The Complete Lojban Language

Table of Contents

1. Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book

What is Lojban?

What is this book?

What are the typographical conventions of this book?

Disclaimers

Acknowledgements and Credits

Informal Bibliography

Captions to Pictures

Chapter 1 Caption

Chapter 2 Caption

Chapter 3 Caption

Chapter 4 Caption

Chapter 5 Caption

Chapter 6 Caption

Chapter 7 Caption

Chapter 8 Caption

Chapter 9 Caption

Chapter 10 Caption

Chapter 11 Caption

Chapter 12 Caption

Chapter 13 Caption

Chapter 14 Caption

Chapter 15 Caption

Chapter 16 Caption

Chapter 17 Caption

Chapter 18 Caption

Chapter 19 Caption

Chapter 20 Caption

Chapter 21 Caption

Boring Legalities

2. A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams

The concept of the bridi

Pronunciation

Words that can act as sumti

Some words used to indicate selbri relations

Some simple Lojban bridi

Variant bridi structure

Varying the order of sumti

The basic structure of longer utterances

tanru

Description sumti

Examples of brivla

The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

Possession

Vocatives and commands

Questions

Indicators

Tenses

Lojban grammatical terms

3. The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

Orthography

Basic Phonetics

The Special Lojban Characters

Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

Vowel Pairs

Consonant Clusters

Initial Consonant Pairs

Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

Syllabication And Stress

IPA For English Speakers

English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

Oddball Orthographies

4. The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology

Introductory

cmavo

brivla

gismu

lujvo

rafsi

fu'ivla

cmene

Rules for inserting pauses

Considerations for making lujvo

The lujvo-making algorithm

The lujvo scoring algorithm

lujvo-making examples

The gismu creation algorithm

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

5. “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri

Lojban content words: brivla

Simple tanru

Three-part tanru grouping with bo

Complex tanru grouping

Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

Logical connection within tanru

Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Inversion of tanru: co

Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri based on sumti: me

Conversion of simple selbri

Scalar negation of selbri

Tenses and bridi negation

Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Some types of symmetrical tanru

“Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

6. To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti

The five kinds of simple sumti

The three basic description types

Individuals and masses

Masses and sets

Descriptors for typical objects

Quantified sumti

Quantified descriptions

Indefinite descriptions

sumti-based descriptions

sumti qualifiers

The syntax of vocative phrases

Lojban names

Pro-sumti summary

Quotation summary

Number summary

7. Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi

What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

The identity predicate: du

lujvo based on pro-sumti

KOhA cmavo by series

GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

Other cmavo discussed in this chapter

8. Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated

What are you pointing at?

Incidental relative clauses

Relative phrases

Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

Relative clauses and descriptors

Possessive sumti

Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

Relative clauses in vocative phrases

Relative clauses within relative clauses

Index of relative clause cmavo

9. To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals

Introductory

Standard bridi form: cu

Tagging places: FA

Conversion: SE

Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

Modal tags: BAI

Modal sentence connection: the causals

Other modal connections

Modal selbri

Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mixed modal connection

Modal conversion: JAI

Modal negation

Sticky modals

Logical and non-logical connection of modals

CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

10. Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System

Introductory

Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

Compound spatial tenses

Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Dimensionality: VIhA

Movement in space: MOhI

Interval properties: TAhE and roi

Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Space interval modifiers: FEhE

Tenses as sumti tcita

Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

Story time

Tenses in subordinate bridi

Tense relations between sentences

Tensed logical connectives

Tense negation

Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

Sub-events

Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

Tenses versus modals

Tense questions: cu'e

Explicit magnitudes

Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)

Summary of tense selma'o

List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

11. Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction

The syntax of abstraction

Event abstraction

Types of event abstractions

Property abstractions

Amount abstractions

Truth-value abstraction: jei

Predication/sentence abstraction

Indirect questions

Minor abstraction types

Lojban sumti raising

Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

Abstractor connection

Table of abstractors

12. Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures

Why have lujvo?

The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

The meaning of lujvo

Selecting places

Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

Dependent places

Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo with more than two parts.

Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Abstract lujvo

Implicit-abstraction lujvo

Anomalous lujvo

Comparatives and superlatives

Notes on gismu place structures

13. Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators

What are attitudinal indicators?

Pure emotion indicators

Propositional attitude indicators

Attitudes as scales

The space of emotions

Emotional categories

Attitudinal modifiers

Compound indicators

The uses of indicators

Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

Evidentials

Discursives

Miscellaneous indicators

Vocative scales

A sample dialogue

Tentative conclusion

14. If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System

Logical connection and truth tables

The Four basic vowels

The six types of logical connectives

Logical connection of bridi

Forethought bridi connection

sumti connection

More than two propositions

Grouping of afterthought connectives

Compound bridi

Multiple compound bridi

Termset logical connection

Logical connection within tanru

Truth questions and connective questions

Non-logical connectives

More about non-logical connectives

Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

Tenses, modals, and logical connection

Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

Constructs and appropriate connectives

Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

Locations of other tables

15. “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation

Introductory

bridi negation

Scalar Negation

selbri and tanru negation

Expressing scales in selbri negation

sumti negation

Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Truth questions

Affirmations

Metalinguistic negation forms

Summary – Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?

16. “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic

What's wrong with this picture?

Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

Universal claims

Restricted claims: da poi

Dropping the prenex

Variables with generalized quantifiers

Grouping of quantifiers

The problem of “any”

Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives

Using naku outside a prenex

Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

selbri variables

A few notes on variables

Conclusion

17. As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses

What's a letteral, anyway?

A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Upper and lower cases

The universal bu

Alien alphabets

Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Punctuation marks

What about Chinese characters?

lerfu words as pro-sumti

References to lerfu

Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

Acronyms

Computerized character codes

List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

18. lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban

Introductory

Lojban numbers

Signs and numerical punctuation

Special numbers

Simple infix expressions and equations

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Indefinite numbers

Approximation and inexact numbers

Non-decimal and compound bases

Special mekso selbri

Number questions

Subscripts

Infix operators revisited

Vectors and matrices

Reverse Polish notation

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

Using Lojban resources within mekso

Other uses of mekso

Explicit operator precedence

Miscellany

Four score and seven: a mekso problem

mekso selma'o summary

Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.

Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

19. Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts

Introductory

Sentences: I

Paragraphs: NIhO

Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Questions and answers

Subscripts: XI

Utterance ordinals: MAI

Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Erasure: SI, SA, SU

Hesitation: Y

No more to say: FAhO

List of cmavo interactions

List of Elidable Terminators

20. A Catalogue of selma'o

21. Formal Grammars

YACC Grammar of Lojban

EBNF Grammar of Lojban

EBNF Cross-Reference

Lojban Word Glossary

General Index

Lojban Words Index

Lojban Phrases Index

Lojban Automated Words Index

Lojban Examples Index

The Complete Lojban Language

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Chapter 1. Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book

What is Lojban?

Lojban (pronounced “LOZH-bahn”) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called “Loglan” by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article ““Loglan””, published in Scientific American, June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).

There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:

- Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with each other, and possibly in the future with computers.

- Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.

- Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic.

- Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar.

- Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its sounds into words.

- Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy to learn.

- Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vocabulary of millions of words.

- Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exceptions.

- Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication.

- Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.

- Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.

What is this book?

This book is what is called a “reference grammar”. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word “discover” is used advisedly; Lojban was not “invented” by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.

By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in Chapter 21, Formal Grammars), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence, Chapter 2, A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams gives a brief overview of the language, Chapter 21, Formal Grammars gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.

Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures explains – and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.

It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.

Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title of Chapter 1, Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book (which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the book English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English. “Lojbanistan” is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why “mangle”? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.

What are the typographical conventions of this book?

Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.

The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:

Example 1.1.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

that-which-I-describe-as-a

store.

I go to the store.

will become wearisomely familiar before Chapter 21, Formal Grammars is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.

It is useful to talk further about Example 1.1, “ ” for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the “literal translation” and the “colloquial translation” respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.

Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In Chapter 3, The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban, square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.

A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in Chapter 2, A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams, except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.

Disclaimers

It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.

When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.

Acknowledgements and Credits

Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial “I”, certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.

In particular: Chapter 2, A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier; Chapter 3, The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban and Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton; Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of Chapter 13, Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier; Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation and parts of Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in Chapter 21, Formal Grammars is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in Chapter 21, Formal Grammars, was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.

The research into natural languages from which parts of Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.

The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology, which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.

The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as “pc”), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.

Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.

Informal Bibliography

The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is Loglan 1: A Logical Language by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.

The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.

The theory of negation expounded in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation is derived from a reading of Laurence Horn's work A Natural History of Negation.

Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.

Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.

Captions to Pictures

The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption, “(none)” is specified instead.

Chapter 1 Caption

coi lojban.             coi rodo

Greetings, O Lojban!    Greetings, all-of you

Chapter 2 Caption

(none)

Chapter 3 Caption

.i .ai .i .ai .o

[untranslatable]

Chapter 4 Caption

jbobliku

Lojbanic-blocks

Chapter 5 Caption

(none)

Chapter 6 Caption

lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu

The-mass-of two men carry the two men

Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).

Chapter 7 Caption

ma drani danfu

.i di'e

.i di'u

.i dei

.i ri

.i do'i

[What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?

The-next-sentence.

The-previous-sentence.

This-sentence.

The-previous-sentence.

An-unspecified-utterance.

Chapter 8 Caption

ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.

[You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.

Chapter 9 Caption

(none)

Chapter 10 Caption

za'o klama

[superfective] come/go

Something goes (or comes) for too long.

Chapter 11 Caption

le si'o kunti

The concept-of emptiness

Chapter 12 Caption

(none)

Chapter 13 Caption

.oi ro'i ro'a ro'o

[Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]

Chapter 14 Caption

(none)

Chapter 15 Caption

mi na'e lumci le karce

I other-than wash the car

I didn't wash the car.

Chapter 16 Caption

drata mupli pe'u .djan.

another example [please] John

Another example, John, please!

Chapter 17 Caption

zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.

[Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n

"Lojban" in a manual alphabet

Chapter 18 Caption

no no

0 0

Chapter 19 Caption

(none)

Chapter 20 Caption

(none)

Chapter 21 Caption

(none)

Boring Legalities

Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.

The contents of Chapter 21, Formal Grammars are in the public domain.

For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address: llg-board@lojban.orgWorld Wide Web: http://www.lojban.org

Chapter 2. A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams

The concept of the bridi

This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a “quick tour” of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.

Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:

Example 2.1.

John is the father of Sam.

Example 2.2.

John hits Sam.

Example 2.3.

John is taller than Sam.

These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noun “father” to describe a static relationship in Example 2.1, “ ”, the verb “hits” to describe an active relationship in Example 2.2, “ ”, and the adjective “taller” to describe an attributive relationship in Example 2.3, “ ”. In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a “predication”; in Lojban it is called a bridi, and the central part of speech is the selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus related as “arguments”, while Lojbanists call them sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.

In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example, “give” has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:

Example 2.4.

John gives Sam the book.

and

Example 2.5.

Sam gives John the book.

mean two different things because the relative positions of “John” and “Sam” have been switched. Further,

Example 2.6.

The book gives John Sam.

seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by “give” has not changed.

In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as its “place structure”. The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.

This book uses the Lojban terms bridi, sumti, and selbri, because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.

The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (===) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.

Pronunciation

Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in Chapter 3, The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban, but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.

Lojban has six recognized vowels: a, e, i, o, u and y. The first five are roughly pronounced as “a” as in “father”, e as in “let”, i as in “machine”, o as in “dome” and u as in “flute”. y is pronounced as the sound called “schwa”, that is, as the unstressed “a” as in “about” or “around”.

Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their counterparts are in English: b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, v and z. The letter c, on the other hand is pronounced as the “sh” in “hush”, while j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the “s” in “pleasure”. g is always pronounced as it is in “gift”, never as in “giant”. s is as in “sell”, never as in “rose”. The sound of x is not found in English in normal words. It is found as “ch” in Scottish “loch”, as “j” in Spanish “junta”, and as „ch“ in German „Bach“; it also appears in the English interjection “yecchh!”. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The letter r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be.

The Lojban diphthongs ai, ei, oi, and au are pronounced much as in the English words “sigh”, “say”, “boy”, and “how”. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an i pronounced like English “y” (for example, io is pronounced “yo”) or else with a u pronounced like English “w” (for example, ua is pronounced “wa”).

Lojban also has three “semi-letters”: the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter “h”. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.

Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is y, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.

All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.

Words that can act as sumti

Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in the section called “KOhA cmavo by series”.

mi

I/me, we/us

do

you

ti

this, these

ta

that, those

tu

that far away, those far away

zo'e

unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious)

Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.

The cmavo ti, ta, and tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.

Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word la:

la meris.

the one/ones named Mary

la djan.

the one/ones named John

Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: see the section called “Lojban names” for more information.

Some words used to indicate selbri relations

Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:

vecnu

x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)

tavla

x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4

sutra

x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)

blari'o

x1 (object/light source) is blue-green

melbi

x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3

cutci

x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)

bajra

x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)

klama

x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)

pluka

x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3

gerku

x1 is a dog of breed x2

kurji

x1 takes care of x2

kanro

x1 is healthy by standard x2

stali

x1 stays/remains with x2

zarci

x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)

Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.

Like the table in the section called “Words that can act as sumti”, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that “aren't in the dictionary”. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language. Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology explains how to make new words, and Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures explains how to give them appropriate meanings.

Some simple Lojban bridi

Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu tavla is

Example 2.7.

x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4

where the “x” es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:

Example 2.8.

John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.

has “John” in the x1 place, “Sam” in the x2 place, “engineering” in the x3 place, and “Lojban” in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:

Example 2.9.

Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering and language Lojban.

The Lojban bridi corresponding to Example 2.7, “ ” will have the form

Example 2.10.

x1

cu

tavla

x2

x3

x4

The word cu serves as a separator between any preceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.

Example 2.11.

mi

tavla

do

zo'e

zo'e

I talk to you about something in some language.

Example 2.12.

do

tavla

mi

ta

zo'e

You talk to me about that thing in a language.

Example 2.13.

mi

tavla

zo'e

tu

ti

I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.

( Example 2.13, “ ” is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)

When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called “ellipsis”. Example 2.11, “ ” and Example 2.12, “ ” may be expressed thus:

Example 2.14.

mi

tavla

do

I talk to you (about something in some language).

Example 2.15.

do

tavla

mi

ta

You talk to me about that thing (in some language).

Note that Example 2.13, “ ” is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.

Variant bridi structure

Consider the sentence

Example 2.16.

mi

cu

vecnu

ti

ta

zo'e

seller-x1

sells

goods-sold-x2

buyer-x3

price-x4

I

sell

this

to that

for some price.

I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.

(the price is obvious or unimportant)

Example 2.16, “ ” has one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:

Example 2.17.

mi

ti

cu

vecnu

ta

seller-x1

goods-sold-x2

sells

buyer-x3

I

this

sell

to that.

(translates as stilted or poetic English)

I this thing do sell to that buyer.

Example 2.18.

mi

ti

ta

cu

vecnu

seller-x1

goods-sold-x2

buyer-x3

sells

I

this

to that

sell

(translates as stilted or poetic English)

I this thing to that buyer do sell.

Example 2.16, “ ” through Example 2.18, “ ” mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)

If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2.

Example 2.19.

ta

cu

melbi

object/idea-x1

is-beautiful

to someone by some standard

That/Those

is/are beautiful.

That is beautiful.

Those are beautiful.

when the x1 is omitted, becomes:

Example 2.20.

melbi

unspecified-x1

is-beautiful

to someone by some standard

Beautiful!

It's beautiful!

Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include “Smoke!” upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or “Car!” to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.

The word cu does not occur in an observative; cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri, cu is not permitted. Short words like cu which serve grammatical functions are called cmavo in Lojban.

Varying the order of sumti

For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So

Example 2.21.

mi

tavla

do

ti

I talk to you about this.

has the same meaning as

Example 2.22.

do

se tavla

mi

ti

You are talked to by me about this.

The cmavo te, when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.

Example 2.23.

mi

tavla

do

ti

I talk to you about this.

has the same meaning as

Example 2.24.

ti

te tavla

do

mi

This is talked about to you by me.

Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.

The cmavo ve and xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as “conversions”, and the se, te, ve, and xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri.

More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri for details.

The effect is similar to what in English is called the “passive voice”. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as le selbri [ku] (see the section called “Description sumti”).

The basic structure of longer utterances

People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo ni'o and i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.

The cmavo ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple ni'o s, with perhaps ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter, ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.

The cmavo i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo xu, discussed in the section called “Questions”, is one such word – it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.

It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for i is the “and” used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally: “I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...”.

tanru

When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called tanru. For example,

Example 2.25.

sutra

tavla

has the place structure

Example 2.26.

x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4

x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4

When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example

Example 2.27.

sutra

tavla

cutci

has the place structure

Example 2.28.

s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3

That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.

Note especially the use of “type-of” as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:

Example 2.29.

bajra

cutci

runner shoe

most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as “shoes that run (by themselves?)”. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus

Example 2.30.

sutra

tavla

fast-talker

would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a

Example 2.31.

jikca

toldi

social butterfly

must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family Lepidoptera.

The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of klama:

Example 2.32.

mi

cu

sutra klama

la meris.

I

quickly-go

to Mary.

With the conversion se klama as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the one who goes:

Example 2.33.

mi

cu

sutra

se klama

la meris.

I

quickly

am-gone-to

by Mary.

The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:

Example 2.34.

la tam.

cu

melbi tavla

la meris.

Tom

beautifully-talks

to Mary.

Tom

is a beautiful-talker

to Mary.

has the place structure of tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations.

Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:

Example 2.35.

la meris.

cu

melbi se tavla

la tam.

Mary

is beautifully-talked-to

by Tom.

Mary

is a beautiful-audience

for Tom.

and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.

Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:

Example 2.36.

la tam.

cu

tavla melbi

la meris.

Tom

is talkerly-beautiful

to Mary.

Example 2.37.

la tam.

cu

se tavla melbi

la meris.

Tom

is audiencely-beautiful

to Mary.

and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.

Description sumti

Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place of tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a “description sumti”. The description sumti le tavla ku means “the talker”, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.

For example,

Example 2.38.

mi

tavla

do

le tavla

ku

means the same as

Example 2.39.

I talk to you about the talker

where “the talker” is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.

Similarly le sutra tavla ku is “the fast talker”, and le sutra te tavla ku is “the fast subject of talk” or “the subject of fast talk”. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.

In many cases the word ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:

Example 2.40.

mi

tavla

do

le tavla

I

talk-to

you

about-the talker

means exactly the same thing as Example 2.38, “ ”.

There is a problem when we want to say “The fast one is talking.” The “obvious” translation le sutra tavla turns out to mean “the fast talker”, and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.

The word cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like se or te. Thus:

Example 2.41.

le sutra tavla

The fast talker

Example 2.42.

le sutra

cu

tavla

The fast one

is talking.

Example 2.43.

le sutra se tavla

The fast talked-to one

Example 2.44.

le sutra

cu

se tavla

The fast one

is talked to.

Consider the following more complex example, with two description sumti.

Example 2.45.

mi

cu

tavla

le vecnu

ku

le blari'o

ku

I

talk-to

the seller

about the blue-green-thing.

The sumti le vecnu contains the selbri vecnu, which has the “seller” in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular “seller” that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using le to mark blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.

It is safe to omit both occurrences of ku in Example 2.45, “ ”, and it is also safe to omit the cu.

Examples of brivla

The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.

gismu:

Example 2.46.

mi

cu

klama

ti

zo'e

zo'e

ta

Go-er

goes

destination

origin

route

means.

I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route).

lujvo:

Example 2.47.

ta

cu

blari'o

That

is-blue-green.

fu'ivla:

Example 2.48.

ti

cu

djarspageti

This

is-spaghetti.

Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:

Example 2.49.

ta

cu

go'i

That

too/same-as-last selbri.

That (is spaghetti), too.

The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

In English, I might say “The dog is beautiful”, and you might reply “This pleases me.” How do you know what “this” refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:

Example 2.50.

le gerku

ku

cu

melbi

The dog is beautiful.

The following three sentences all might translate as “This pleases me.”

Example 2.51.

ti

cu

pluka

mi

This (the dog) pleases me.

Example 2.52.

di'u

cu

pluka

mi

This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).

Example 2.53.

la'e di'u

cu

pluka

mi

This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.

Example 2.53, “ ” uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more often than di'u by itself.

Possession

“Possession” refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the le and the selbri of the description:

Example 2.54.

le mi gerku

cu

sutra

The of-me dog

is fast.

My dog is fast.

In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may “possess” a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships: “my arm” doesn't mean “some arm I own” but rather “the arm that is part of my body”. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.

Vocatives and commands

You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using doi followed by their name. The sentence

Example 2.55.

doi

djan.

means “Oh, John, I'm talking to you”. It also has the effect of setting the value of do; do now refers to “John” until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note that Example 2.55, “ ” is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a “vocative phrase”.

