieved when studying a natural language, and in a relatively short

time. Lojban thus makes possible relatively short-term studies of

language learning and language change. Processes that take generations

in natural languages may be observed in a few years in Lojban

speakers.

With the learning of other languages acquiring critical

importance in today's international economy, Lojban provides a tool for

research in language acquisition. Again, Lojban's simplicity allows the

results of such research to be obtained more quickly than in similar

studies of natural language acquisition.

No claim is made that

studying Lojban will tell 'all' about language. Lojban, at least for

several decades, will only be a 'model' of a language, whose

'naturalness' will be suspect. However, to the extent that Lojban serves

the communicative and expressive functions of human language, any theory

about the nature of human language must apply to Lojban. Language

features and processes more easily identified in studying Lojban can

then be confirmed in natural languages. Similarly, theories of the

nature of language can be tested and refined against this simpler model

of a language before facing the more difficult and time-consuming

testing and analysis involved in natural language research.

Because Lojban is relatively culture-free, and because of its

prescribed structure that is consistent with predicate logic, Lojban is

an ideal medium for the analysis and description of other languages.

Currently, features in language must be compared against other natural

languages, and are usually described in scientific literature by glossed

translation into English. Lojban is simple and regular enough to be

acquired as a metalanguage for describing other languages; its

structures allow clearer reflection of the patterns of the language

being described, without interference from the competing patterns of

English.

Finally, Lojban's predicate grammar, makes it eminently

suited for ongoing computer research into natural languages. Lojban can

be used for parsing and analysis, as an internal medium of data storage,

or as an intermediate language for machine translation. Having a

combination of logical and natural language structures, Lojban combines

the best of both major structural approaches to language processing in

computers.

The exercise of trying to invent a language can teach

us things about language that probably can't be learned in any other

way. Even if Lojban should fail as a language, we will learn. However,

to the extent Lojban succeeds, its potential as a basis for testing

ideas about language, its structure, and usage, is unlimited. The

invention of Lojban is the invention of the science of experimental

linguistics.

Lojban als internationale Hilfssprache{ANAME()}international{ANAME}

Lojban may be the first artificial

language NOT in direct competition with Esperanto, in that Lojban's

potential success is not dependent on its immediate practical use as an

international language. Indeed, we use Esperanto as one means of rapidly

spreading information about Lojban to non-English speakers, speeding a

process that would take decades using direct translation to all target

languages. Lojban has proven attractive to Esperantists interested in

acquiring a new perspective on their own international language; these

feel less threatened because Lojban has different goals. Lojban's

supporters recognize that it will take decades for Lojban to acquire

both the number and variety of speakers and the extensive history of

usage that marks Esperanto culture. Meanwhile, each language community

has much to learn from each other; this process has started and is most

active.

Einige Gründe, Lojban jetzt zu lernen{ANAME()}gründe{ANAME}

Those working with the language now are actively consulted

for their opinions on how to teach and spread the language. People who

write in the language are contributing to the growth of the lexicon, and

establishing the conventions and idioms that will guide language use in

future years. People who are especially active have joined the project

leadership within a few months of becoming involved.

Those with a computer background can lead development of the first

computer applications for the language. Expertise in the language will

no doubt be valuable as Lojban becomes recognized as a useful tool for

computer applications by the computer industry. Computer-oriented

Lojbanists can also aid in developing computer-aided instruction tools

or converting existing software to run on new computers.

Regardless of background, learning Lojban is a mind-expanding

experience. Learning any language other than your native tongue broadens

your perspectives and allows you to transcend the limited viewpoints of

your native language culture. Lojban, being much simpler to learn than

natural languages, provides this benefit much more quickly than does the

study of other languages. Being so strongly different, the intensity of

the effect seems to be heightened. When Lojbanists talk about language,

the discussion has been observed to be more sophisticated as well as

qualitatively different from the talk of students of second natural

languages.

The logical organization embedded in Lojban aids in organizing and

clarifying thoughts. Having done so, your new perspective on language,

ambiguity, and communication will allow you to express those thoughts

more clearly, even when you use an ambiguous natural language.

A relatively short study of Lojban by high school (or younger)

students has been proposed, providing the linguistic understanding that

was once associated with studying Latin and other languages for much

longer periods of time. Such study can be tied in with concepts of

logic, and possibly with computer-related activities, helping to show

the essential interrelated nature of language and other human

endeavor.

You needn't learn Lojban for any practical purpose, however. Many of

those learning Lojban are doing so because it is fun. Learning Lojban is

intellectually stimulating, and provides human interaction and mental

challenge. Lojban has all the benefits of games designed for

entertainment, with the added prospect of developing useful skills as a

side benefit. Learning Lojban as an 'intellectual toy' means that you

can get enjoyment from learning Lojban without nearly the effort needed

to benefit from studying other languages. While becoming fluent in

Lojban will probably take hundreds of hours over several months, you can

feel some sense of accomplishment in the language after just a few hours

of study. You can use Lojban immediately for fun, while gaining skill

with greater experience.

Wie man Lojban lernt{ANAME()}wie{ANAME}

Write to he Logical Language Group, Inc.,

and we will be happy to provide information, though our

collected Web and file archives contain all information that we have in

distributable form. For printed matter, we request a contribution of $5

to cover the costs of introductory materials (including a copy of this

essay), but will send this package on speculation. Additional materials

available total hundreds of pages, which are priced approximately at our

costs; we are a non-profit educational/scientific organization. Contact Us

us regarding international payment; we offer several options. A limited

policy exists for providing materials to people who cannot afford

payment.

We encourage new people to concentrate on vocabulary. Almost any use

of Lojban requires some mastery of the basic vocabulary (1000-2000

words). You can learn enough Lojban grammar to support conversation in

just a couple of hours, but face many hours of vocabulary work in order

to effectively use that grammar. We distribute flash cards and have

developed flash card techniques that are extremely efficient in learning

vocabulary. These techniques have been automated into

computer-aided-teaching programs sold and distributed as Shareware under

the name "LogFlash", with MS-DOS and MacIntosh versions

currently available.

You can learn the Lojban grammar in several ways, including study of

examples in the quarterly journal ju'i lobypli or by inspection

and analysis of YACC and E-BNF formal grammar descriptions. There is now

a published language reference,[http://www.lojban.org/publications/cll.html The Complete Lojban

Language], by John Cowan. Draft lesson materials (about 180 pages)

are the best materials available for self-study. A Lojban text-book is

being written to reflect what is learned from the first learning

efforts, and is being designed so that it can be used for

self-instruction, classroom teaching, or group study. A formal 'Lojban

dictionary' will replace most of the existing word lists and language

description materials, and is being worked on, but present materials

contain the equivalent of a basic dictionary.

After the dictionary and textbook have been published the Lojban

language definition will be baselined (frozen) for a minimum of 5 years,

and Lojban will thereafter be solely controlled by speakers of the

language.