Other cmavo can be used instead of doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo coi means “hello” and co'o means “good-bye”. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with doi do not need a pause before the name.)

Example 2.56.

coi.

djan.

Hello, John.

Example 2.57.

co'o.

djan.

Good-bye, John.

Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main bridi structure. If you say

Example 2.58.

do

tavla

You

are-talking.

you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a command in Lojban, substitute the word ko for do. The bridi

Example 2.59.

ko

tavla

instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make Example 2.58, “ ” true; it means “Talk!” Other examples:

Example 2.60.

ko

sutra

Be fast!

The ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:

Example 2.61.

mi

tavla

ko

Be talked to by me.

Let me talk to you.

The cmavo ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:

Example 2.62.

ko

kurji

ko

and

Example 2.63.

ko

ko

kurji

both mean “You take care of you” and “Be taken care of by you”, or to put it colloquially, “Take care of yourself”.

Questions

There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in the section called “Questions and answers” and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.

The cmavo ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated as “Who?” or “What?” in most cases, but also serves for “When?”, “Where?”, and “Why?” when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. For example:

Example 2.64.

ma

tavla

do

mi

Who?

talks

to-you

about-me.

Who is talking to you about me?

The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:

Example 2.65.

la djan.

John (is talking to you about me).

Like ko, ma can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:

Example 2.66.

do

cu

tavla

ma

You

talk

to what/whom?

A ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once.

Example 2.67.

ma

cu

tavla

ma

What/Who

talks

to what/whom?

The two separate ma positions ask two separate questions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.

The cmavo mo is the selbri analogue of ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the mo:

Example 2.68.

do

cu

mo

You

are-what/do-what?

A mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, mo is a very non-specific question. The response to the question in Example 2.68, “ ” could be:

Example 2.69.

mi

cu

melbi

I am beautiful.

or:

Example 2.70.

mi

cu

tavla

I talk.

Clearly, mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see the section called “tanru”).

It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a mo question. Thus, the respondent in Example 2.70, “ ” could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.

Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered “Yes” or “No”, such as

Example 2.71.

Are you talking to me?

Like all yes-or-no questions in English, Example 2.71, “ ” may be reformulated as

Example 2.72.

Is it true that you are talking to me?

In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So

Example 2.73.

xu

do

tavla

mi

Is-it-true-that

you

are-talking

to-me?

is the Lojban translation of Example 2.71, “ ”.

The answer “Yes” may be given by simply restating the bridi without the xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this with the word go'i, mentioned in the section called “Examples of brivla”. Instead of a negative answer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with go'i as well. For example:

Example 2.74.

xu

do

kanro

Are you healthy?

can be answered with

Example 2.75.

mi

kanro

I am healthy.

or

Example 2.76.

go'i

I am healthy.

(Note that do to the questioner is mi to the respondent.)

or

Example 2.77.

le tavla

cu

kanro

The talker is healthy.

or

Example 2.78.

le tavla

cu

go'i

The talker is healthy.

A general negative answer may be given by na go'i. na may be placed before any selbri (but after the cu). It is equivalent to stating “It is not true that ...” before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation.

Indicators

Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.

Lojban has a group of cmavo known as “attitudinal indicators” which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:

Example 2.79.

.ie

mi

cu

klama

Agreement!

I

go.

Yep! I'll go.

Example 2.80.

.ei

mi

cu

klama

Obligation!

I

go.

I should go.

Example 2.81.

mi

cu

klama

le melbi

.ui

ku

I

go

to-the beautiful-thing

and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm going to

Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called “metalinguistic” features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words “but” and “also”, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of example, are logically equivalent to “and”, which does not have a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that “but” basically means “and”.

Example 2.82.

mi

cu

klama

.i

do

cu

stali

I

go.

You

stay.

Example 2.83.

mi

cu

klama

.i

ji'a

do

cu

stali

I

go.

In addition,

you

stay.

added weight

Example 2.84.

mi

cu

klama

.i

ku'i

do

cu

stali

I

go.

However,

you

stay.

contrast

Another group of indicators are called “evidentials”. Evidentials show the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include za'a (I directly observe the relationship), pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds), ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use this kind of words.

Example 2.85.

pe'i

do

cu

melbi

I opine!

You

are beautiful.

Example 2.86.

za'a

do

cu

melbi

I directly observe!

You

are beautiful.

Tenses

In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence

Example 2.87.

John went to the store

necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas

Example 2.88.

John is going to the store

is necessarily happening right now.

The Lojban sentence

Example 2.89.

la djan.

cu

klama

le zarci

John

goes/went/will-go

to-the store

serves as a translation of either Example 2.87, “ ” or Example 2.88, “ ”, and of many other possible English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translation of Example 2.87, “ ” would be:

Example 2.90.

la djan.

pu

klama

le zarci

John

[past]

goes

to-the store

where the tag pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. Similarly,

Example 2.91.

la djan.

ca

klama

le zarci

John

[present]

goes

to-the store

necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri, just after the cu, and they may make a cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is picked up from context.

Lojban also extends the notion of “tense” to refer not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag vu to specify that the event it describes happens far away from the speaker:

Example 2.92.

do

vu vecnu

zo'e

You

yonder sell

something-unspecified.

In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:

Example 2.93.

le pu bajra

ku

cu

tavla

The earlier/former/past runner

talked/talks.

(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)

Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of “this” or “that” as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses the tag vi meaning “nearby”:

Example 2.94.

le vi bajra

ku

cu

tavla

The nearby runner

talks.

This runner talks.

Do not confuse the use of vi in Example 2.94, “ ” with the cmavo ti, which also means “this”, but in the sense of “this thing”.

Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in the following example (where ba is the tag for future time):

Example 2.95.

le vi tavla

ku

cu

ba klama

The here talker

[future] goes.

The talker who is here will go.

This talker will go.

Lojban grammatical terms

Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like “indicator” in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.

bridi:

predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship, or that some single object has some property.

sumti:

argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See Chapter 6, To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti.

selbri:

logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri.

cmavo:

one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.

brivla:

one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predicate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology.

gismu:

a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology.

lujvo:

a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology and Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures.

fu'ivla:

a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have associated rafsi. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology.

rafsi:

a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology.

tanru:

a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri.

selma'o:

a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can appear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but differ in meaning or other usage. See Chapter 20, A Catalogue of selma'o.

Chapter 3. The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban

Orthography

Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as “audio-visual isomorphism”.

Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters and symbols:

'

,

.

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

i

j

k

l

m

n

o

p

r

s

t

u

v

x

y

z

omitting the letters “h”, “q”, and “w”.

The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilitated.

Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name “Josephine”, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as DJOsefin., pronounced ['dʒosɛfinʔ]. (See the section called “Basic Phonetics” for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.

Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.

Basic Phonetics

Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word “cat” is pronounced (in General American pronunciation) [kæt]. the section called “IPA For English Speakers” contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.

The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except r the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for r, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable.

Letter

IPA

X-SAMPA

Description

'

[h]

[h]

an unvoiced glottal spirant

,

-

-

the syllable separator

.

[ʔ]

[?]

a glottal stop or a pause

a

[a], [ɑ]

[a], [A]

an open vowel

b

[b]

[b]

a voiced bilabial stop

c

[ʃ], [ʂ]

[S], [s`]

an unvoiced coronal sibilant

d

[d]

[d]

a voiced dental/alveolar stop

e

[ɛ], [e]

[E], [e]

a front mid vowel

f

[f], [ɸ]

[f], [p\]

an unvoiced labial fricative

g

[ɡ]

[g]

a voiced velar stop

i

[i]

[i]

a front close vowel

j

[ʒ], [ʐ]

[Z], [z`]

a voiced coronal sibilant

k

[k]

[k]

an unvoiced velar stop

l

[l], [l̩]

[l], [l=]

a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic)

m

[m], [m̩]

[m], [m=]

a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic)

n

[n], [n̩], [ŋ], [ŋ̍]

[n], [n=], [N], [N=]

a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic)

o

[o], [ɔ]

[o], [O]

a back mid vowel

p

[p]

[p]

an unvoiced bilabial stop

r

[r], [ɹ], [ɾ], [ʀ], [r̩], [ɹ̩], [ɾ̩], [ʀ̩]

[r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=], [r\=], [4=], [R\=]

a rhotic sound

s

[s]

[s]

an unvoiced alveolar sibilant

t

[t]

[t]

an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop

u

[u]

[u]

a back close vowel

v

[v], [β]

[v], [B]

a voiced labial fricative

x

[x]

[x]

an unvoiced velar fricative

y

[ə]

[@]

a central mid vowel

z

[z]

[z]

a voiced alveolar sibilant

The Lojban sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each other. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pronunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory rules on the range of sounds.

Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically o and u are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round y as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following i may cause it.

The sounds represented by the letters c, g, j, s, and x require special attention for speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English ( c, g, s), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban ( c, j, x). The English “c” represents three different sounds, [k] in “cat” and [s] in “cent”, as well as the [ʃ] of “ocean”. Similarly, English “g” can represent [ɡ] as in “go”, [dʒ] as in “gentle”, and [ʒ] as in the second "g" in “garage” (in some pronunciations). English “s” can be either [s] as in “cats”, [z] as in “cards”, [ʃ] as in “tension”, or [ʒ] as in “measure”. The sound of Lojban x doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.

There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not Lojban consonants: the “ch” of “church” and the “j” of “judge”. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants: tc (IPA [tʃ]) and dj (IPA [dʒ]). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views “ts” as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.

The Special Lojban Characters

The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:

The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English “h”, (IPA [h]). The letter “h” is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.

The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.

As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA [θ] is one possibility. The convenience of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for [h].

The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal stop (IPA [ʔ]) is considered a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and in certain cases – explained in detail in the section called “Rules for inserting pauses” – must occur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always followed by a pause.

Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.

A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.

The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word into two words.

Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabic l, m, n, or r (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.

Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as “ee-i-ee-i-o” in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:

Example 3.1.

- .i.ai.i.ai.o

- [ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]

- Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!

However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although Example 3.1, “ ” is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)

If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:

Example 3.2.

- .i,ai,i,ai,on.

- [ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]

The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.

However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like

Example 3.3.

- .i,iai,ii,iai,ion.

which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent with Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the ability of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will not affect the recognition of word boundaries.

Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojbanic counterparts.)

If apostrophes were used instead of commas in Example 3.2, “ ”, it would appear as:

Example 3.4.

- .i'ai'i'ai'on.

- [ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]

which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.

Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA [w]) or palatal (IPA [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.

For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.

The six Lojban vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel y has a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like English “uh” or “er”).

The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters: ai may be pronounced [ɑj], for example.)

Letters

IPA

Description

ai

[aj]

an open vowel with palatal off-glide

ei

[ɛj]

a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide

oi

[oj]

a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide

au

[aw]

an open vowel with labial off-glide

ia

[ja]

an open vowel with palatal on-glide

ie

[jɛ]

a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide

ii

[ji]

a front close vowel with palatal on-glide

io

[jo]

a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide

iu

[ju]

a back close vowel with palatal on-glide

ua

[wa]

an open vowel with labial on-glide

ue

[wɛ]

a front mid vowel with labial on-glide

ui

[wi]

a front close vowel with labial on-glide

uo

[wo]

a back mid vowel with labial on-glide

uu

[wu]

a back close vowel with labial on-glide

iy

[jə]

a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide

uy

[wə]

a central mid vowel with labial on-glide

(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see the section called “English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs” for examples.)

The first four diphthongs above ( ai, ei, oi, and au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two ( iy and uy) are used only in Lojbanized names.

The syllabic consonants of Lojban, [l̩], [m̩], [n̩], and [r̩], are variants of the non-syllabic [l], [m], [n], and [r] respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any l, m, n, or r may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a l, m, n, or r that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:

Example 3.5.

- brlgan.

- [br̩l gan]

- [brl̩ gan]

is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.

Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is rl., which is an approximation of the English name “Earl”, and has two syllabic consonants.

Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see the section called “Syllabication And Stress”).

Vowel Pairs

Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the [h] sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).

All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.

The Lojban vowel pairs are:

a'a

a'e

a'i

a'o

a'u

a'y

e'a

e'e

e'i

e'o

e'u

e'y

i'a

i'e

i'i

i'o

i'u

i'y

o'a

o'e

o'i

o'o

o'u

o'y

u'a

u'e

u'i

u'o

u'u

u'y

y'a

y'e

y'i

y'o

y'u

y'y

Vowel pairs involving y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only .y'y. is so used – it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see the section called “A to Z in Lojban, plus one”).

When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:

Example 3.6.

- meiin.

- mei,in.

Example 3.6, “ ” contains the diphthong ei followed by the vowel i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to:

Example 3.7.

- me,iin.

which contains the vowel e followed by the diphthong ii. In rough English representation, Example 3.6, “ ” is “May Een”, whereas Example 3.7, “ ” is “Meh Yeen”.

Consonant Clusters

A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.

An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:

UNVOICED

VOICED

p

b

t

d

k

g

f

v

c

j

s

z

x

-

The consonant x has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining consonants, l, m, n, and r, are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.

Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like [s] in English “hiss”, or repeated like [k] in English “backcourt”. Consonant clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanized names.

Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing a “t” between vowels into a “d” or even an alveolar tap (IPA [ɾ]) is unacceptable in Lojban.

Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consonants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syllabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.

Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following restrictions:

1. It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this would violate the rule against double consonants.

2. It is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The consonants l, m, n, and r are exempt from this restriction. As a result, bf is forbidden, and so is sd, but both fl and vl, and both ls and lz, are permitted.

3. It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set c, j, s, z.

4. The specific pairs cx, kx, xc, xk, and mz are forbidden.

These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a y can be inserted to break up the pair:

Example 3.8.

- djeimyz.

- [dʒɛj məzʔ]

- James

The regular English pronunciation of “James”, which is [dʒɛjmz], would Lojbanize as djeimz., which contains a forbidden consonant pair.

Initial Consonant Pairs

The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in the section called “Consonant Clusters”. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.

There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:

bl

br

cf

ck

cl

cm

cn

cp

cr

ct

dj

dr

dz

fl

fr

gl

gr

jb

jd

jg

jm

jv

kl

kr

ml

mr

pl

pr

sf

sk

sl

sm

sn

sp

sr

st

tc

tr

ts

vl

vr

xl

xr

zb

zd

zg

zm

zv

Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoiced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in learning:

pl

pr

fl

fr

bl

br

vl

vr

cp

cf

ct

ck

cm

cn

cl

cr

jb

jv

jd

jg

jm

sp

sf

st

sk

sm

sn

sl

sr

zb

zv

zd

zg

zm

tc

tr

ts

kl

kr

dj

dr

dz

gl

gr

ml

mr

xl

xr

Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true: cn is a permissible initial pair, but jn is not.)

Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are subject to the following rules:

1. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair;

2. The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair;

3. The triples ndj, ndz, ntc, and nts are forbidden.

Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is valid.

Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA [ɪ], [ɨ], [ʊ], or even [ʏ], but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use [ɪ] in this chapter) are:

Example 3.9.

- vrusi

- [ˈvru si]

- [vɪ ˈru si]

Example 3.10.

- .AMsterdam.

- [ʔam ster damʔ]

- [ˈʔa mɪ sɪ tɛ rɪ da mɪʔ]

When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.

Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:

Example 3.11.

- klama

- [ˈkla ma]

- [kɪ ˈla ma]

Example 3.12.

- xapcke

- [ˈxap ʃkɛ]

- [ˈxa pɪ ʃkɛ]

- [ˈxa pɪ ʃɪ kɛ]

In Example 3.12, “ ”, we see that buffering vowels can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the second pronunciation buffers the pc consonant pair but not the ck. The third pronunciation buffers both.

Example 3.13.

- ponyni'u

- [po nə 'ni hu]

Example 3.13, “ ” cannot contain any buffering vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel y, which is pronounced [ə], with the buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contrast between

Example 3.14.

- bongynanba

- [boŋ gə ˈnan ba]

an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning “bone bread” (note the use of [ŋ] as a representative of n before g) and

Example 3.15.

- bongnanba

- [boŋ ˈgnan ba]

a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can only take a limited form). If Example 3.15, “ ” were pronounced with buffering, as

Example 3.16.

- [boŋ gɪ ˈnan ba]

it would be very similar to Example 3.14, “ ”. Only a clear distinction between y and any buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.

Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have trouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this guideline, Example 3.16, “ ” would be pronounced

Example 3.17.

- [boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]

with lengthened vowels.

Syllabication And Stress

A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as “vowels” for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.

A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.

It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.

Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:

Example 3.18.

- pujenaicajeba

- pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba

This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.

Example 3.19.

- ninmu

- nin,mu

This word is split at a consonant pair.

Example 3.20.

- fitpri

- fit,pri

This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.

Example 3.21.

- sairgoi

- sair,goi

- sai,r,goi

This word contains the consonant pair rg; the r may be pronounced syllabically or not.

Example 3.22.

- klezba

- klez,ba

- kle,zba

This word contains the permissible initial pair zb, and so may be syllabicated either between z and b or before zb.

Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel sound itself, the terms “stressed syllable” and “stressed vowel” are largely interchangeable concepts.

Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is y or which contain a syllabic consonant ( l, m, n, or r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as [ɪ], are not counted.

There are actually three levels of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.

Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.

Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.

The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:

Example 3.23.

- dikyjvo

- DI,ky,jvo

(In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be: ['di kə ʒɪ vo].) Note that the syllable ky is not counted in determining stress. The vowel y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.

Example 3.24.

- .armstrong.

- .ARM,strong.

This is a Lojbanized version of the name “Armstrong”. The final g must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced:

Example 3.25.

- [ˈʔa rɪ mɪ sɪ tɪ ro nɪ gɪʔ]

However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible place just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on the first syllable.

The English pronunciation of “Armstrong”, as spelled in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters “ng” in English represent a velar nasal (IPA [ŋ]) which is a single consonant. In Lojban, ng represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use [ŋ] to pronounce Lojban ng, although [ŋg] is acceptable. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the following:

Example 3.26.

- [ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]

- [ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]

- [ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]

The normal English pronunciation of the name “Armstrong” could be Lojbanized as:

Example 3.27.

- .ARMstron.

since Lojban n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal [ŋ].

Here is another example showing the use of y:

Example 3.28.

- bisydja

- BI,sy,dja

- BI,syd,ja

This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes bis and dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant pair results: sd. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in the section called “The lujvo-making algorithm”, a y is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant pair; the y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress determination.

Example 3.29.

- da'udja

- da'UD,ja

- da'U,dja

These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener – the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recognizing the word.

Example 3.30.

- e'u bridi

- e'u BRI,di

- E'u BRI,di

- e'U.BRI,di

In Example 3.30, “ ”, e'u is a cmavo and bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the cmavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:

Example 3.31.

- le re nobli prenu

- le re NObli PREnu

Example 3.32.

- le re no bliprenu

- le re no bliPREnu

If the cmavo no in Example 3.32, “ ” were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of Example 3.31, “ ”, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.

IPA For English Speakers

There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.

[ˈ]

An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follows [ˈ] receives primary stress.

[ʔ]

An allowed variant of Lojban .. This sound is not usually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it is used between vowels instead of “t”: “bottle” [boʔl̩]. The English interjection “uh-oh!” almost always has it between the syllables.

[ː]

A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoken for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in order to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels.

[a]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban a. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the “ar” of “park”, as spoken in RP or New England American. It is pronounced further forward in the mouth than [ɑ].

[ɑ]

An allowed variant of Lojban a. The “a” of GA “father”. The sound [a] is preferred because GA speakers often relax an unstressed [ɑ] into a schwa [ə], as in the usual pronunciations of “about” and “sofa”. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban, English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use [a] instead: the Lojban word for “sofa” is sfofa, pronounced [sfofa] or [sfofɑ] but never [sfofə] which would be the non-word sfofy.

[æ]

Not a Lojban sound. The “a” of English “cat”.

[b]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban b. As in English “boy”, “sober”, or “job”.

[β]

An allowed variant of Lojban v. Not an English sound; the Spanish “b” or “v” between vowels. This sound should not be used for Lojban b.

[d]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban d. As in English “dog”, “soda”, or “mad”.

[ɛ]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban e. The “e” of English “met”.

[e]

An allowed variant of Lojban e. This sound is not found in English, but is the Spanish “e”, or the tense «e» of Italian. The vowel of English “say” is similar except for the off-glide: you can learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the first part of the English vowel.

[ə]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban y. As in the “a” of English “sofa” or “about”. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, as it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in the middle of the mouth.

[f]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban f. As in “fee”, “loafer”, or “chef”.

[ɸ]

An allowed variant of Lojban f. Not an English sound; the Japanese “f” sound.

[g]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban g. As in English “go”, “eagle”, or “dog”.

[h]

The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound. As in English “aha” or the second "h" in “oh, hello”.

[i]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban i. Essentially like the English vowel of “pizza” or “machine”, although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.

[ɪ]

A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The “i” of English “bit”.

[ɨ]

A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The “u” of “just” in some varieties of GA, those which make the word sound more or less like “jist”. Also Russian «y» as in «byt'» (to be); like a schwa [ə], but higher in the mouth.

[j]

Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with i. Like the “y” in English “yard” or “say”.

[k]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban k. As in English “kill”, “token”, or “flak”.

[l]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban l. As in English “low”, “nylon”, or “excel”.

[l̩]

The syllabic version of Lojban l, as in English “bottle” or “middle”.

[m]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban m. As in English “me”, “humor”, or “ham”.

[m̩]

The syllabic version of Lojban m. As in English “catch 'em” or “bottom”.

[n]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban n. As in English no, “honor”, or “son”.

[n̩]

The syllabic version of Lojban n. As in English “button”.

[ŋ]

An allowed variant of Lojban n, especially in Lojbanized names and before g or k. As in English “sing” or “singer” (but not “finger” or “danger”).

[ŋ̍]

An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic n, especially in Lojbanized names.

[o]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban o. As in the French « haute (cuisine) » or Spanish “como”. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the “o” of “dough” or “joke”, but it is essential that the off-glide (a [w]-like sound) at the end of the vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words is [əw] in IPA terms, and has no [o] in it at all; unless you can speak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with this sound.

[ɔ]

An allowed variant of Lojban o, especially before r. This sound is a shortened form of the “aw” in GA “dawn” (for those people who don't pronounce “dawn” and “Don” alike; if you do, you may have trouble with this sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the “o” of “hot”.

[p]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban p. As in English “pay”, “super”, or “up”.

[r]

One version of Lojban r. Not an English sound. The Spanish “rr” and the Scots “r”, a tongue-tip trill.

[ɹ]

One version of Lojban r. As in GA “right”, “baron”, or “car”. Not found in RP.

[ɾ]

One version of Lojban r. In GA, appears as a variant of “t” or “d” in the words “metal” and “medal” respectively. A tongue-tip flap.

[ʀ]

One version of Lojban r. Not an English sound. The French or German « r » in « reine » or „rot“ respectively. A uvular trill.

[r̩], [ɹ̩], [ɾ̩], [ʀ̩]

are syllabic versions of the above. [ɹ̩] appears in the GA (but not RP) pronunciation of “bird”.

[s]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban s. As in English “so”, “basin”, or “yes”.

[ʃ]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban c. The “sh” of English “ship”, “ashen”, or “dish”.

[ʂ]

An allowed variant of Lojban s. Not an English sound. The Hindi retroflex “s” with dot below, or Klingon “S”.

[t]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban t. As in English “tea”, “later”, or “not”. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pronouncing the “t” between vowels as [d] or [ɾ].

[θ]

Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Lojban '. The “th” of English “thin” (but not “then”).

[v]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban v. As in English “voice”, “savor”, or “live”.

[w]

Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with u. Like the “w” in English “wet” [wɛt] or “cow” [kɑw].

[x]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban x. Not normally an English sound, but used in some pronunciations of “loch” and “Bach”; “gh” in Scots “might” and “night”. The German „Ach-Laut“. To pronounce [x], force air through your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape.

[ʏ]

A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the „ü“ of German „hübsch“.

[z]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban z. As in English “zoo”, “hazard”, or “fizz”.

[ʒ]

The preferred pronunciation of Lojban j. The “si” of English “vision”, or the consonant at the end of GA “garage”.

[ʐ]

An allowed variant of Lojban z. Not an English sound. The voiced version of [ʂ].

English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.

Lojban

English

ai

“  pie”

ei

“  pay”

oi

“  boy”

au

“  cow”

ia

“  yard”

ie

“  yes”

ii

“  ye”

io

“  yodel” (in GA only)

iu

“unicorn” or “  few”

ua

“  suave”

ue

“  wet”

ui

“  we”

uo

“  woe” (in GA only)

uu

“  woo”

iy

“million” (the “  io” part, that is)

uy

“  was” (when unstressed)

Oddball Orthographies

The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.

There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that x is replaced by h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:

- ai, ei, oi, au become ai, ei, oi, ao.

- ia through iu and ua through uu remain unchanged.

- a'i, e'i, o'i and a'o become a,i, e,i, o,i and a,o.

- i'a through i'u and u'a through u'u are changed to ia through iu and ua through uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become i,a through i,u and u,a through u,u in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.

- All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.

The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogether, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In addition, names and the cmavo i are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed syllable.

Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography:

- It is not standard, and has not been used.

- It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phonology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different written form.

- It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.

There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the “а”, “б”, “в”, “г”, “д”, “е”, “ж”, “з”, “и”, “к”, “л”, “м”, “н”, “о”, “п”, “р”, “с”, “т”, “у”, “ф”, “х”, and “ш” in the obvious ways. The Latin letter “y” is mapped onto the hard sign “ъ”, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and period are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman representation.

Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of Féanor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to The Lord Of The Rings, has been devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, the tincotéma and parmatéma are used in the conventional ways; the calmatéma represents palatal consonants, and the quessetéma represents velar consonants.

tinco

t

calma

-

ando

d

anga

-

thule

-

harma

c

anto

-

anca

j

numen

n

noldo

-

ore

r

anna

i

parma

p

quesse

k

umbar

b

ungwe

g

formen

f

hwesta

x

ampa

v

unque

-

malta

m

nwalme

-

vala

u

vilya

-

The letters “vala” and “anna” are used for u and i only when those letters are used to represent glides. Of the additional letters, r, l, s, and z are written with “rómen”, “lambe”, “silme”, and “áre”/ “esse” respectively; the inverted forms are used as free variants.

Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are read as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehtar are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by “halla”. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period.

Chapter 4. The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology

Introductory

Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like “boys” as the plural of “boy”, or “walked” as the past-tense form of “walk”. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.

However, Lojban does have what is called “derivational morphology”: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.

A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called “morphology rules” are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.

1. V represents any single Lojban vowel except y; that is, it represents a, e, i, o, or u.

2. VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:

ai

ei

oi

au

or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:

a'a

a'e

a'i

a'o

a'u

e'a

e'e

e'i

e'o

e'u

i'a

i'e

i'i

i'o

i'u

o'a

o'e

o'i

o'o

o'u

u'a

u'e

u'i

u'o

u'u

3. C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of b, c, d, f, g, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, x, or z . Syllabic l, m, n, and r always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.

4. CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:

bl br

cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct

dj dr dz

fl fr

gl gr

jb jd jg jm jv

kl kr

ml mr

pl pr

sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st

tc tr ts

vl vr

xl xr

zb zd zg zm zv

5. C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in the section called “Consonant Clusters”. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.

6. C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.

Lojban has three basic word classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.

They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure words, corresponding to English words like “and”, “if”, “the” and “to”; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like “come”, “red”, “doctor”, and “freely”; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English “James”, “Afghanistan”, and “Pope John Paul II”.

cmavo

The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as selma'o, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri to Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts and summarized in Chapter 20, A Catalogue of selma'o.

Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:

V-form

.a

.e

.i

.o

.u

CV-form

ba

ce

di

fo

gu

VV-form

.au

.ei

.ia

o'u

u'e

CVV-form

ki'a

pei

mi'o

coi

cu'u

In addition, there is the cmavo .y. (remember that y is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.

A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are ku'a'e, sau'e, and bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter x are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.

“Experimental use” means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.

The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in the section called “Introductory”, but also the following ten additional diphthongs:

.ia

.ie

.ii

.io

.iu

.ua

.ue

.ui

.uo

.uu

In addition, cmavo can have the form Cy, a consonant followed by the letter y. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 17, As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses.

Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.

Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:

1. They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and

2. They end in a vowel.

For example:

Example 4.1.

.iseci'i

.i se ci'i

Example 4.2.

punaijecanai

pu nai je ca nai

Example 4.3.

ki'e.u'e

ki'e .u'e

The cmavo u'e begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,

Example 4.4.

ki'e'u'e

is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.

Example 4.5.

cy.ibu.abu

cy. .ibu .abu

Again the pauses are required (see the section called “Rules for inserting pauses”); the pause after cy. merges with the pause before .ibu.

There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is

Example 4.6.

- .e'o ko ko kurji

- .E'o ko ko KURji

This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.

If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus

Example 4.7.

le

re

nanmu

can be optionally pronounced

Example 4.8.

- le RE. NANmu

since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on re, though, demands that a pause separate re from the following syllable nan to ensure that the stress on nan is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation

Example 4.9.

- LE re NANmu

is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to le, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase “THE two men”. In Example 4.8, “ ”, the secondary stress on re would be similar to that in the English phrase “the TWO men”.

Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:

Example 4.10.

- le re NANmu

This would probably be the most common usage.

brivla

Predicate words, called brivla, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.

Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word – all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.

The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts “on the fly”; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.

All brivla have the following properties:

1. always end in a vowel;

2. always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where y and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose (see the section called “rafsi”.);

3. always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syllable; this implies that they have two or more syllables.

The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus da'amei must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair; lojban. must be a name because it lacks a final vowel.

Thus, bisycla has the consonant pair sc in the first five non- y letters even though the sc actually appears in the form of sy.. Similarly, the word ro'inre'o contains nr in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.

The three subtypes of brivla are:

1. gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;

2. lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and

3. fu'ivla (literally “copy-word”), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.

gismu

The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like cmavo and gismu themselves).

The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.

There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.

All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventions defined in the section called “Introductory”, all gismu are of the forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in the section called “brivla”; furthermore, they:

1. always have five letters;

2. always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;

3. always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);

4. are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penultimate).

The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains '.

With the exception of five special brivla variables, broda, brode, brodi, brodo, and brodu, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because gismu is in the set of gismu, kismu, xismu, gicmu, gizmu, and gisnu cannot be.

Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See the section called “The gismu creation algorithm” for a full explanation of the algorithm.

Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):

Example 4.11.

creka

shirt

Example 4.12.

lijda

religion

Example 4.13.

blanu

blue

Example 4.14.

mamta

mother

Example 4.15.

cukta

book

Example 4.16.

patfu

father

Example 4.17.

nanmu

man

Example 4.18.

ninmu

woman

A small number of gismu were formed differently; see the section called “Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu” for a list.

lujvo

When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of “metaphor” used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,

Example 4.19.

skami

pilno

is the tanru which expresses the concept of “computer user”.

The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.

The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous: skami pilno could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.

Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri.

To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor “big boat” becomes the tanru

Example 4.20.

barda

bloti

representing roughly the same concept as the English word “ship”.

The binary metaphor “father mother” can refer to a paternal grandmother ( “a father-ly type of mother”), while “mother father” can refer to a maternal grandfather ( “a mother-ly type of father”). In Lojban, these become the tanru

Example 4.21.

patfu

mamta

and

Example 4.22.

mamta

patfu

respectively.

The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret Example 4.22, “ ”, the listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an appropriate context, mamta patfu could mean not “grandfather” but simply “father with some motherly attributes”, depending on the culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not needed.

When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For Example 4.19, “ ”, we would probably choose “user of computers”, and form the new word

Example 4.23.

sampli

Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a lujvo. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of Example 4.20, “ ”, would be:

Example 4.24.

bralo'i

big-boat

ship

The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called rafsi in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called “hyphen” letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.

The lujvo that can be built from the tanru mamta patfu in Example 4.22, “ ” is

Example 4.25.

mampa'u

which refers specifically to the concept “maternal grandfather”. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in mampa'u by the rafsi mam- and -pa'u, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form mampa'u.

Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word brivla, built from the tanru bridi valsi, is the same lujvo as brivalsi, bridyvla, and bridyvalsi, each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.

When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding y and '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.

A y (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in the section called “rafsi”.

An r (in some cases, an n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo

Example 4.26.

soirsai

sonci sanmi

soldier meal

field rations

the rafsi soi- and -sai are joined, with the additional r making up the rs consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the r, the word would break up into soi sai, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.

Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.

Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.

rafsi

Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo – whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing – subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see the section called “The lujvo scoring algorithm”).

Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called “the 5-letter rafsi”), and CVC/C or CCVC (called “the 4-letter rafsi”) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as “long rafsi”, they are called “unreduced lujvo”.

Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:

Example 4.27.

mamtypatfu

mamta patfu

“mother father”

or   “maternal grandfather”

Example 4.28.

lerfyliste

lerfu liste

“letter list” or a “list of letters”

(letters of the alphabet)

Example 4.29.

nancyprali

nanca prali

“year profit”

or   “annual profit”

Example 4.30.

prunyplipe

pruni plipe

“elastic (springy) leap”

or   “spring” (the verb)

Example 4.31.

vancysanmi

vanci sanmi

“evening meal”

or   “supper”

In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.

For example, zmadu ( “more than”) has the two short rafsi zma and mau (in addition to its unreduced rafsi zmad and zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on zmadu, corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in “-er” such as “whiter” (Lojban labmau). On the other hand, bakri ( “chalk”) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.

There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.

The intention was to use the available “rafsi space”- the set of all possible short rafsi forms – in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used, as explained above).

Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form CVC/CV, like sakli. The digits in the second column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.

CVC

123

-sak-

CVC

124

-sal-

CVV

12'5

-sa'i-

CVV

125

-sai-

CCV

345

-kli-

CCV

132

-ska-

(The only actual short rafsi for sakli is -sal-.)

For gismu of the form CCVCV, like blaci, the only short rafsi forms that can exist are:

CVC

134

-bac-

CVC

234

-lac

CVV

13'5

-ba'i-

CVV

135

-bai-

CVV

23'5

-la'i-

CVV

235

-lai-

CCV

123

-bla-

(In fact, blaci has none of these short rafsi; they are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen in the first place.)

There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs ai, ei, oi, or au; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see the section called “Introductory”). Thus mamta, which has the same form as salci, can only have mam, mat, and ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact, only mam is assigned to it.

Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru.

The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is “fully reduced lujvo”. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:

Example 4.32.

cumfri

cumki lifri

“possible experience”

Example 4.33.

klezba

klesi zbasu

“category make”

Example 4.34.

kixta'a

krixa tavla

“cry-out talk”

Example 4.35.

sniju'o

sinxa djuno

“sign know”

In addition, the unreduced forms in Example 4.27, “ ” and Example 4.28, “ ” may be fully reduced to:

Example 4.36.

mampa'u

mamta patfu

“mother father”

or   “maternal grandfather”

Example 4.37.

lerste

lerfu liste

“letter list” or a “list of letters”

As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters – this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.

When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term “hyphen” always refers to a letter, either the vowel y or one of the consonants r and n. (The letter l can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)

The y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).

Thus, the tanru pante tavla ( “protest talk”) cannot produce the lujvo patta'a, because tt is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be patyta'a. Similarly, the tanru mudri siclu ( “wooden whistle”) cannot form the lujvo mudsiclu; instead, mudysiclu must be used. (Remember that y is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)

The y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in Example 4.27, “ ” to Example 4.31, “ ”.)

The lujvo forms zunlyjamfu, zunlyjma, zuljamfu, and zuljma are all legitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru zunle jamfu ( “left foot”). Of these, zuljma is the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary.

The r-hyphen and its close relative, the n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.

An r-hyphen or n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.

An n-hyphen is only used in place of an r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with r. For example, the tanru rokci renro ( “rock throw”) cannot be expressed as ro'ire'o (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be ro'irre'o (which has an impermissible double consonant); the n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as rokre'o.

There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo zei. Thus,

Example 4.38.

bridi zei valsi

is the exact equivalent of brivla (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru bridi valsi, which could have other meanings.) Using zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:

Example 4.39.

xy. zei kantu

X ray

Example 4.40.

kulnr,farsi zei lolgai

Farsi floor-cover

Persian rug

Example 4.41.

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma

non-A, non-B liver-disease

non-A, non-B hepatitis

Example 4.42.

.cerman. zei jamkarce

Sherman war-car

Sherman tank

Example 4.41, “ ” is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the zeis from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a zei between by. and livgyterbilma to produce

Example 4.43.

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma

non-A-non-B-hepatitis

the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of Example 4.43, “ ” may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of bilma, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.

Note that rafsi may not be used in zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.

fu'ivla

The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g. “brie” or “cobra”), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g. “quark”, “integral”, or “iambic pentameter”). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually “copied”) into Lojban from the original language.

There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo la'o (explained in full in the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”):

Example 4.44.

me

la'o

ly.

spaghetti

.ly.

is a predicate with the place structure “x1 is a quantity of spaghetti”.

Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in the section called “cmene”:

Example 4.45.

me

la

spagetis.

One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)

Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart.

The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of fu'ivla.

Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See the section called “rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal” for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)

The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is “borrowed” (actually “copied”, hence the Lojban tanru fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojbanized – the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:

1. must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair: spraile is acceptable, but not ktraile or trkaile;

2. must end in one or more vowels;

3. must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called “slinku'i test”, not discussed further in this book);

4. cannot contain y, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;

5. like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.

Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.

This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within “fu'ivla space”. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.

Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:

1. Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.

2. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban y, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.

3. If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a suggestively chosen final vowel.

4. If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.

5. Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a “topic area”. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an r-hyphen; if that would produce a double r, use an n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in r and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with n (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an l-hyphen. (This is the only use of l-hyphen in Lojban.)

Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.

6. Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.

In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.

Here are a few examples:

Example 4.46.

spaghetti   from English or Italian

spageti   Lojbanize

cidj,r,spageti   prefix long rafsi

dja,r,spageti   prefix short rafsi

where cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for cidja, the Lojban gismu for “food”, thus categorizing cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.

Example 4.47.

Acer   the scientific name of maple trees

acer   Lojbanize

xaceru   add initial consonant and final vowel

tric,r,xaceru   prefix rafsi

ric,r,xaceru   prefix short rafsi

where tric- and ric- are rafsi for tricu, the gismu for “tree”. Note that by the same principles, “maple sugar” could get the fu'ivla saktrxaceru, or could be represented by the tanru tricrxaceru sakta. Technically, ricrxaceru and tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.

Example 4.48.

brie   from French

bri   Lojbanize

cirl,r,bri   prefix rafsi

where cirl- represents cirla ( “cheese”).

Example 4.49.

cobra

kobra   Lojbanize

sinc,r,kobra   prefix rafsi

where sinc- represents since ( “snake”).

Example 4.50.

quark

kuark   Lojbanize

kuarka   add final vowel

sask,r,kuarka   prefix rafsi

where sask- represents saske ( “science”). Note the extra vowel a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong ua, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.

Example 4.51.

자모   from Korean

djamo   Lojbanize

lerf,r,djamo   prefix rafsi

ler,l,djamo   prefix rafsi

where ler- represents lerfu ( “letter”). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".

The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens, spageti and kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but xaceru looks like a compound cmavo, and kobra like a gismu.

For another example, “integral” has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla integrale, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source – the English word “integral” – has various other specialized meanings in other fields.

Left uncontrolled, integrale almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with “integral”, with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.

The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as cmacrntegrale, if the i of integrale is removed, or something like cmacrnintegrale, if a new consonant is added to the beginning; cmac- is the rafsi for cmaci ( “mathematics”). The architectural sense of “integral” might be conveyed with djinrnintegrale or tarmrnintegrale, where dinju and tarmi mean “building” and “form” respectively.

Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:

Example 4.52.

bang,r,blgaria

Bulgarian   in language

Example 4.53.

kuln,r,blgaria

Bulgarian   in culture

Example 4.54.

gugd,r,blgaria

Bulgaria   the country

Example 4.55.

bang,r,kore,a

Korean   the language

Example 4.56.

kuln,r,kore,a

Korean   the culture

Note the commas in Example 4.55, “ ” and Example 4.56, “ ”, used because ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name “Chosen” should have been used instead of the internationally known “Korea”; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding: “Navajo” is far more widely known than “Dine'e”.

cmene

Lojbanized names, called cmene, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.

Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:

Example 4.57.

djim.

Jim

Example 4.58.

djein.

Jane

Example 4.59.

.arnold.

Arnold

Example 4.60.

pit.

Pete

Example 4.61.

katrinas.

Katrina

Example 4.62.

kat,r,in.

Catherine

(Note that syllabic r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so Example 4.62, “ ” is stressed on the ka.)

Example 4.63.

katis.

Cathy

Example 4.64.

keit.

Kate

Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,

Example 4.65.

djan. braun.

and

Example 4.66.

djanbraun.

are both valid Lojbanizations of “John Brown”.

The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name “Mary” can thus be Lojbanized as meris., maris., meiris., merix., or even marys.. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an s; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.

Names are not permitted to have the sequences la, lai, or doi embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the word before the la, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.

For example, the invalid name laplas. would look like the Lojban words la plas., and ilanas. would be misunderstood as .i la nas.. However,

- NEderlants.

cannot be misheard as

- NEder lants.

, because

- NEder

with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.

There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizing names, such as ly, lei, and dai or do'i, that do not cause these problems.

Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:

1. They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.

2. They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs iy and uy.

3. They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as ..

4. They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.

Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:

Example 4.67.

pav.

the One

from the cmavo pa, with rafsi pav, meaning “one”

Example 4.68.

sol.

the Sun

from the gismu solri, meaning “solar”, or actually “pertaining to the Sun”

Example 4.69.

ralj.

Chief   as a title

from the gismu ralju, meaning “principal”.

Example 4.70.

nol.

Lord/Lady

from the gismu nobli, with rafsi nol, meaning “noble”.

To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:

1. Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.

2. Add a final s or n (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.

3. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.

4. If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.

5. If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants: y is recommended.

6. No cmene may have the syllables la, lai, or doi in them, unless immediately preceded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something else. Possible substitutions include ly, ly'i, and dai or do'i, respectively.

There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as “Linnaean binomials” after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo la'o, explained in the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term “back vowel” in the following list refers to any of the letters a, o, or u; the term “front vowel” correspondingly refers to any of the letters e, i, or y.

1. Change double consonants other than cc to single consonants.

2. Change cc before a front vowel to kc, but otherwise to k.

3. Change c before a back vowel and final c to k.

4. Change ng before a consonant (other than h) and final ng to n.

5. Change x to z initially, but otherwise to ks.

6. Change pn to n initially.

7. Change final ie and ii to i.

8. Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:

aa

a

ae

e

ch

k

ee

i

eigh

ei

ew

u

igh

ai

oo

u

ou

u

ow

au

ph

f

q

k

sc

sk

w

u

y

i

However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables.

9. Change “h” between two vowels to ', but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the “h” seems essential, change it to x instead.

10. Place ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.

Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:

English

“  Mary”

meris. or   meiris.

English

“  Smith”

smit.

English

“  Jones”

djonz.

English

“  John”

djan. or jan. (American) or djon. or   jon. (British)

English

“  Alice”

.alis.

English

“  Elise”

.eLIS.

English

“  Johnson”

djansn.

English

“  William”

.uiliam. or   .uil,iam.

English

“  Brown”

braun.

English

“  Charles”

tcarlz.

French

“  Charles”

carl.

French

“  De Gaulle”

dyGOL.

German

“  Heinrich”

xainrix.

Spanish

“  Joaquin”

xuaKIN.

Russian

“  Svetlana”

sfietlanys.

Russian

“  Khrushchev”

xrucTCOF.

Hindi

“  Krishna”

kricnas.

Polish

“  Lech Walesa”

lex. va,uensas.

Spanish

“  Don Quixote”

don. kicotes. or modern Spanish: don. kixotes. or Mexican dialect:   don. ki'otes.

Chinese

“  Mao Zedong”

maudzydyn.

Japanese

“  Fujiko”

fudjikos. or   fujikos.

Rules for inserting pauses

Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:

1. Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.

2. Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmene.

3. Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.

4. Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immediately preceding word is one of the cmavo la, lai, la'i, or doi (which is why those strings are forbidden in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs.

5. If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).

6. A cmavo of the form “Cy” must be followed by a pause unless another “Cy”-form cmavo follows.

7. When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”.)

Considerations for making lujvo

Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in the section called “The lujvo-making algorithm”.

In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.

There are three other complications; only one is serious.

The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in the section called “The lujvo scoring algorithm” is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo – the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)

The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous – it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.

You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo za'e (explained in the section called “Contrastive emphasis: BAhE”) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.

The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.

The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.

Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.

This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the “right” to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.

If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.

And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri; abstraction is explained in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.

The lujvo-making algorithm

The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original “tosmabru test”.

Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:

1. Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cmavo in the tanru except the last.

2. Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for the final gismu in the tanru.

3. Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens.

4. Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.

1. If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an r-hyphen (or an n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an r-hyphen (or an n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example, saicli requires no hyphen). Use an r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is r, in which case use an n-hyphen. Never use an n-hyphen unless it is required.

2. Put a y-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.

3. Put a y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.

5. Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi – with the pattern “CVC ... CVC + X” – for “tosmabru failure”. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.

The test is as follows:

1. Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens.

These consonant pairs are called "joints”.

2. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed.

3. Install a y-hyphen at the first such joint.

Note that the “tosmabru test” implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.

The lujvo scoring algorithm

This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)

1. Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it L.

2. Count the number of apostrophes; call it A.

3. Count the number of y-, r-, and n-hyphens; call it H.

4. For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it R:

CVC/CV (final)

(  -sarji)

1

CVC/C

(  -sarj-)

2

CCVCV (final)

(  -zbasu)

3

CCVC

(  -zbas-)

4

CVC

(  -nun-)

5

CVV with an apostrophe

(  -ta'u-)

6

CCV

(  -zba-)

7

CVV with no apostrophe

(  -sai-)

8

5. Count the number of vowels, not including y; call it V.

The score is then:

(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V

In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.

Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):

Example 4.71.

zbasai

zba + sai

(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847

Example 4.72.

nunynau

nun + y + nau

(1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3 = 6967

Example 4.73.

sairzbata'u

sai + r + zba + ta'u

(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 = 10385

Example 4.74.

zbazbasysarji

zba + zbas + y + sarji

(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 = 12976

lujvo-making examples

This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru gerku zdani ( “dog house”) and construct a lujvo meaning “doghouse”, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in the section called “The lujvo scoring algorithm”, using every possible rafsi.

The rafsi for gerku are:

-ger-,

-ge'u-,

-gerk-,

-gerku

The rafsi for zdani are:

-zda-,

-zdan-,

-zdani.

Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use -ger-, -ge'u- and -gerk- as possible rafsi for gerku; Step 2 directs us to use -zda- and -zdani as possible rafsi for zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:

ger-zda

ger-zdani

ge'u-zda

ge'u-zdani

gerk-zda

gerk-zdani

We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation: ge cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with rz, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are gerzda and gerzdani.

The third form, ge'u-zda, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo.

The fourth form, ge'u-zdani, however, requires an r-hyphen; otherwise, the ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is ge'urzdani.

The last two forms require y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are gerkyzda and gerkyzdani respectively.

The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form gerzda.

For the next example, we will use the tanru bloti klesi ( “boat class”) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.

The rafsi for bloti are -lot-, -blo-, and -lo'i-; for klesi they are -kle- and -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:

lotkle

blokle

lo'ikle

lotlei

blolei

lo'irlei

Only lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:

lotkle

5878

blokle

5858

lo'ikle

6367

lotlei

5867

blolei

5847

lo'irlei

7456

So the form blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over blokle; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse; lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.

Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name from the tanru logji bangu girzu, or “logical-language group” in English. ( “The Logical Language Group” is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)

The available rafsi are -loj- and -logj-; -ban-, -bau-, and -bang-; and -gri- and -girzu, and (for name purposes only) -gir- and -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:

loj-ban-gri

loj-bau-gri

loj-bang-gri

logj-ban-gri

logj-bau-gri

logj-bang-gri

loj-ban-girzu

loj-bau-girzu

loj-bang-girzu

logj-ban-girzu

logj-bau-girzu

logj-bang-girzu

and the 12 name possibilities are:

loj-ban-gir

loj-bau-gir

loj-bang-gir

logj-ban-gir

logj-bau-gir

logj-bang-gir

loj-ban-girz

loj-bau-girz

loj-bang-girz

logj-ban-girz

logj-bau-girz

logj-bang-girz

After hyphenation, we have:

lojbangri

lojbaugri

lojbangygri

logjybangri

logjybaugri

logjybangygri

lojbangirzu

lojbaugirzu

lojbangygirzu

logjybangirzu

logjybaugirzu

logjybangygirzu

lojbangir

lojbaugir

lojbangygir

logjybangir

logjybaugir

logjybangygir

lojbangirz

lojbaugirz

lojbangygirz

logjybangirz

logjybaugirz

logjybangygirz

The only fully reduced lujvo forms are lojbangri and lojbaugri, of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for girzu, producing lojbangirz.

Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru nakni ke cinse ctuca or “male (sexual teacher)”. The ke cmavo ensures the interpretation “teacher of sexuality who is male”, rather than “teacher of male sexuality”. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:

nak-kem-cin-ctu

nakykemcinctu

nak-kem-cin-ctuca

nakykemcinctuca

nak-kem-cins-ctu

nakykemcinsyctu

nak-kem-cins-ctuca

nakykemcinsyctuca

nakn-kem-cin-ctu

naknykemcinctu

nakn-kem-cin-ctuca

naknykemcinctuca

nakn-kem-cins-ctu

naknykemcinsyctu

nakn-kem-cins-ctuca

naknykemcinsyctuca

Of these forms, nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for cinse ctuca (which would be cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify “male”, then the simpler tanru nakni cinctu ( “male sexual-teacher”) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the ke required for grouping need not be expressed.

The gismu creation algorithm

The gismu were created through the following process:

1. At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative ( tc became c, dj became j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.

2. All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:

1. If three or more letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the score was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letters, if any, did not matter.

2. If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutive in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the score was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score.

3. Otherwise, the score was 0.

3. The scores were divided by the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then multiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the proportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the language. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers.) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was the total score for the proposed gismu form.

4. Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were removed. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a conflict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu would have identical 4-letter rafsi.

More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too similar” based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was rejected.

proposed gismu

existing gismu

b

p,   v

c

j,   s

d

t

f

p,   v

g

k,   x

j

c,   z

k

g,   x

l

r

m

n

n

m

p

b,   f

r

l

s

c,   z

t

d

v

b,   f

x

g,   k

z

j,   s

See the section called “gismu” for an example.

5. The gismu form with the highest score usually became the actual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders (for example, the gismu gismu should have been gicmu, but it's too late to fix it now).

The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as follows:

Chinese

0.36

English

0.21

Hindi

0.16

Spanish

0.11

Russian

0.09

Arabic

0.07

reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were made much later using updated weights:

Chinese

0.347

Hindi

0.196

English

0.160

Spanish

0.123

Russian

0.089

Arabic

0.085

(English and Hindi switched places due to demographic changes.)

Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example, bradi, bredi, bridi, and brodi (but fortunately not brudi) are all existing gismu.

Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with brod-, they all end in the letter o, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.

The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.

broda

1st assignable predicate

brode

2nd assignable predicate

brodi

3rd assignable predicate

brodo

4th assignable predicate

brodu

5th assignable predicate

cmavo

structure word (from cmalu valsi)

lojbo

Lojbanic (from logji bangu)

lujvo

compound word (from pluja valsi)

mekso

Mathematical EXpression

It is important to understand that even though cmavo, lojbo, and lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, they are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gismu, both in grammar and in word formation.

The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn from the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recognized internationally.

Small metric prefixes (values less than 1):

decti

.1

deci

centi

.01

centi

milti

.001

milli

mikri

10  -6

micro

nanvi

10  -9

nano

picti

10  -12

pico

femti

10  -15

femto

xatsi

10  -18

atto

zepti

10  -21

zepto

gocti

10  -24

yocto

Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1):

dekto

10

deka

xecto

100

hecto

kilto

1000

kilo

megdo

10  6

mega

gigdo

10  9

giga

terto

10  12

tera

petso

10  15

peta

xexso

10  18

exa

zetro

10  21

zetta

gotro

10  24

yotta

Other scientific or mathematical terms:

delno

candela

kelvo

kelvin

molro

mole

radno

radian

sinso

sine

stero

steradian

tanjo

tangent

xampo

ampere

The gismu sinso and tanjo were only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).

Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words that have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or languages may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, which uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be based on the six major languages.

The six Lojban source languages:

jungo

Chinese (from “Zhong 1 guo 2”)

glico

English

xindo

Hindi

spano

Spanish

rusko

Russian

xrabo

Arabic

Seven other widely spoken languages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't used:

bengo

Bengali

porto

Portuguese

baxso

Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia

ponjo

Japanese (from “Nippon”)

dotco

German (from „Deutsch“)

fraso

French (from « Français »)

xurdo

Urdu

(Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing systems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed vocabulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights were assigned for gismu-making purposes.)

Countries with a large number of speakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of “large” is dependent on the specific language):

English:

merko

American

brito

British

skoto

Scottish

sralo

Australian

kadno

Canadian

Spanish:

gento

Argentinian

mexno

Mexican

Russian:

softo

Soviet/USSR

vukro

Ukrainian

Arabic:

filso

Palestinian

jerxo

Algerian

jordo

Jordanian

libjo

Libyan

lubno

Lebanese

misro

Egyptian (from “  Mizraim”)

morko

Moroccan

rakso

Iraqi

sadjo

Saudi

sirxo

Syrian

Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia:

bindo

Indonesian

meljo

Malaysian

Portuguese:

brazo

Brazilian

Urdu:

kisto

Pakistani

The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:

bemro

North American (from berti merko)

dzipo

Antarctican (from cadzu cipni)

ketco

South American (from “Quechua”)

friko

African

polno

Polynesian/Oceanic

ropno

European

xazdo

Asiatic

A few smaller but historically important cultures:

latmo

Latin/Roman

srito

Sanskrit

xebro

Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish

xelso

Greek (from «Hellas»)

Major world religions:

budjo

Buddhist

dadjo

Taoist

muslo

Islamic/Moslem

xriso

Christian

A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:

jegvo

Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)

semto

Semitic

slovo

Slavic

xispo

Hispanic (New World Spanish)

rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in the section called “Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu”, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture “deserves a gismu” or “must languish in fu'ivla space”. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general zei mechanism was devised instead.)

The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in the section called “Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu”. For example,

Example 4.75.

tci'ile

Chilean

is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.

The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru

Example 4.76.

tci'ile

ke

canre

tutra

Chilean

type-of

sand territory

Chilean desert

could be represented by the lujvo

Example 4.77.

tci'ilykemcantutra

which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.

The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called rafsi fu'ivla, since they are distinguished from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs, and other things.

Chapter 5. “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri

Lojban content words: brivla

At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:

Example 5.1.

do

mamta

mi

You

are-a-mother-of

me

You are my mother

and

Example 5.2.

do

patfu

mi

You

are-a-father-of

me.

You are my father.

lies in the different selbri.

The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in the section called “Other kinds of simple selbri”, and discussed in full in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi.

For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,

Example 5.3.

ta

bloti

That

is-a-boat.

That is a boat.

Example 5.4.

ta

brablo

That

is-a-large-boat.

That is a ship.

Example 5.5.

ta

blotrskunri

That

is-a-(boat)-schooner.

That is a schooner.

illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.

The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.

Simple tanru

Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as “lemon tree”. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase “lemon tree” exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of “lemon” and “tree” by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to “a tree which bears lemons as fruits”. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to “brown tree” and wonder, “What kind of tree is lemon-colored?”

In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like “big boy” and adverb-verb combinations like “quickly run”. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as “noun”, “verb”, “adjective”, or “adverb”. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:

Example 5.6.

tu

pelnimre

tricu

That-yonder

is-a-(lemon

tree).

That is a lemon tree.

Example 5.7.

la

djan.

barda

nanla

That-named

John

is-a-big

boy.

John is a big boy.

Example 5.8.

mi

sutra

bajra

I

quick

run

I quickly run./I run quickly.

Note that pelnimre is a lujvo for “lemon”; it is derived from the gismu pelxu, yellow, and nimre, citrus. Note also that sutra can mean “fast/quick” or “quickly” depending on its use:

Example 5.9.

mi

sutra

I

am-fast/quick

shows sutra used to translate an adjective, whereas in Example 5.8, “ ” it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of Example 5.8, “ ”, however, would be “I am a quick runner”.)

There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word tanru. The first component is called the seltau, and the second component is called the tertau.

The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of Example 5.6, “ ” would be:

Example 5.10.

That is a lemon type of tree.

This “type of” relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.

We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:

Example 5.11.

That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)

would be another possible translation of Example 5.6, “ ”. In the same way, a more explicit translation of Example 5.7, “ ” might be:

Example 5.12.

John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.

This “way that boys are big” would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.

All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:

Example 5.13.

ta

klama

jubme

That

is-a-goer

type-of-table.

include:

- That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).

- That is a table owned by one who goes.

- That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor's table?).

- That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).

In each case the object referred to is a “goer type of table”, but the ambiguous “type of” relationship can mean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.

No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously do exist:

Example 5.14.

do

barda

prenu

You

are-a-large

person.

Example 5.15.

do

cmalu

prenu

You

are-a-small

person.

are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between barda and prenu is the same as that between cmalu and prenu. the section called “Some types of asymmetrical tanru” and the section called “Some types of symmetrical tanru” contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.

Three-part tanru grouping with bo

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

bo

BO

closest scope grouping

Consider the English sentence:

Example 5.16.

That's a little girls' school.

What does it mean? Two possible readings are:

Example 5.17.

That's a little school for girls.

Example 5.18.

That's a school for little girls.

This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in the section called “Simple tanru”. We understand that “girls' school” means “a school where girls are the students”, and not “a school where girls are the teachers” or “a school which is a girl” (!). Likewise, we understand that “little girl” means “girl who is small”. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is “girls' school” to be taken as a unit, with “little” specifying the type of girls' school? Or is “little girl” to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.

Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of Example 5.17, “ ” would be:

Example 5.19.

ta

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

That

is-a-small

girl

[]

school.

Example 5.18, “ ” might be translated:

Example 5.20.

ta

cmalu

bo

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-small

[]

girl

school.

The bo is represented in the literal translation by a hyphen because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpose: “a big dog-catcher” would be quite different from a “big-dog catcher” (presumably someone who catches only big dogs).

Analysis of Example 5.19, “ ” and Example 5.20, “ ” reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In Example 5.19, “ ”, the main tanru has a seltau of cmalu and a tertau of nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru with nixli as the seltau and ckule as the tertau. In Example 5.20, “ ”, on the other hand, the seltau is cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is ckule. This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained below.

What about Example 5.21, “ ”? What does it mean?

Example 5.21.

ta

cmalu

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-small

girl

school.

The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with Example 5.16, “ ”. The choice made by the language designers is to say that Example 5.21, “ ” means the same as Example 5.20, “ ”. This is true no matter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This rule is called the “left-grouping rule”. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous structures is quite common – though not universal – in other contexts in Lojban.

Another way to express the English meaning of Example 5.19, “ ” and Example 5.20, “ ”, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:

Example 5.22.

ta

cmalu

[]

nixli

bo

ckule

That

is-a-small

type-of

(girl

type-of

school).

Example 5.23.

ta

cmalu

bo

nixli

[]

ckule

That

is-a-(small

type-of

girl)

type-of

school.

Because “type-of” is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban equivalent.

Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert bo into a simple tanru:

Example 5.24.

ta

klama

bo

jubme

That

is-a-goer

[]

table.

is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as Example 5.13, “ ”, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.

Complex tanru grouping

If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?

Example 5.25.

do

mutce

bo

barda

gerku

bo

kavbu

You

are-a-(very

type-of

large)

(dog

type-of

capturer).

You are a very large dog-catcher.

In Example 5.25, “ ”, the selbri is a tanru with seltau mutce bo barda and tertau gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the “dog type-of capturer” is said to be “very type-of large” is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.

We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase “pretty little girls' school”, an expansion of the tanru used in the section called “Three-part tanru grouping with bo” to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning – it first appeared in Quine's book Word and Object (1960) – it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English “pretty”; it can mean “beautiful”, the sense intended here, or it can mean “very”. Lojban melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only “beautiful”.)

Here are four ways to group this phrase:

Example 5.26.

ta

melbi

cmalu

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-((pretty

type-of

little)

type-of

girl)

type-of

school.

That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.

Example 5.27.

ta

melbi

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

That

is-a-(pretty

type-of

little)

(girl

type-of

school).

That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.

Example 5.28.

ta

melbi

cmalu

bo

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-(pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

girl))

type-of

school.

That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.

Example 5.29.

ta

melbi

cmalu

bo

nixli

bo

ckule

That

is-a-pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

(girl

type-of

school)).

That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.

Example 5.29, “ ” uses a construction which has not been seen before: cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive uses of bo between brivla. The rule for multiple bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the “right-grouping rule”, and it is associated with every use of bo in the language. Therefore,

Example 5.30.

ta

cmalu

bo

nixli

bo

ckule

That

is-a-little

type-of

(girl

type-of

school).

means the same as Example 5.19, “ ”, not Example 5.20, “ ”. This rule may seem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that bo is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of Example 5.26, “ ” through Example 5.29, “ ” could have bo inserted between melbi and cmalu with no change in meaning.

Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke

KE

start grouping

ke'e

KEhE

end grouping

There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of “pretty little girls' school” that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo, ke and ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus, Example 5.26, “ ” can be rewritten in any of the following ways:

Example 5.31.

ta

ke

melbi

cmalu

ke'e

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-(

pretty

little

)

girl

school.

Example 5.32.

ta

ke

ke

melbi

cmalu

ke'e

nixli

ke'e

ckule

That

is-a-(

(

pretty

little

)

girl

)

school.

Example 5.33.

ta

ke

ke

ke

melbi

cmalu

ke'e

nixli

ke'e

ckule

ke'e

That

is-a-(

(

(

pretty

little

)

girl

)

school

).

Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is equivalent to Example 5.28, “ ” and may be easier to understand:

Example 5.34.

ta

melbi

ke

cmalu

nixli

ke'e

ckule

That

is-a-(

pretty

type-of

(

little

type-of

girl

)

)

type-of

school.

Likewise, a ke and ke'e version of Example 5.27, “ ” would be:

Example 5.35.

ta

melbi

cmalu

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

That

is-a-(pretty

type-of

little)

(

girl

type-of

school

).

The final ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide ke'e at the end of the selbri, making Example 5.35, “ ” as terse as Example 5.27, “ ”.

Now how about that fifth grouping? It is

Example 5.36.

ta

melbi

ke

cmalu

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

That

is-a-pretty

type-of

(

(

little

type-of

girl

)

type-of

school

).

That is a beautiful school for small girls.

Example 5.36, “ ” is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the ke…ke'e parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to cmalu nixli ckule.

It is perfectly all right to mix bo and ke…ke'e in a single selbri. For instance, Example 5.29, “ ”, which in pure ke…ke'e form is

Example 5.37.

ta

melbi

ke

cmalu

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

[ke'e]

That

is-a-pretty

type-of

(

little

type-of

(

girl

type-of

school

)

).

can equivalently be expressed as:

Example 5.38.

ta

melbi

ke

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

[ke'e]

That

is-a-pretty

type-of

(

little

type-of

(

girl

type-of

school

)

).

and in many other different forms as well.

Logical connection within tanru

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

je

JA

tanru logical   “and”

ja

JA

tanru logical   “or”

joi

JOI

mixed mass   “and”

gu'e

GUhA

tanru forethought logical   “and”

gi

GI

forethought connection separator

Consider the English phrase “big red dog”. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:

Example 5.39.

barda

xunre

gerku

(big

type-of

red)

type-of

dog

will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way redness might be described as “big”. Nor is

Example 5.40.

barda

xunre

bo

gerku

big

type-of

(red

type-of

dog)

much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying “red big dog”.

The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo je, which is one of the many equivalents of English “and”. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:

Example 5.41.

barda

je

xunre

gerku

(big

and

red)

type-of

dog

Of course,

Example 5.42.

xunre

je

barda

gerku

(red

and

big)

type-of

dog

is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples indicate, joining two brivla with je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with bo or ke…ke'e associates brivla more closely than je does:

Example 5.43.

barda

je

pelxu

bo

xunre

gerku

barda

je

ke

pelxu

xunre

ke'e

gerku

(big

and

(yellow

type-of

red))

dog

big yellowish-red dog

With no grouping indicators, we get:

Example 5.44.

barda

je

pelxu

xunre

gerku

((big

and

yellow)

type-of

red)

type-of

dog

biggish-

and

yellowish-red

dog

which again raises the question of Example 5.39, “ ”: what does “biggish-red” mean?

Unlike bo and ke…ke'e, je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:

Example 5.45.

ta

blanu

je

zdani

that

is-blue

and

is-a-house

definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple blanu zdani. Furthermore, blanu zdani refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are blue; blanu je zdani has no such implication – the blueness of a blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.

With the addition of je, many more versions of “pretty little girls' school” are made possible: see the section called “ “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it” for a complete list.

A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like Example 5.41, “ ” needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:

Example 5.46.

ta

melbi

je

nixli

ckule

That

is-a-(beautiful

and

girl)

type-of

school.

It can be understood as:

Example 5.47.

That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.

or as:

Example 5.48.

That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful.

The interpretation specified by Example 5.47, “ ” treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:

Example 5.49.

ta

ke

melbi

ckule

ke'e

je

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

That

is-a-(

beautiful

type-of

school

)

and

(

girl

type-of

school

)

whereas the interpretation specified by Example 5.48, “ ” does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type “beautiful and girl” may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:

Example 5.50.

That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.

so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.

In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see the section called “Logical connection within tanru” for further details.

The logical connective je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:

Example 5.51.

le

bajra

cu

jinga

ja

te

jinga

the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).

Example 5.52.

blanu

naja

lenku

skapi

(blue

only-if

cold)

skin

skin which is blue only if it is cold

Example 5.53.

xamgu

jo

tordu

nuntavla

(good

if-and-only-if

short)

speech

speech which is good if (and only if) it is short

Example 5.54.

vajni

ju

pluka

nuntavla

(important

whether-or-not

pleasing)

event-of-talking

speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing

In Example 5.51, “ ”, ja is grammatically equivalent to je but means “or” (more precisely, “and/or”). Likewise, naja means “only if” in Example 5.52, “ ”, jo means “if and only if” in Example 5.53, “ ”, and ju means “whether or not” in Example 5.54, “ ”.

Now consider the following example:

Example 5.55.

ricfu

je

blanu

jabo

crino

rich

and

(blue

or

green)

which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both ja and bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of ja but which groups more closely; jabo is to ja as plain bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both ja and jabo group less closely than bo does:

Example 5.56.

ricfu

je

blanu

jabo

crino

bo

blanu

rich

and

(blue

or

green

-

blue)

rich

and

(blue

or

greenish-blue)

An alternative form of Example 5.55, “ ” is:

Example 5.57.

ricfu

je

ke

blanu

ja

crino

[ke'e]

rich

and

(blue

or

green)

In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is joi, which is the kind of “and” that denotes a mixture:

Example 5.58.

ti

blanu

joi

xunre

bolci

This

is-a-(blue

and

red)

ball.

The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors. Example 5.58, “ ” is distinct from:

Example 5.59.

ti

blanu

xunre

bolci

This is a bluish-red ball

which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since xunre is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,

Example 5.60.

ti

blanu

je

xunre

bolci

This

is

a

(blue

and

red)

ball

is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.

Finally, just as English “and” has the variant form “both ... and”, so je between tanru components has the variant form gu'e…gi, where gu'e is placed before the components and gi between them:

Example 5.61.

gu'e

barda

gi

xunre

gerku

(both

big

and

red)

type-of

dog

is equivalent in meaning to Example 5.41, “ ”. For each logical connective related to je, there is a corresponding connective related to gu'e…gi in a systematic way.

The portion of a gu'e…gi construction before the gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including je logical connections. After the gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the gu'e…gi, which has in effect the same scope as bo:

Example 5.62.

gu'e

barda

je

xunre

gi

gerku

ja

mlatu

(both

(big

and

red)

and

dog)

or

cat

something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat

leaves mlatu outside the gu'e…gi construction. The scope of the gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with bo or ke…ke'e.

Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be

BE

linked sumti marker

bei

BEI

linked sumti separator

be'o

BEhO

linked sumti terminator

The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in detail; they are discussed in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals. One grammatical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as Example 5.1, “ ”, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu mamta. What about more complex selbri?

For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of blanu zdani is that of zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.

What about the places of blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fact, blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace blanu with xamgu, we get:

Example 5.63.

ti

xamgu

zdani

This

is-a-good

house.

This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.

Since xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness), Example 5.63, “ ” necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!

Example 5.64.

ti

xamgu

be

do

bei

mi

[be'o]

zdani

This

is-a-good

(for

you

by-standard

me)

house.

This is a house that is good for you by my standards.

Here, the gismu xamgu has been followed by the cmavo be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator be'o (of selma'o BEhO).

Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of Example 5.19, “ ”, with all places filled in:

Example 5.65.

ti

cmalu

be

le

ka

canlu

bei

lo'e

ckule

be'o

This

is

a

small

(in-dimension

the

property-of

volume

by-standard

the-typical

school)

nixli

be

li

mu

bei

lo

merko

be'o

bo

ckule

(girl

(of-years

the-number

five

by-standard

some

American-thing)

school)

la

bryklyn.

loi

pemci

in-Brooklyn

with-subject

poems

le

mela

nu,IORK.

prenu

le

jecta

for-audience

New-York

persons

with-operator

the

state.

This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.

Here the three places of cmalu, the three of nixli, and the four of ckule are fully specified. Since the places of ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however:

Example 5.66.

mi

klama

be

le

zarci

bei

le

zdani

[be'o]

I

go

(to-the

market

from-the

house).

means the same as

Example 5.67.

mi

klama

le

zarci

le

zdani

I

go

to-the

market

from-the

house.

No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of

Example 5.68.

melbi

je

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

a

(pretty

and

little)

(girl

school)

a school for girls which is both beautiful and small

is simply that of ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in the section called “Inversion of tanru: co”.)

It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags fe, fi, fo, and fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in the section called “Tagging places: FA”), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:

Example 5.69.

ti

xamgu

be

fi

mi

bei

fe

do

[be'o]

zdani

This

is-a-good

(

by-standard

me

for

you

)

house.

which is equivalent in meaning to Example 5.64, “ ”. Note that the order of be, bei, and be'o does not change; only the inserted fi tells us that mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted fe tells us that do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.

Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:

Example 5.70.

ti

xamgu

be

fi

mi

[be'o]

zdani

This

is-a-good

(by-standard

me)

house.

This is a good house by my standards.

Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:

Example 5.71.

ta

blanu

be

ga'a

mi

[be'o]

zdani

That

is-a-blue

(to-observer

me)

house.

That is a blue, as I see it, house.

The meaning of Example 5.71, “ ” is slightly different from:

Example 5.72.

ta

blanu

zdani

ga'a

mi

That

is-a-blue

house

to-observer

me.

That is a blue house, as I see it.

See discussions in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals of modals and in Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System of tenses for more explanations.

The terminator be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:

Example 5.73.

le

xamgu

be

do

noi

barda

cu

zdani

The

good-thing

for

you

(who

are-large)

is-a-house.

Example 5.74.

le

xamgu

be

do

be'o

noi

barda

cu

zdani

The

(good-thing

for

you)

(which

is-large)

is-a-house

(Relative clauses are explained in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated.)

In other cases, however, be'o cannot be elided if ku has also been elided:

Example 5.75.

le

xamgu

be

le

ctuca

[ku]

be'o

zdani

the

good

(for

the

teacher)

house

requires either ku or be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of be, the be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence of le the ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct).

Inversion of tanru: co

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

co

CO

tanru inversion marker

The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of “blue houses”, not of “houses blue”. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle co. Example 5.76, “ ” and Example 5.77, “ ” mean exactly the same thing:

Example 5.76.

ta

blanu

zdani

That

is-a-blue

type-of-house.

That is a blue house.

Example 5.77.

ta

zdani

co

blanu

That

is-a-house

of-type

blue.

That is a blue house.

This change is called “tanru inversion”. In tanru inversion, the element before co ( zdani in Example 5.77, “ ”) is the tertau, and the element following co ( blanu) in Example 5.77, “ ”) is the seltau.

The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of zdani co blanu is still that of zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”, we saw how to fill interior places with be…bei…be'o, and in fact Example 5.78, “ ” and Example 5.79, “ ” have the same meaning:

Example 5.78.

mi

klama

be

le

zarci

bei

le

zdani

be'o

troci

I

am-a-(goer

to

the

market

from

the

house)

type-of

trier.

I try to go to the market from the house.

Example 5.79.

mi

troci

co

klama

le

zarci

le

zdani

I

am-a-trier

of-type

(goer

to-the

market

from-the

house).

I try to go to the market from the house.

Example 5.79, “ ” is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.

Note that in Lojban “trying to go” is expressed using troci as the tertau. The reason is that “trying to go” is a “going type of trying”, not a “trying type of going”. The trying is more fundamental than the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.

Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In Example 5.79, “ ”, mi fills the x1 place of troci co klama, which is the x1 place of troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti le zarci and le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.

As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of Example 5.79, “ ”, because they are not really “sumti of the bridi” at all.

When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of Example 5.19, “ ”, for instance, is:

Example 5.80.

ta

nixli

[bo]

ckule

co

cmalu

That

(is-a-girl

type-of

school)

of-type

little.

That's a girls' school which is small.

Note that the bo of Example 5.19, “ ” is optional in Example 5.80, “ ”, because co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even ke…ke'e parentheses can encompass a co:

Example 5.81.

ta

cmalu

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

co

melbi

That

is-a-(little

type-of

(girl

type-of

school))

of-type

pretty.

That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.

In Example 5.81, “ ”, the ke'e is automatically inserted before the co rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing co from any selbri: change “A co B” to “ke B ke'e A”. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into be…bei…be'o form and attached following B.) Therefore,

Example 5.82.

ckule

co

melbi

nixli

school

of-type

pretty

girl

school for beautiful girls

means the same as:

Example 5.83.

ke

melbi

nixli

ke'e

ckule

(pretty

girl)

school

Multiple co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all co cmavo must be removed simultaneously:

Example 5.84.

ckule

co

nixli

co

cmalu

school

of-type

(girl

of-type

little)

becomes formally

Example 5.85.

ke

ke

cmalu

ke'e

nixli

ke'e

ckule

(

(little)

girl

)

school

which by the left-grouping rule is simply

Example 5.86.

cmalu

nixli

ckule

little

girl

school

school for little girls

As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of

Example 5.87.

mi

klama

co

sutra

I

am-a-goer

of-type

quick

I go quickly

cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with be:

Example 5.88.

mi

klama

be

le

zarci

be'o

co

sutra

I

am-a-goer

(to

the

store)

of-type

quick.

I go to the store quickly.

Other kinds of simple selbri

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i

GOhA

repeats the previous bridi

du

GOhA

equality

nu'a

NUhA

math operator to selbri

moi

MOI

changes number to ordinal selbri

mei

MOI

changes number to cardinal selbri

nu

NU

event abstraction

kei

KEI

terminator for NU

So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi, Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction, and Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban; but for completeness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in selbri.

The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of it. If I say:

Example 5.89.

la

djan.

klama

le

zarci

John

goes-to

the

market.

you may retort:

Example 5.90.

la

djan.

go'i

troci

John

[repeat

last]

are-a-tryer

John tries to.

Example 5.90, “ ” is short for:

Example 5.91.

la

djan.

klama

be

le

zarci

be'o

troci

John

is-a-goer

(to

the

market)

type-of

trier.

because the whole bridi of Example 5.89, “ ” has been packaged up into the single word go'i and inserted into Example 5.90, “ ”.

The exceptional member of GOhA is du, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:

x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...

for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi.

Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as su'i, meaning “plus”, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:

x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.

for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:

Example 5.92.

li

vo

nu'a

su'i

li

re

li

re

The-number

4

is-the-sum-of

the-number

2

and-the-number

2.

A possible tanru example might be:

Example 5.93.

mi

jimpe

tu'a

loi

nu'a

su'i

nabmi

I

understand

something-about

the-mass-of

is-the-sum-of

problems.

I understand addition problems.

More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in the section called “Special mekso selbri”. Here are a few tanru:

Example 5.94.

la

prim.

palvr.

pamoi

cusku

Preem

Palver

is-the-1-th

speaker.

Preem Palver is the first speaker.

Example 5.95.

la

an,iis.

joi

la

.asun.

bruna

remei

Anyi

massed-with

Asun

are-a-brother

type-of-twosome.

Anyi and Asun are two brothers.

Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction. A few examples:

Example 5.96.

ti

nu

zdile

kei

kumfa

This

is-an-event-of

amusement

room.

This is an amusement room.

Example 5.96, “ ” is quite distinct in meaning from:

Example 5.97.

ti

zdile

kumfa

This

is-an-amuser

room.

which suggests the meaning “a room that amuses someone”.

selbri based on sumti: me

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me

ME

changes sumti to simple selbri

me'u

MEhU

terminator for   me

A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure

x1 is one of the referents of “[the sumti]”

which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti

Example 5.98.

le

ci

nolraitru

the

three

noblest-governors

the three kings

If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:

Example 5.99.

la

BALtazar.

cu

me

le

ci

nolraitru

Balthazar

is

one-of-the-referents-of

“  the three kings”

.

Balthazar is one of the three kings.

and likewise

Example 5.100.

la

kaspar.

cu

me

le

ci

nolraitru

Caspar is one of the three kings.

and

Example 5.101.

la

melxi,or.

cu

me

le

ci

nolraitru

Melchior is one of the three kings.

If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of me is much like that of du:

Example 5.102.

do

du

la

djan.

You

are-identical-with

the-one-called

“  John”

.

You are John.

means the same as

Example 5.103.

do

me

la

djan.

You

are-the-referent-of

“  the-one-called ‘John’”

.

You are John.

It is common to use me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using la, as seltau. For example:

Example 5.104.

ta

me

lai

kraislr.

[me'u]

karce

That

(is-a-referent

of

“  the-mass-called ‘Chrysler’”

)

car.

That is a Chrysler car.

The elidable terminator me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in the section called “Indefinite descriptions”), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated) or a sumti logical connective (explained in the section called “sumti connection”). Without a me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:

Example 5.105.

re

me

le

ci

nolraitru

.e

la

djan.

[me'u]

cu

blabi

Two of the group   “the three kings and John” are white.

Example 5.106.

re

me

le

ci

nolraitru

me'u

.e

la

djan.

cu

blabi

Two of the three kings, and John, are white.

In Example 5.105, “ ” the me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In Example 5.106, “ ”, though, the me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.

Finally, here is another example requiring me'u:

Example 5.107.

ta

me

la'e

le

se

cusku

be

do

me'u

cukta

That

is-a-(what-you-said)

type

of

book.

That is the kind of book you were talking about.

There are other sentences where either me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:

Example 5.108.

le

me

le

ci

nolraitru

[ku]

me'u

nunsalci

the

(the

three

kings)

type-of-event-of-celebrating

the Three Kings celebration

requires either ku or me'u to be explicit, and (as with be'o in the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”) the me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.

Conversion of simple selbri

Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.

In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:

Example 5.109.

mi

prami

do

I love you.

is equivalent in meaning to:

Example 5.110.

do

se

prami

mi

You

[swap

x1

and

x2]

love

me.

You are loved by me.

Conversion is fully explained in the section called “Conversion: SE”. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider Example 5.111, “ ”:

Example 5.111.

la

.alis.

cu

cadzu

klama

le

zarci

Alice

is-a-walker

type-of

goer

to-the

market.

Alice

walkingly

goes

to

the

market.

Alice walks to the market.

To convert this sentence so that le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is:

Example 5.112.

le

zarci

cu

se

ke

cadzu

klama

[ke'e]

la

.alis.

The

market

is-a-[swap

x1/x2]

(walker

type-of

goer)

Alice.

The

market

is-walkingly

gone-to

by-Alice.

The ke…ke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to be converted by the se, which would otherwise convert only cadzu, leading to:

Example 5.113.

le

zarci

cu

se

cadzu

klama

la

.alis.

The

market

(is-a-[swap

x1/x2]

walker)

type-of

goer

to

Alice.

The

market

is-a-walking-surface

type-of

goer

to

Alice.

whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place structure of cadzu klama is that of klama alone, is to convert only the latter:

Example 5.114.

le

zarci

cu

cadzu

se

klama

la

.alis.

The

market

walkingly

is-gone-to

by-Alice.

But the tanru in Example 5.114, “ ” may or may not have the same meaning as that in Example 5.111, “ ”; in particular, because cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense:

Example 5.115.

la

djan.

cu

cadzu

se

klama

la

.alis

John

walkingly

is-gone-to

by

Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.

There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in the section called “Modal conversion: JAI”.

Scalar negation of selbri

Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called “scalar negation”, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:

Example 5.116.

la

.alis.

cu

na'e

ke

cadzu

klama

[ke'e]

le

zarci

Alice

non-

(walkingly

goes)

to-the

market.

Alice

other-than

(walkingly

goes)

to-the

market.

Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the ke were omitted, the result would be:

Example 5.117.

la

.alis.

cu

na'e

cadzu

klama

le

zarci

Alice

non-

walkingly

goes

to-the

market.

Alice doesn't walk to the market.

meaning that Alice does go there in some way ( klama is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking. Example 5.116, “ ” negates both cadzu and klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.

Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in the section called “Other kinds of simple selbri” may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:

Example 5.118.

la

djonz.

cu

na'e

pamoi

cusku

Jones

is

non-1st

speaker

Jones is not the first speaker.

Since only pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.

Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with bo grouping, ke and ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with be and bei:

Example 5.119.

mi

na'e

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

be'o

klama

le

zarci

I

(

(non-quickly)

(

walking

using

the

arms)

)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.

In Example 5.119, “ ”, na'e negates only sutra. Contrast Example 5.120, “ ”:

Example 5.120.

mi

na'e

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

[be'o]

ke'e

klama

le

zarci

I

non-

(

quickly

(walking

using

the

arms)

)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.

Now consider Example 5.121, “ ” and Example 5.122, “ ”, which are equivalent in meaning, but use ke grouping and bo grouping respectively:

Example 5.121.

mi

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

be'o

je

masno

klama

le

zarci

I

(quickly

–

(walking

using

the

arms)

and

slowly)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.

Example 5.122.

mi

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

[be'o]

ke'e

je

masno

klama

le

zarci

I

(

(quickly

(walking

using

the

arms)

)

and

slowly)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.

However, if we place a na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both Example 5.121, “ ” and Example 5.122, “ ”, we get different results:

Example 5.123.

mi

na'e

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

be'o

je

masno

klama

le

zarci

I

(

(non-

quickly)

-

(walking

using

the

arms)

and

slowly)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.

Example 5.124.

mi

na'e

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

[be'o]

ke'e

je

masno

klama

le

zarci

I

(non-(quickly

(walking

using

the

arms)

)

and

slowly)

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.

The difference arises because the na'e in Example 5.124, “ ” negates the whole construction from ke to ke'e, whereas in Example 5.123, “ ” it negates sutra alone.

Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit ke'e is left out in Example 5.124, “ ”, it is transformed into:

Example 5.125.

mi

na'e

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

be'o

je

masno

klama

[ke'e]

le

zarci

I

non-(quickly

(

(walking

using

the

arms)

)

and

slowly)

go-to)

the

market.

I

do

something

other

than

quickly

both

going

to

the

market

walking

using my arms and slowly going to the market.

And if both ke'e and be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier:

Example 5.126.

mi

na'e

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

fi

le

birka

je

masno

klama

[be'o]

[ke'e]

le

zarci

I

non-(quickly

walk

on

my

(arm-type

and

slow)

goers)

on

the

market.

I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.

In Example 5.126, “ ”, everything after be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an “arm-type goer” might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the le zarci following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)

Finally, it is also possible to place na'e before a gu'e…gi logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.

Tenses and bridi negation

A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in

Example 5.127.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

go

to-the

market.

I went to the market.

the cmavo pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in Example 5.127, “ ”. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals, behave in the same way as tenses.

Similarly, a bridi may have the particle na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of the section called “Scalar negation of selbri”. For example:

Example 5.128.

la

djonz.

na

pamoi

cusku

Jones

(Not!)

is-the-first

speaker

It

is

not

true

that

Jones

is

the

first

speaker.

Jones isn't the first speaker.

Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all; Example 5.128, “ ” doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation.

Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:

Example 5.129.

mi

na

pu

klama

le

zarci

mi

pu

na

klama

le

zarci

It

is

false

that

I

went

to

the

market.

I didn't go to the market.

It is also possible to have more than one na, in which case pairs of na cmavo cancel out:

Example 5.130.

mi

na

na

klama

le

zarci

It

is

false

that

it

is

false

that

I

go

to

the

market.

I go to the market.

It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System.

Example 5.131.

mi

na

pu

na

ca

klama

le

zarci

I

[not]

[past]

[not]

[present]

go

to-the

market

It

is

not

the

case

that

in

the

past

it

was

not

the

case

that

in

the

present

I

went

to

the

market.

I

didn't

not

go

to

the

market.

I went to the market.

Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.

Some types of asymmetrical tanru

This section and the section called “Some types of symmetrical tanru” contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.

Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicitly noted):

Aba

Abazin

Chi

Chinese

Ewe

Ewe

Fin

Finnish

Geo

Georgian

Gua

Guarani

Hop

Hopi

Hun

Hungarian

Imb

Imbabura Quechua

Kar

Karaitic

Kaz

Kazakh

Kor

Korean

Mon

Mongolian

Qab

Qabardian

Que

Quechua

Rus

Russian

Skt

Sanskrit

Swe

Swedish

Tur

Turkish

Udm

Udmurt

Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of that group.

The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example, junla dadysli, or “clock pendulum”, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas dadysli junla, or “pendulum clock”, is the kind of clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are discussed in the section called “Some types of symmetrical tanru”.

The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the object of that action:

pinsi nunkilbra

pencil sharpener

Hun

zgike nunctu

music instruction

Hun

mirli nunkalte

deer hunting

Hun

finpe nunkalte

fish hunting

Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba

fishing

smacu terkavbu

mousetrap

Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba

zdani turni

house ruler

Kar

host

zerle'a nunte'a

thief fear

Skt

fear of thieves

cevni zekri

god crime

Skt

offense against the gods

nunkilbra

sharpness-apparatus

nunctu

event-of-teaching

nunkalte

event-of-hunting

terkavbu

trap

zerle'a

crime-taker

nunte'a

event-of-fearing

The tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contained in that set:

zdani lijgri

house row

selci lamgri

cell block

karda mulgri

card pack

Swe

rokci derxi

stone heap

Swe

tadni girzu

student group

Hun

remna girzu

human-being group

Qab

group of people

cpumi'i lijgri

tractor column

Qab

cevni jenmi

god army

Skt

cevni prenu

god folk

Skt

lijgri

line-group

lamgri

adjacent-group

mulgri

complete-group

cpumi'i

pull-machine

Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between zdani linji in the previous group, and linji zdani in this one, which shows why this kind of tanru is called “asymmetrical”.

carvi dirgo

raindrop

Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba

linji zdani

row house

The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it is a detail of that whole and not some other.

junla dadysli

clock pendulum

Hun

purdi vorme

garden door

Qab

purdi bitmu

garden wall

Que

moklu skapi

mouth skin

Imb

lips

nazbi kevna

nose hole

Imb

nostril

karce xislu

automobile wheel

Chi

jipci pimlu

chicken feather

Chi

vinji rebla

airplane tail

Chi

dadysli

hang-oscillator

Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important detail of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail.

pixra cukta

picture book

kerfa silka

hair silk

Kar

velvet

plise tapla

apple cake

Tur

dadysli junla

pendulum clock

Hun

dadysli

hang-oscillator

The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau specifies a sub-class of that class (a species):

ckunu tricu

pine tree

Hun,Tur,Hop

The tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the possessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these compounds have an explicit possessive element in them: “lion's mane”, “child's foot”, “noble's cow”.

cinfo kerfa

lion mane

Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab

verba jamfu

child foot

Swe

nixli tuple

girl leg

Swe

cinfo jamfu

lion foot

Que

danlu skapi

animal skin

Ewe

ralju zdani

chief house

Ewe

jmive munje

living world

Skt

nobli bakni

noble cow

Skt

nolraitru ralju

king chief

Skt

emperor

nolraitru

nobly-superlative-ruler

The tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant:

lanzu tumla

family land

The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effect of that cause:

kalselvi'i gapci

tear gas

Hun

terbi'a jurme

disease germ

Tur

fenki litki

crazy liquid

Hop

whisky

pinca litki

urine liquid

Hop

beer

kalselvi'i

eye-excreted-thing

terbi'a

disease

Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause.

djacu barna

water mark

Chi

The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the purpose of that instrument:

taxfu dadgreku

garment rack

Chi

tergu'i ti'otci

lamp shade

Chi

xirma zdani

horse house

Chi

stall

nuzba tanbo

news board

Chi

bulletin board

dadgreku

hang-frame

tergu'i

source of illumination

ti'otci

shadow-tool

More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:

cpina rokci

pepper stone

Que

stone for grinding pepper

jamfu djacu

foot water

Skt

water for washing the feet

grana mudri

post wood

Skt

wood for making a post

moklu djacu

mouth water

Hun

water for washing the mouth

lanme gerku

sheep dog

dog for working sheep

The tertau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the source of the product:

moklu djacu

mouth water

Aba,Qab

saliva

ractu mapku

rabbit hat

Rus

jipci sovda

chicken egg

Chi

sikcurnu silka

silkworm silk

Chi

mlatu kalci

cat feces

Chi

bifce lakse

bee wax

Chi

beeswax

cribe rectu

bear meat

Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba

solxrula grasu

sunflower oil

Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba

bifce jisra

bee juice

Hop

honey

tatru litki

breast liquid

Hop

milk

kanla djacu

eye water

Kor

tear

sikcurnu

silk-worm

solxrula

solar-flower

Conversely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifies the product:

silna jinto

salt well

Chi

kolme terkakpa

coal mine

Chi

ctile jinto

oil well

Chi

terkakpa

source of digging

The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material from which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because the referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of material, which is then overridden in the tanru.

rokci cinfo

stone lion

snime nanmu

snow man

Hun

kliti cipni

clay bird

blaci kanla

glass eye

Hun

blaci kanla

glass eye

Que

spectacles

solji sicni

gold coin

Tur

solji junla

gold watch

Tur,Kor,Hun

solji djine

gold ring

Udm,Aba,Que

rokci zdani

stone house

Imb

mudri zdani

wood house

Ewe

wooden house

rokci bitmu

stone wall

Ewe

solji carce

gold chariot

Skt

mudri xarci

wood weapon

Skt

wooden weapon

cmaro'i dargu

pebble road

Chi

sudysrasu cutci

straw shoe

Chi

cmaro'i

small-rock

sudysrasu

dry-grass

Note: the two senses of blaci kanla can be discriminated as:

blaci kanla bo tarmi

glass (eye shape)

glass eye

blaci kanla bo sidju

glass (eye helper)

spectacles

The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers to a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compounds of this form, as a rule.

tumla spisa

land piece

Tur

piece of land

tcati kabri

tea cup

Kor,Aba

cup of tea

nanba spisa

bread piece

Kor

piece of bread

bukpu spisa

cloth piece

Udm,Aba

piece of cloth

djacu calkyguzme

water calabash

Ewe

calabash of water

calkyguzme

shell-fruit, calabash

The tertau specifies an object with certain implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit properties:

kensa bloti

spaceship

bakni verba

cattle child

Ewe

calf

The seltau specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is associated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau stands to its typical whole.

kosta degji

coat finger

Hun

coat sleeve

denci genja

tooth root

Imb

tricu stedu

tree head

Imb

treetop

The tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifies the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referents from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product.

silka curnu

silkworm

Tur,Hun,Aba

The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property.

sonci manti

soldier ant

ninmu bakni

woman cattle

Imb

cow

mamta degji

mother finger

Imb

thumb

cifnu degji

baby finger

Imb

pinky

pacraistu zdani

hell house

Skt

fagri dapma

fire curse

Skt

curse destructive as fire

pacraistu

evil-superlative-site

As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance): the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.

grutrceraso jbama

cherry bomb

solji kerfa

gold hair

Hun

golden hair

kanla djacu

eye water

Kar

spring

bakni rokci

bull stone

Mon

boulder

grutrceraso

fu'ivla for “cherry” based on Linnean name

The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically located in or at that place.

ckana boxfo

bed sheet

Chi

mrostu mojysu'a

tomb monument

Chi

tombstone

jubme tergusni

table lamp

Chi

foldi smacu

field mouse

Chi

briju ci'ajbu

office desk

Chi

rirxe xirma

river horse

Chi

hippopotamus

xamsi gerku

sea dog

Chi

seal

cagyce'u zdani

village house

Skt

mrostu

dead-site

mojysu'a

remember-structure

ci'ajbu

write-table

cagyce'u

farm-community

Specifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available to the public.

cidja barja

food bar

Chi

restaurant

cukta barja

book bar

Chi

library

The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau.

kanla velmikce

eye medicine

Chi

jgalu grasu

nail oil

Chi

nail polish

denci pesxu

tooth paste

Chi

velmikce

treatment used by doctor

The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the seltau.

me la pinpan. bolci

Ping-Pong ball

Chi

The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesirable features of the referent of the seltau.

carvi mapku

rain cap

Chi

carvi taxfu

rain garment

Chi

raincoat

vindu firgai

poison mask

Chi

gas mask

firgai

face-cover

The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the referent of the seltau.

cukta vasru

book vessel

Chi

satchel

vanju kabri

wine cup

Chi

spatrkoka lanka

coca basket

Que

rismi dakli

rice bag

Ewe,Chi

tcati kabri

tea cup

Chi

ladru botpi

milk bottle

Chi

rismi patxu

rice pot

Chi

festi lante

trash can

Chi

bifce zdani

bee house

Kor

beehive

cladakyxa'i zdani

sword house

Kor

sheath

manti zdani

ant nest

Gua

anthill

spatrkoka

fu'ivla for “coca”

cladakyxa'i

(long-knife)-weapon

The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by the tertau.

vensa djedi

spring day

Chi

crisa citsi

summer season

Chi

cerni bumru

morning fog

Chi

critu lunra

autumn moon

Chi

dunra nicte

winter night

Chi

nicte ckule

night school

Chi

The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau.

dikca tergusni

electric lamp

Chi

ratni nejni

atom energy

Chi

brife molki

windmill

Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba

tergusni

illumination-source

Finally, some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories.

ladru denci

milk tooth

Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab

kanla denci

eye tooth

It is clear that “tooth” is being specified, and that “milk” and “eye” act as modifiers. However, the relationship between ladru and denci is something like “tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother”, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for kanla denci, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.

Some types of symmetrical tanru

This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.

The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective je is appropriate:

cipnrstrigi pacru'i

owl demon

Skt

nolraitru prije

royal sage

Skt

remna nakni

human-being male

Qab

man

remna fetsi

human-being female

Qab

woman

sonci tolvri

soldier coward

Que

panzi nanmu

offspring man

Ewe

son

panzi ninmu

offspring woman

Ewe

daughter

solji sicni

gold coin

Tur

solji junla

gold watch

Tur,Kor,Hun

solji djine

gold ring

Udm,Aba,Que

rokci zdani

stone house

Imb

mudri zdani

wooden house

Ewe

rokci bitmu

stone wall

Ewe

solji carce

gold chariot

Skt

mudri xarci

wooden weapon

Skt

zdani tcadu

home town

Chi

cipnrstrigi

fu'ivla for “owl” based on Linnean name

pacru'i

evil-spirit

tolvri

opposite-of-brave

The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru components. The connective ja is appropriate:

nunji'a nunterji'a

victory defeat

Skt

victory or defeat

donri nicte

day night

Skt

day and night

lunra tarci

moon stars

Skt

moon and stars

patfu mamta

father mother

Imb,Kaz,Chi

parents

tuple birka

leg arm

Kaz

extremity

nuncti nunpinxe

eating drinking

Udm

cuisine

bersa tixnu

son daughter

Chi

children

nunji'a

event-of-winning

nunterji'a

event-of-losing

nuncti

event-of-eating

nunpinxe

event-of-drinking

Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which the components typify:

curnu jalra

worm beetle

Mon

insect

jalra curnu

beetle worm

Mon

insect

kabri palta

cup plate

Kaz

crockery

jipci gunse

hen goose

Qab

housefowl

xrula tricu

flower tree

Chi

vegetation

The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent of the tanru as a whole:

tumla vacri

land air

Fin

world

moklu stedu

mouth head

Aba

face

sudysrasu cunmi

hay millet

Qab

agriculture

gugde ciste

state system

Mon

politics

prenu so'imei

people multitude

Mon

masses

djacu dertu

water earth

Chi

climate

sudysrasu

dry-grass

so'imei

manysome

“Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of melbi cmalu nixli ckule using bo or ke…ke'e for grouping and je or jebo for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase “pretty little girls' school”, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.

Examples Example 5.26, “ ”, Example 5.27, “ ”, Example 5.28, “ ”, Example 5.29, “ ”, and Example 5.36, “ ” are repeated here as Examples Example 5.132, “ ”, Example 5.140, “ ”, Example 5.148, “ ”, Example 5.156, “ ”, and Example 5.164, “ ” respectively. The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of je at each possible site. Some of the examples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.

The logical connective je is associative: that is, “A and (B and C)” is the same as “(A and B) and C”. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, Example 5.139, “ ”, Example 5.147, “ ”, Example 5.155, “ ”, Example 5.163, “ ”, and Example 5.171, “ ” all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if je were replaced by naja or jo or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.

It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.

Example 5.132.

melbi

cmalu

nixli

ckule

((pretty

type-of

little)

type-of

girl)

type-of

school

school for girls who are beautifully small

Example 5.133.

melbi

je

cmalu

nixli

ckule

((pretty

and

little)

type-of

girl)

type-of

school

school for girls who are beautiful and small

Example 5.134.

melbi

bo

cmalu

je

nixli

ckule

((pretty

type-of

little)

and

girl)

type-of

school

school for girls and for beautifully small things

Example 5.135.

ke

melbi

cmalu

nixli

ke'e

je

ckule

((pretty

type-of

little)

type-of

girl)

and

school

thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl

Example 5.136.

melbi

je

cmalu

je

nixli

ckule

((pretty

and

little)

and

girl)

type-of

school

school

for

things

which

are

beautiful,

small,

and

girls

Note: same as   Example 5.152, “ ”

Example 5.137.

melbi

bo

cmalu

je

nixli

je

ckule

((pretty

type-of

little)

and

girl)

and

school

thing

which

is

beautifully

small,

a

school,

and

a

girl

Note: same as   Example 5.145, “ ”

Example 5.138.

ke

melbi

je

cmalu

nixli

ke'e

je

ckule

((pretty

and

little)

type-of

girl)

and

school

thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small

Example 5.139.

melbi

je

cmalu

je

nixli

je

ckule

((pretty

and

little)

and

girl)

and

school

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

Example 5.140.

melbi

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

(pretty

type-of

little)

type-of

(girl

type-of

school)

girls' school which is beautifully small

Example 5.141.

melbi

je

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

(pretty

and

little)

type-of

(girl

type-of

school)

girls' school which is beautiful and small

Example 5.142.

melbi

cmalu

nixli

je

ckule

(pretty

type-of

little)

type-of

(girl

and

school)

something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small

Example 5.143.

melbi

bo

cmalu

je

nixli

bo

ckule

(pretty

type-of

little)

and

(girl

type-of

school)

something which is beautifully small and a girls' school

Example 5.144.

melbi

je

cmalu

nixli

je

ckule

(pretty

and

little)

type-of

(girl

and

school)

a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school

Example 5.145.

melbi

bo

cmalu

je

nixli

jebo

ckule

(pretty

type-of

little)

and

(girl

and

school)

thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl

Note: same as Example 5.137, “ ”

Example 5.146.

melbi

jebo

cmalu

je

nixli

bo

ckule

(pretty

and

little)

and

(girl

type-of

school)

thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school

Note: same as Example 5.161, “ ”

Example 5.147.

melbi

jebo

cmalu

je

nixli

jebo

ckule

(pretty

and

little)

and

(girl

and

school)

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

Example 5.148.

melbi

cmalu

bo

nixli

ckule

(pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

girl))

type-of

school

school for beautiful girls who are small

Example 5.149.

melbi

cmalu

je

nixli

ckule

(pretty

type-of

(little

and

girl))

type-of

school

school for beautiful things which are small and are girls

Example 5.150.

melbi

je

cmalu

bo

nixli

ckule

(pretty

and

(little

type-of

girl))

type-of

school

school for things which are beautiful and are small girls

Example 5.151.

ke

melbi

cmalu

bo

nixli

ke'e

je

ckule

melbi

bo

cmalu

bo

nixli

je

ckule

(pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

girl))

and

school

thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful

Example 5.152.

melbi

je

cmalu

jebo

nixli

ckule

(pretty

and

(little

and

girl))

type-of

school

school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls

Note: same as Example 5.136, “ ”

Example 5.153.

melbi

je

cmalu

bo

nixli

je

ckule

(pretty

and

(little

type-of

girl))

and

school

thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school

Note: same as Example 5.169, “ ”

Example 5.154.

ke

melbi

cmalu

je

nixli

ke'e

je

ckule

(pretty

type-of

(little

and

girl))

and

school

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school

Example 5.155.

melbi

je

cmalu

jebo

nixli

je

ckule

(pretty

and

(little

and

girl))

and

school

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

Example 5.156.

melbi

cmalu

bo

nixli

bo

ckule

melbi

ke

cmalu

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

(girl

type-of

school))

small school for girls which is beautiful

Example 5.157.

melbi

ke

cmalu

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

(little

type-of

(girl

and

school))

small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful

Example 5.158.

melbi

cmalu

je

nixli

bo

ckule

pretty

type-of

(little

and

(girl

type-of

school))

thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful

Example 5.159.

melbi

je

cmalu

bo

nixli

bo

ckule

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

nixli

bo

ckule

[ke'e]

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

ke

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

[ke'e]

pretty

and

(little

type-of

(girl

type-of

school))

thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school

Example 5.160.

melbi

cmalu

je

nixli

jebo

ckule

melbi

cmalu

je

ke

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

(little

and

(girl

and

school))

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school

Note: same as Example 5.168, “ ”

Example 5.161.

melbi

je

cmalu

jebo

nixli

bo

ckule

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

je

nixli

bo

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

(little

and

(girl

type-of

school))

thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school

Note: same as Example 5.146, “ ”

Example 5.162.

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

(little

type-of

(girl

and

school))

beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school

Example 5.163.

melbi

jebo

cmalu

jebo

nixli

jebo

ckule

pretty

and

(little

and

(girl

and

school))

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

Example 5.164.

melbi

ke

cmalu

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

((little

type-of

girl)

type-of

school)

beautiful school for small girls

Example 5.165.

melbi

ke

cmalu

je

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

((little

and

girl)

type-of

school

beautiful school for things which are small and are girls

Example 5.166.

melbi

ke

cmalu

bo

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

type-of

((little

type-of

girl)

and

school)

beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school

Example 5.167.

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

((little

type-of

girl)

type-of

school)

thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls

Example 5.168.

melbi

cmalu

je

nixli

je

ckule

pretty

type-of

((little

and

girl)

and

school)

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school

Note: same as Example 5.160, “ ”

Example 5.169.

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

bo

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

((little

type-of

girl)

and

school)

thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school

Note: same as Example 5.153, “ ”

Example 5.170.

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

je

nixli

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

((little

and

girl)

type-of

school)

thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school

Example 5.171.

melbi

je

ke

cmalu

je

nixli

je

ckule

[ke'e]

pretty

and

((little

and

girl)

and

school)

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school

Chapter 6. To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti

The five kinds of simple sumti

If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:

Example 6.1.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

the

market

In Example 6.1, “ ”, mi and le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind: mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas le zarci is a description which refers to something described as being a market.

There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:

1. descriptions like le zarci, which usually begin with a descriptor (called a gadri in Lojban) such as le;

2. pro-sumti, such as mi;

3. names, such as la lojban., which usually begin with la;

4. quotations, which begin with lu, le'u, zo, or zoi;

5. pure numbers, which usually begin with li.

Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:

Example 6.2.

e'osai

ko

sarji

la

lojban.

Please support Lojban!

Example 6.2, “ ” exhibits ko, a pro-sumti; and la lojban., a name.

Example 6.3.

mi

cusku

lu

e'osai

li'u

le

tcidu

I express   “Please!” to-the reader.

Example 6.3, “ ” exhibits mi, a pro-sumti; lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and le tcidu, a description.

Example 6.4.

ti

mitre

li

ci

This

measures-in-meters

the-number

three.

This is three meters long.

Example 6.4, “ ” exhibits ti, a pro-sumti; and li ci, a number.

Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi, Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban, and Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See the section called “Pro-sumti summary” through the section called “Number summary” for these summaries.

The three basic description types

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le

LE

the, the one(s) described as

lo

LE

some, some of those which really are

la

LA

the one(s) named

ku

KU

elidable terminator for LE, LA

The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until the section called “Lojban names”.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:

Example 6.5.

le

zarci

one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as

being-a-market

the market

The long gloss for le is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact le is quite close in meaning to English “the”. It has particular implications, however, which “the” does not have.

The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus le zarci conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of zarci, namely a market.

The specific purpose of le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.

Example 6.6.

le

zarci

cu

barda

One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe

as

“  markets”

is/are-big.

The market is big.

The markets are big.

Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one ( “the market”) or to more than one ( “the markets”). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of Example 6.6, “ ” are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in the section called “Quantified descriptions”.)

Now consider the following strange-looking example:

Example 6.7.

le

nanmu

cu

ninmu

One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe

as

“  men”

are

women.

The man is a woman.

The men are women.

Example 6.7, “ ” is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because le nanmu merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation. Example 6.7, “ ” is what I would say to point out my observation to you.

In all descriptions with le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men: Example 6.7, “ ” would then be perfectly intelligible, since le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.

The second descriptor dealt with in this section is lo. Unlike le, lo is nonspecific:

Example 6.8.

lo

zarci

one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really

are-markets

a market

some markets

Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using lo in Example 6.8, “ ” is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike le zarci, lo zarci must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is zarci). Thus

Example 6.9.

lo

nanmu

cu

ninmu

Some man is a woman.

Some men are women.

must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make Example 6.9, “ ” true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general, lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.

The last descriptor of this section is la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like le descriptions, la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in the section called “Lojban names”.) For example:

Example 6.10.

la

cribe

pu

finti

le

lisri

The-one-named

“  bear”

[past]

creates

the

story.

Bear wrote the story.

In Example 6.10, “ ”, la cribe refers to someone whose naming predicate is cribe, i.e. “Bear”. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name “Frank” coincides with the English word “frank”, meaning “honest”, and so one way of translating “Frank ate some cheese” into Lojban would be:

Example 6.11.

la

stace

pu

citka

lo

cirla

The-one-called

“  Honest/Frank”

[past]

eats

some

cheese.

English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be more attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meaning (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel differently. (In point of fact, “Frank” originally meant “the free one” rather than “the honest one”.)

It is important to note the differences between Example 6.10, “ ” and the following:

Example 6.12.

le

cribe

pu

finti

le

lisri

One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as

a-bear

[past]

creates

the

story.

The bear(s) wrote the story.

Example 6.13.

lo

cribe

pu

finti

le

lisri

One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really

are-bears

[past]

creates

the

story.

A bear wrote the story.

Some bears wrote the story.

Example 6.12, “ ” is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one); Example 6.13, “ ” is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or “bear”) is meant.

(The notion of a “really existing, objectively defined bear” raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a “real bear”? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is “yes”. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases, le may communicate better than lo.)

So while Example 6.10, “ ” could easily be true (there is a real writer named “Greg Bear”), and Example 6.12, “ ” could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear, Example 6.13, “ ” is certainly false.

Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to Example 6.12, “ ” and Example 6.13, “ ” respectively:

Example 6.14.

le

remna

pu

finti

le

lisri

The human being(s) wrote the story.

Example 6.15.

lo

remna

pu

finti

le

lisri

A human being wrote the story.

Some human beings wrote the story.

Example 6.14, “ ” says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then Example 6.14, “ ” identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to that person. Example 6.15, “ ” merely says that the author is human.

The elidable terminator for all descriptions is ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in the section called “Relative clauses and descriptors”, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit cu before the selbri makes the ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of ku: in the compound negator naku (discussed in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals and Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System).

Individuals and masses

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lei

LE

the mass I describe as

loi

LE

part of the mass of those which really are

lai

LA

the mass of those named

All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as “individuals”, “masses”, and “sets”. The term “individual” is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in the section called “The five kinds of simple sumti” and the section called “The three basic description types” refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:

Example 6.16.

le

prenu

cu

bevri

le

pipno

One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as

persons

carry

the

piano.

The person(s) carry the piano.

(Of course the second le should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first le, the one preceding prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)

Suppose the context of Example 6.16, “ ” is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for Example 6.16, “ ” to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.

But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:

Example 6.17.

lei

prenu

cu

bevri

le

pipno

The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as

persons

carry

the

piano.

Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called “mass entity”, or just “mass”. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.

The descriptors loi and lai are analogous to lo and la respectively, but refer to masses either by property ( loi) or by name ( lai). A classic example of loi use is:

Example 6.18.

loi

cinfo

cu

xabju

le

fi'ortu'a

Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really

are-lions

dwell

in-the

African-land.

The lion dwells in Africa.

Lions dwell in Africa.

The difference between lei and loi is that lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to “some part of the mass” allows statements like Example 6.18, “ ” to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand, Example 6.18, “ ” doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is

Example 6.19.

loi

glipre

cu

xabju

le

fi'ortu'a

Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really

are-English-persons

dwell

in-the

African-land.

The English dwell in Africa.

since there is at least one English person living there. the section called “Masses and sets” explains another method of saying what is usually meant by “The lion lives in Africa” which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.

Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:

Example 6.20.

loi

matne

cu

ranti

Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really

is-a-quantity-of-butter

is-soft.

Butter is soft.

Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the “part-of” implication of loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like “butter”, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of matne is “x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2”, so the single English word “butter” is translated as something like “a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist”. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)

The mass name descriptor lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of Example 6.9, “ ”,

Example 6.21.

lai

cribe

pu

finti

le

vi

cukta

The-mass-of-those-named

“  bear”

[past]

creates

the

nearby

book.

The Bears wrote this book.

in a context where la cribe would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using la instead of lai in Example 6.21, “ ” would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.

Masses and sets

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le'i

LE

the set described as

lo'i

LE

the set of those which really are

la'i

LA

the set of those named

Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.

Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors le'i, lo'i and la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors lei, loi, and lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting lo, loi, and lo'i:

Example 6.22.

lo

ratcu

cu

bunre

One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are

rats

are-brown.

Some rats are brown.

Example 6.23.

loi

ratcu

cu

cmalu

Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are

rats

are-small.

Rats are small.

Example 6.24.

lo'i

ratcu

cu

barda

The-set-of

rats

is-large.

There are a lot of rats.

The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.

Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of fadni is:

x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3

Why is it necessary for the x3 place of fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:

Example 6.25.

mi

fadni

zo'e

lo'i

lobypli

I

am-ordinary

among

the-set-of

Lojban-users.

I am a typical Lojban user.

Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If lo'i were changed to lo in Example 6.25, “ ”, the meaning would be something like “I am typical of some Lojban user”, which is nonsense.

Descriptors for typical objects

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lo'e

LE

the typical

le'e

LE

the stereotypical

As promised in the section called “Individuals and masses”, Lojban has a method for discriminating between “the lion” who lives in Africa and “the Englishman” who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor lo'e means “the typical”, as in

Example 6.26.

lo'e

cinfo

cu

xabju

le

fi'ortu'a

The-typical

lion

dwells-in

the

African-land.

The lion dwells in Africa.

What is this “typical lion”? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the “typical” characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that

Example 6.27.

lo'e

glipre

cu

xabju

le

fi'ortu'a

na.e

le

gligugde

The-typical

English-person

dwells-in

the

African-land

(Not!)

and

the

English-country.

The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.

The relationship between lo'e cinfo and lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between le'e and le'i:

Example 6.28.

le'e

xelso

merko

cu

gusta

ponse

The-stereotypical

Greek-type-of

American

is-a-restaurant-type-of

owner.

Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.

Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word “stereotypical” is often derogatory in English, but le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of “the typical lion” are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between lo'e cinfo and le'e cinfo may be very fine.

Furthermore,

Example 6.29.

le'e

skina

cu

se

finti

ne'i

la

xali,uyd.

The-stereotypical

movie

is-invented

in

Hollywood.

is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.

Note that there is no naming equivalent of lo'e and le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a “typical George” or a “typical Smith”. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.

Quantified sumti

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro

PA

all of/each of

su'o

PA

at least (one of)

Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expressed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some detail in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban. For the purposes of this chapter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the simple Lojban numbers pa, re, ci, vo, and mu, meaning “one”, “two”, “three”, “four”, “five” respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers, piro and pisu'o, are explained in the section called “Quantified descriptions”.)

Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:

Example 6.30.

do

cadzu

le

bisli

You

walk-on

the

ice.

Example 6.31.

re

do

cadzu

le

bisli

Two-of

you

walk-on

the

ice.

The difference between Example 6.30, “ ” and Example 6.31, “ ” is the presence of the explicit quantifier re in the latter example. Although re by itself means “two”, when used as a quantifier it means “two-of”. Out of the group of listeners (the number of which isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be “walkers on the ice”. Implicitly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say “I own three shoes” if in fact you own four shoes. Numbers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.

(This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number which is vague. The sentence

Example 6.32.

mi

ponse

su'o

ci

cutci

I

possess

at-least

three

shoes.

is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban.)

Now consider Example 6.30, “ ” again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So Example 6.30, “ ” and Example 6.33, “ ”:

Example 6.33.

ro

do

cadzu

le

bisli

All-of

you

walk-on

the

ice.

turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as mi and mi'o and ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called “implicit quantifier” of ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.

Not all sumti have ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:

Example 6.34.

mi

cusku

lu

do

cadzu

le

bisli

li'u

I

express

[quote]

you

walk-on

the

ice

[unquote].

I say,   “You walk on the ice.”

What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not ro. If ro were supplied explicitly, thus:

Example 6.35.

mi

cusku

ro

lu

do

cadzu

le

bisli

li'u

I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

the meaning would be something like “I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'”. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that Example 6.34, “ ” means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.

The Lojban cmavo meaning “at least” is su'o, and if no ordinary number follows, su'o means “at least once”. (See Example 6.32, “ ” for the use of su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of Example 6.34, “ ” is

Example 6.36.

mi

cusku

su'o

lu

do

cadzu

le

bisli

li'u

I

express

at-least-one-of

[quote]

you

walk-on

the

ice

[unquote].

I

say

one

or

more

instances

of

“  You walk on the ice”

.

I say   “You walk on the ice”.

If an explicit ordinary number such as re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so

Example 6.37.

mi

cusku

re

lu

do

cadzu

le

bisli

li'u

I

express

two-of

[quote]

you

walk-on

the

ice

[unquote].

means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.

Quantified descriptions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

piro

PA

the whole of

pisu'o

PA

a part of

Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:

Example 6.38.

re

le

gerku

cu

blabi

Two-of

the

dogs

are-white.

Two of the dogs are white.

When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an “outer quantifier”, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an “inner quantifier”, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.

For example, the context of Example 6.38, “ ” supposedly told us that le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:

Example 6.39.

re

le

ci

gerku

cu

blabi

Two-of

the

three

dogs

are-white.

Two of the three dogs are white.

(As explained in the discussion of Example 6.32, “ ”, simple numbers like those in Example 6.39, “ ” must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)

You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:

Example 6.40.

le

ci

gerku

cu

blabi

The

three

dogs

are-white.

The three dogs are white.

There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:

le:

ro le su'o

all of the at-least-one described as

lo:

su'o lo ro

at least one of all of those which really are

la:

ro la su'o

all of the at least one named

lei:

pisu'o lei su'o

some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as

loi:

pisu'o loi ro

some part of the mass of all those that really are

lai:

pisu'o lai su'o

some part of the mass of the at-least-one named

le'i:

piro le'i su'o

the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as

lo'i:

piro lo'i ro

the whole of the set of all those that really are

la'i:

piro la'i su'o

the whole of the set of the at-least-one named

le'e:

ro le'e su'o

all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as

lo'e:

su'o lo'e ro

at least one of the types of all those that really are

When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors la, lai, and la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors le, lei, le'i, and le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this discussion: “le-series cmavo” will refer to both the le-series proper and to the la-series.

The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely, lo, loi, lo'i, and lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of su'o.

Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one.

Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is piro, the whole of it.

(Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)

Why “pi-”? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as pimu means “.5”, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing, piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety – of a thing. Similarly, pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.

Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say “half of the men”; saying pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see lu'a in the section called “sumti qualifiers”).

The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including le, lo, la, and the typical descriptors le'e and lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for do. Reference to non-specific individuals with lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be correctly described, and so su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.

From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using le:

Example 6.41.

[ro]

le

ci

gerku

cu

blabi

[All-of]

those-described-as

three

dogs

are-white.

The three dogs are white.

and the corresponding form with lo:

Example 6.42.

ci

lo

[ro]

gerku

cu

blabi

Three-of

those-which-are

[all]

dogs

are-white.

Three dogs are white.

looks very peculiar. Why is the number ci found as an inner quantifier in Example 6.41, “ ” and as an outer quantifier in Example 6.42, “ ”? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the ci in Example 6.41, “ ” is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In Example 6.42, “ ”, however, the dogs referred to by ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of le, the implicit outer quantifier ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.

Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like

Example 6.43.

[so'o]

lo

ci

gerku

cu

blabi

[some-of]

those-which-really-are

three

dogs

are-white

are semantically anomalous; Example 6.43, “ ” claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe!

Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.

Note that the inner quantifier of le, even when exact, need not be truthful: le ci nanmu means “what I describe as three men”, not “three of what I describe as men”. This follows from the rule that what is described by a le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.

Indefinite descriptions

By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of Example 6.42, “ ”; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:

Example 6.44.

ci

gerku

[ku]

cu

blabi

Three dogs are white.

is equivalent in meaning to Example 6.42, “ ”. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator ku may still be used. The name “indefinite description” for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.

Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is also ungrammatical – re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means “23 dogs are white”).

Note: Example 6.32, “ ” also contains an indefinite description, namely su'o ci cutci; another version of that example using an explicit lo would be:

Example 6.45.

mi

ponse

su'o

ci

lo

cutci

I

possess

at-least

three

things-which-really-are

shoes

I own three (or more) shoes.

sumti-based descriptions

As stated in the section called “The three basic description types”, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.

A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required – it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.

A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:

Example 6.46.

re

do

cu

nanmu

Two-of

you

are-men.

Example 6.47.

le

re

do

cu

nanmu

The

two-of

you

are

men.

Example 6.46, “ ” simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men. Example 6.47, “ ”, which has the sumti-based description le re do, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier re gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti do refers to.

Here is another group of examples:

Example 6.48.

re

le

ci

cribe

cu

bunre

Two-of

the

three

bears

are-brown.

Example 6.49.

le

re

le

ci

cribe

cu

bunre

The

two-of

the

three

bears

are-brown.

Example 6.50.

pa

le

re

le

ci

cribe

cu

bunre

One-of

the

two-of

the

three

bears

are-brown.

In each case, le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind. Example 6.48, “ ” says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown. Example 6.49, “ ” says that a specific pair of them are brown. Example 6.50, “ ” says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.

sumti qualifiers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

la'e

LAhE

something referred to by

lu'e

LAhE

a reference to

tu'a

LAhE

an abstraction involving

lu'a

LAhE

an individual/member/component of

lu'i

LAhE

a set formed from

lu'o

LAhE

a mass formed from

vu'i

LAhE

a sequence formed from

na'ebo

NAhE+BO

something other than

to'ebo

NAhE+BO

the opposite of

no'ebo

NAhE+BO

the neutral form of

je'abo

NAhE+BO

that which indeed is

lu'u

LUhU

elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO

Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?

The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the “sumti qualifiers”. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.)

Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say “I see 'The Red Pony'”, where “The Red Pony” is the title of a book. How about:

Example 6.51.

mi

viska

lu

le

xunre

cmaxirma

li'u

I

see

[quote]

the

red

small-horse

[unquote].

But Example 6.51, “ ” doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text “The Red Pony”. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words “The Red Pony” are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words le xunre cmaxirma are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)

What you really want to say is:

Example 6.52.

mi

viska

le

selsinxa

be

lu

le

xunre

cmaxirma

li'u

I

see

the

thing-represented-by

[quote]

the

red

small-horse

[unquote].

The x2 place of selsinxa (the x1 place of sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of selsinxa (the x2 place of sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign. Example 6.52, “ ” allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).

This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:

Example 6.53.

mi

viska

la'e

lu

le

xunre

cmaxirma

li'u

[lu'u]

I

see

the-referent-of

[quote]

the

red

small-horse

[unquote].

So when la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon, la'e dereferences a pointer.)

By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence ( Example 6.51, “ ”), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence ( Example 6.53, “ ”), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.

The sumti qualifier lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,

Example 6.54.

mi

pu

cusku

lu'e

le

vi

cukta

I

[past]

express

a-symbol-for

the

nearby

book.

I said the title of this book.

The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:

Example 6.55.

mi

pu

cusku

le

sinxa

be

le

vi

cukta

I

[past]

express

the

symbol-for

the

nearby

book.

which is equivalent to Example 6.54, “ ”, but longer.

The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in the section called “Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses”. The triplet lu'a, lu'i, and lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses; vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:

Example 6.56.

mi

troci

tu'a

le

vorme

I

try

some-abstraction-about

the

door.

I try (to open) the door.

Example 6.56, “ ” might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.

Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means “the thing last mentioned”; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”.

Example 6.57.

lo'i

ratcu

cu

barda

.iku'i

lu'a

ri

cmalu

The-set-of

rats

is-large.

But

some-members-of

it-last-mentioned

is-small.

The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.

Example 6.58.

lo

ratcu

cu

cmalu

.iku'i

lu'i

ri

barda

Some

rats

are-small.

But

the-set-of

them-last-mentioned

is-large.

Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.

Example 6.59.

mi

ce

do

girzu

.i

lu'o

ri

gunma

.i

vu'i

ri

porsi

I

in-a-set-with

you

are-a-set.

The-mass-of

it-last-mentioned

is-a-mass.

The-sequence-of

it-last-mentioned

is-a-sequence

The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.

(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)

Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:

Example 6.60.

mi

viska

na'ebo

le

gerku

I

see

something-other-than

the

dog.

This compound, na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:

Example 6.61.

mi

nelci

loi

glare

cidja

.ije

do

nelci

to'ebo

ri

.ije

la

djein.

nelci

no'ebo

ra

I

like

part-of-the-mass-of

hot-type-of

food.

And

you

like

the-opposite-of

the-last-mentioned.

And

Jane

likes

the-neutral-value-of

something-mentioned.

I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.

(In Example 6.61, “ ”, the sumti ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by ri. We cannot use ri here, because it would signify la djein., that being the most recent sumti available to ri. See more detailed explanations in the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”.)

The syntax of vocative phrases

Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called “free modifiers” of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.

The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in the section called “Vocative scales”. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:

Example 6.62.

coi

[greetings]

Hello.

Example 6.63.

je'e

[acknowledgement]

Uh-huh.

Roger!

In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by doi, or else just doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:

Example 6.64.

coi.

djan.

Hello, John.

A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use doi instead of a pause:

Example 6.65.

coi

doi

djan.

Hello, John.

means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:

Example 6.66.

doi

djan.

John!

In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be le:

Example 6.67.

coi

xunre

pastu

nixli

Hello,

(red-type-of

dress)-type-of

girl.

Hello, girl with the red dress!

The listener need not really be a xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers su'o le ro are in effect.)

Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.

Example 6.68.

co'o

la

bab.

.e

la

noras.

Goodbye, Bob and Nora.

Example 6.67, “ ” is thus the same as:

Example 6.69.

coi

le

xunre

pastu

nixli

Hello,

the-one-described-as

red-dress

girl!

and Example 6.66, “ ” is the same as:

Example 6.70.

doi

la

djan.

The-one-named

John!

Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called “free modifiers” (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals – see Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban – metalinguistic comments – see the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI” – or reciprocals – see Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts) which must be properly separated.

The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus Example 6.70, “ ” and Example 6.71, “ ” mean the same thing:

Example 6.71.

doi

djan.

ko

klama

mi

John, come to me!

Example 6.72.

ko

klama

mi

doi

djan.

Come to me, John!

As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated, make for more possibilities.

Lojban names

Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.

First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called “names” when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of the section called “The three basic description types” are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:

Example 6.73.

djan.

meris.

djein.

.alis.

John. Mary. Jane. Alice.

(Note that .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology for more information.)

Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see the section called “The syntax of vocative phrases”) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely la, lai, or la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.

Example 6.74.

la

djonz.

klama

le

zarci

Jones

goes

to-the

store.

The Joneses go to-the store.

Example 6.75.

lai

djonz.

klama

le

zarci

The-mass-of

Joneses

go

to-the

store.

The Joneses go to the store.

In Example 6.74, “ ”, the significance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name djonz. are going to the store. In Example 6.75, “ ”, the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name djonz. at all.

The sumti in Example 6.74, “ ” and Example 6.75, “ ” operate exactly like the similar uses of la and lai in Example 6.10, “ ” and Example 6.21, “ ” respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.

There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences) la, lai, or doi unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by la, lai, la'i, or doi must be preceded by a pause instead:

Example 6.76.

coi

.djan.

Hello, John.

Example 6.77.

zo

.djan.

cmene

mi

The-word

“  John”

is-the-name-of

me.

My name is John.

In Example 6.76, “ ” and Example 6.77, “ ”, .djan. appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.

Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:

Example 6.78.

doi

djan.

pol.

djonz.

le

bloti

cu

klama

fi

la

niuport.

niuz.

John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.

A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the “impermissible consonant clusters” of Lojban morphology (explained in the section called “Consonant Clusters”). Thus djeimz. is not a valid version of “James” (because mz is invalid): djeimyz will suffice. Similarly, la may be replaced by ly, lai by ly'i, doi by do'i or dai. Here are a few examples:

Doyle

*doi,l

do'il or   dai,l

Lyra

*lairas

ly'iras

Lottie

*latis

LYtis. or   lotis.

(American pronunciation)

Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi loj- for logji (logical) and ban- for bangu (language) unite to form the name of this language:

Example 6.79.

lojban.

Lojban

When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants s or n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.

The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form la followed by a name is su'o, just as for la followed by a selbri.

Pro-sumti summary

The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.

The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the ro signifies “all of those referred to by the other sumti”: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.

Personal pro-sumti ( mi, do, mi'o, mi'a, ma'a, do'o, ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:

Example 6.80.

mi

prami

do

I love you.

The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be pisu'o rather than ro: in particular, mi'o, mi'a, ma'a, and do'o specifically represent mass combinations of the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that make them up.

Definable pro-sumti ( ko'a, ko'e, ko'i, ko'o, ko'u, fo'a, fo'e, fo'i, fo'o, fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with goi (of selma'o GOI), which means “defined-as”.

Example 6.81.

le

cribe

goi

ko'a

cu

xekri

.i

ko'a

citka

le

smacu

The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.

Quantificational pro-sumti ( da, de, di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:

Example 6.82.

ro

da

poi

prenu

cu

prami

pa

de

poi

finpe

All

somethings-1

which-are

persons

love

one

something-2

which-is

a-fish.

All persons love a fish (each his/her own).

(This is not the same as “All persons love a certain fish”; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and ro (all) thereafter.

Reflexive pro-sumti ( vo'a, vo'e, vo'i, vo'o, vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:

Example 6.83.

le

cribe

cu

batci

vo'a

The

bear

bites

what-is-in-the-x1-place.

The bear bites itself.

Back-counting pro-sumti ( ri, ra, ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:

Example 6.84.

mi

klama

la

frankfurt.

ri

I

go

to-Frankfurt

from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti

I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).

Indefinite pro-sumti ( zo'e, zu'i, zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified:

Example 6.85.

mi

klama

la

frankfurt.

zo'e

zo'e

zo'e

I

go

to-Frankfurt

from-unspecified

via-unspecified

by-means-unspecified.

The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be ro (all) or su'o (at least one) or conceivably even no (none), though no would require a very odd context indeed.

Demonstrative pro-sumti ( ti, ta, tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:

Example 6.86.

ko

muvgau

ti

ta

tu

You

[imperative]

move

this-thing

from-that-nearby-place

to-that-further-away-place.

Move this from there to over there!

Metalinguistic pro-sumti ( di'u, de'u, da'u, di'e, de'e, da'e, dei, do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.

Example 6.87.

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

vo

.i

la'e

di'u

jetnu

The-number

two

plus

two

equals

the-number

four.

The-referent-of

the-previous-utterance

is-true.

The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is su'o (at least one), because they are considered analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.

The relative pro-sumti ( ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.

Example 6.88.

mi

viska

le

mlatu

ku

poi

zo'e

zbasu

ke'a

loi

slasi

I

see

the

cat(s)

such-that

something-unspecified

makes

it/them

(the

cats)

from-a-mass-of

plastic.

I see the cat(s) made of plastic.

The question pro-sumti ( ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:

Example 6.89.

do

klama

ma

You

go

to-what-sumti?

Where are you going?

The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.

In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.

Quotation summary

There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts.

Text quotations are preceded by lu and followed by li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.

Example 6.90.

mi

cusku

lu

mi'e

djan.

li'u

I

say

the-text

[quote]

I-am

John

[unquote].

I say   “I'm John”.

Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.

Example 6.91.

mi

cusku

lo'u

li

mi

le'u

I

say

the-words

[quote]

li mi

[unquote].

I say   “li mi”.

Note that the translation of Example 6.91, “ ” does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).

Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.

Example 6.92.

mi

cusku

zo

.ai

I say the-word   ai.

Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.

Example 6.93.

mi

cusku

zoi

kuot.

I'm

John

.kuot

I say   “I'm John”.

The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.

Number summary

The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:

Example 6.94.

li

vo

the-number

four

4

Example 6.95.

li

re

su'i

re

the-number

two

plus

two

2 + 2

Example 6.96.

li

.abu

bopi'i

xy.

bote'a

re

su'i

by.

bopi'i

xy.

su'i

cy.

the-number

a

times

x

to-power

2

plus

b

times

x

plus

c

ax^2 + bx + c

An alternative to li is me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus Example 6.94, “ ” and Example 6.95, “ ” above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas

Example 6.97.

me'o

vo

the-expression

four

“4”

and

Example 6.98.

me'o

re

su'i

re

the-expression

two

plus

two

“2+2”

refer to different pieces of text.

The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is su'o, because these sumti are analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with li), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts “4”, as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.

Chapter 7. Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi

What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called “pronouns” which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:

Example 7.1.

Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say.

Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:

Example 7.2.

John picked up a stick and shook it.

and

Example 7.3.

John picked up a stick and shook a stick.

Example 7.3, “ ” does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas Example 7.2, “ ” requires that they are.

In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term “pro-sumti”. A purely Lojban term would be sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called “pro-bridi” or bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.

A few technical terms: The term “referent” means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word “I” is James. On the other hand, the term “antecedent” refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In

Example 7.4.

John loves himself

the antecedent of “himself” is “John”; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the person, would be the referent of “himself”. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.

Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mi

KOhA

mi-series

I, me

do

KOhA

mi-series

you

mi'o

KOhA

mi-series

you and I

mi'a

KOhA

mi-series

I and others, we but not you

ma'a

KOhA

mi-series

you and I and others

do'o

KOhA

mi-series

you and others

ko

KOhA

mi-series

you-imperative

The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in various combinations. mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass. do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither mi nor do is specific about the number of persons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.

The referents of mi and do are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in the section called “Vocative scales”. The vocative mi'e assigns mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign do.

Example 7.5.

mi'e

djan.

doi

frank.

mi

cusku

lu

mi

bajra

li'u

do

I-am

John,

O

Frank,

I

express

[quote]

I

run

[unquote]

to-you

I am John, Frank; I tell you   “I run”.

The cmavo mi'o, mi'a, ma'a, and do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:

- mi'o includes only the speaker and the listener but no one else;

- mi'a includes the speaker and others but excludes the listener;

- do'o includes the listener and others but excludes the speaker;

- ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener, others.

All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example, mi'o is the same as mi joi do, the mass of me and you considered jointly.

In English, “we” can mean mi or mi'o or mi'a or even ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish mi'o from mi'a:

Example 7.6.

We're going to the store.

Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.

Finally, the cmavo ko is logically equivalent to do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make the assertion true:

Example 7.7.

do

klama

le

zarci

You

go

to-the

store.

becomes:

Example 7.8.

ko

klama

le

zarci

You

[imperative]

go

to-the

store.

Make

“  you go to the store”

true!

Go to the store!

In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word ko must be used. However, ko does not have to appear in the x1 place:

Example 7.9.

mi

viska

ko

I

see

you

[imperative]

Make

“  I see you”

true!

Be seen by me!

In Example 7.9, “ ”, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of ko in the x2 place. Indeed, ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:

Example 7.10.

mi

viska

le

prenu

poi

prami

ko

I

see

the

person

that

loves

you

[imperative]

Make

“  I see the person that loves you”

true!

Be

such

that

the

person

who

loves

you

is

seen

by

me!

Show me the person who loves you!

As mentioned in the section called “What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?”, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.

Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ti

KOhA

ti-series

this here, a nearby object

ta

KOhA

ti-series

that there, a medium-distant object

tu

KOhA

ti-series

that yonder, a far-distant object

It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words “this” and “that” serve this function among others: “this” refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, and “that” refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo ti, ta, and tu provide only the pointing function of “this” and “that”; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.

There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun “that” referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun “yon” to something far away.

In conversation, there is a special rule about ta and tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. When used contrastingly, ta refers to something that is near the listener, whereas tu refers to something far from both speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between ti and mi, and ta and do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as “near” and “far away” is relative to the current situation.

It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun “this” and the English adjective “this” as in “this boat”. The latter is not represented in Lojban by ti:

Example 7.11.

le

ti

bloti

the

this

boat

does not mean “this boat” but rather “this one's boat”, “the boat associated with this thing”, as explained in the section called “Possessive sumti”. A correct Lojban translation of Example 7.11, “ ” is

Example 7.12.

le

vi

bloti

the

here

boat

the nearby boat

using a spatial tense before the selbri bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System.) Another correct translation would be:

Example 7.13.

ti

noi

bloti

this-thing

which-incidentally

is-a-boat

There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.

Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

di'u

KOhA

di'u-series

the previous utterance

de'u

KOhA

di'u-series

an earlier utterance

da'u

KOhA

di'u-series

a much earlier utterance

di'e

KOhA

di'u-series

the next utterance

de'e

KOhA

di'u-series

a later utterance

da'e

KOhA

di'u-series

a much later utterance

dei

KOhA

di'u-series

this very utterance

do'i

KOhA

di'u-series

some utterance

The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use “this” and “that” for this (indeed, the immediately preceding “this” is an example of such a usage):

Example 7.14.

You don't like cats.

That is untrue.

Here “that” does not refer to something that can be pointed to, but to the preceding sentence “You don't like cats”. In Lojban, therefore, Example 7.14, “ ” is rendered:

Example 7.15.

do

na

nelci

loi

mlatu

.i

di'u

jitfa

jufra

You

(Not!)

like

the-mass-of

cats.

The-previous-utterance

is-a-false-sentence.

Using ta instead of di'u would cause the listener to look around to see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to.

As with ti, ta, and tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the i/ a/ u vowel convention of the demonstratives in the section called “Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series” without causing collisions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique i/ e/ a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.

Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so di'e, de'e, and da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:

Example 7.16.

la

saimn.

cusku

di'e

Simon

expresses

the-following-utterance.

Simon says:

Example 7.16, “ ” would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after Example 7.16, “ ”, and so di'e is appropriate.

The remaining two cmavo, dei and do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:

Example 7.17.

dei

jetnu

jufra

This-utterance

is-a-true-sentence.

What I am saying (at this moment) is true.

Example 7.18.

do'i

jetnu

jufra

Some-utterance

is-a-true-sentence.

That's true (where   “that” is not necessarily what was just said).

The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of dei in the current utterance is the same as the referent of di'u in the next utterance. The term “utterance” is used rather than “sentence” because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.

Note one very common construction with di'u and the cmavo la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see the section called “sumti qualifiers”) which precedes a sumti and means “the thing referred to by (the sumti)”:

Example 7.19.

mi

prami

la

djein.

.i

mi

nelci

la'e

di'u

I

love

Jane.

And

I

like

the-referent-of

the-last-utterance.

I love Jane, and I like that.

The effect of la'e di'u in Example 7.19, “ ” is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word: la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up di'u and la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result:

Example 7.20.

mi

prami

la

djein.

.i

mi

nelci

di'u

I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.

says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.

There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.

Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:

ko'a

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-1

ko'e

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-2

ko'i

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-3

ko'o

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-4

ko'u

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-5

fo'a

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-6

fo'e

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-7

fo'i

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-8

fo'o

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-9

fo'u

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-10

broda

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-1

brode

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-2

brodi

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-3

brodo

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-4

brodu

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-5

goi

GOI

pro-sumti assignment

cei

CEI

pro-bridi assignment

The discussion of personal pro-sumti in the section called “Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series” may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronouns include not only “I” and “you” but also “he”, “she”, “it”, and “they”. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.

There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word “he” can refer only to males, “she” only to females (and ships and a few other things), “it” only to inanimate things, and “they” only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:

Example 7.21.

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

.i

ko'a

blanu

Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.

The English gloss “it-1”, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however, la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in which case Example 7.21, “ ” means that Alice, not the store, is blue.

To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo goi:

Example 7.22.

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

.i

ko'a

goi

la

.alis.

cu

blanu

Alice

goes-to

the

store.

It-1,

also-known-as

Alice,

is-blue.

Syntactically, goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative phrases are explained in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated). Semantically, it says that ko'a and la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because ko'a is being defined as meaning la .alis.. It is equally correct to say:

Example 7.23.

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

.i

la

.alis.

goi

ko'a

cu

blanu

Alice

goes-to

the

store.

Alice,

also-known-as

it-1,

is-blue.

in other words, goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator, ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable. The details are in the section called “Relative phrases”.

The afterthought form of goi shown in Example 7.22, “ ” and Example 7.23, “ ” is probably most common in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though, ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of goi is:

Example 7.24.

la

.alis.

goi

ko'a

klama

le

zarci

.i

ko'a

cu

blanu

Alice,

also-known-as

it-1,

goes-to

the

store.

It-1

is-blue.

Again, ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entirely acceptable in Example 7.24, “ ”. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon: “The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...”.

Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:

Example 7.25.

ti

slasi

je

mlatu

bo

cidja

lante

gacri

cei

broda

.i

le

crino

broda

cu

barda

.i

le

xunre

broda

cu

cmalu

These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.

The pro-bridi broda has as its antecedent the selbri slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The cmavo cei performs the role of goi in assigning broda to this long phrase, and broda can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact, broda and its relatives actually are brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)

Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of brode is the whole bridi mi klama le zarci:

Example 7.26.

mi

klama

cei

brode

le

zarci

.i

do

brode

I

go-to

(which-is

claim-1)

the

store.

You

claim-1.

I go to the store. You, too.

In the second bridi, do brode means do klama le zarci, because brode carries the x2 sumti of mi klama le zarci along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti do overrides the mi of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.

Another use of broda and its relatives, without assignment, is as “sample gismu”:

Example 7.27.

broda

ke

brode

brodi

a

thing-1

type

of

(thing-2

type-of

thing-3)

represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)

As is explained in the section called “lerfu words as pro-sumti”, the words for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with the same letter:

Example 7.28.

mi

viska

le

gerku

.i

gy.

cusku

zo

arf.

I

see

the

dog.

D

expresses

the-word

“  Arf!”

.

The Lojban word gerku begins with g, so the antecedent of gy., the cmavo for the letter g, must be le gerku. In the English translation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as “D”. Of course, in case of ambiguity, goi can be used to make an explicit assignment.

Furthermore, goi can even be used to assign a name:

Example 7.29.

le

ninmu

goi

la

sam.

cu

klama

le

zarci

The

woman

also-known-as

Sam

goes

to-the

store.

The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.

This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman “Sam”. “Sam” is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.

Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ri

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats last sumti)

ra

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats previous sumti)

ru

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats long-ago sumti)

go'i

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats last bridi)

go'a

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats previous bridi)

go'u

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats long-ago bridi)

go'e

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats last-but-one bridi)

go'o

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats future bridi)

nei

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats current bridi)

no'a

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats outer bridi)

ra'o

RAhO

pro-cmavo update

The term “anaphora” literally means “repetition”, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora, ri, ra, and ru; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora, go'i, go'a, and go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the “distances” referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.

The cmavo ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the ri:

Example 7.30.

la

.alis.

sipna

le

ri

kumfa

Alice

sleeps-in

the

of-[repeat

last

sumti]

room.

Alice sleeps in her room.

The ri in Example 7.30, “ ” is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is la .alis., so Example 7.30, “ ” is equivalent to:

Example 7.31.

la

.alis.

sipna

le

la

.alis.

kumfa

Alice

sleeps-in

the

of-Alice

room.

Alice sleeps in Alice's room.

Note that ri does not repeat le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not yet complete when ri appears. This prevents ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like la alis. in Example 7.31, “ ” is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.

Certain sumti are ignored by ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:

Example 7.32.

mi

prami

mi

I

love

me.

I love myself.

However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by ri, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating ti may not be effective. Likewise, ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later ri; in fact, a string of ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:

Example 7.33.

la

djan.

viska

le

tricu

.i

ri

se

jadni

le

ri

jimca

John

sees

the

tree.

[repeat

last]

is-adorned-by

the

of-[repeat

last]

branch.

John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.

Here the second ri has as antecedent the first ri, which has as antecedent le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.

To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on, ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in the section called “Subscripts: XI”):

Example 7.34.

lo

smuci

.i

lo

forca

.i

la

rik.

pilno

rixire

.i

la

.alis.

pilno

riximu

A

spoon.

A

fork.

Rick

uses

[repeat

next-to-last].

Alice

uses

[repeat

fifth-from-last].

Here rixire, or “ri-sub-2”, skips la rik. to reach lo forca. In the same way, riximu, or “ri-sub-5”, skips la .alis., rixire, la rik., and lo forca to reach lo smuci. As can clearly be seen, this procedure is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.

Therefore, the vaguer ra and ru are also provided. The cmavo ra repeats a recently used sumti, and ru one that was further back in the speech or text. The use of ra and ru forces the listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker. Can ra refer to the last sumti, like ri? The answer is no if ri has also been used. If ri has not been used, then ra might be the last sumti. Likewise, if ra has been used, then any use of ru would repeat a sumti earlier than the one ra is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example Example 7.34, “ ”, but one that depends more on context, is:

Example 7.35.

lo

smuci

.i

lo

forca

.i

la

rik.

pilno

ra

.i

la

.alis.

pilno

ru

A

spoon.

A

fork.

Rick

uses

[some

previous

thing].

Alice

uses

[some

more

remote

thing].

In Example 7.35, “ ”, the use of ra tells us that something other than la rik. is the antecedent; lo forca is the nearest sumti, so it is probably the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of ru must be something even further back in the utterance than lo forca, and lo smuci is the obvious candidate.

The meaning of ri must be determined every time it is used. Since ra and ru are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to something repeated by ri, ra, or ru, use goi and a ko'a-series cmavo:

Example 7.36.

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

.i

ri

goi

ko'a

blanu

Alice

goes-to

the

store.

It-last-mentioned

also-known-as

it-1

is-blue.

allows the store to be referred to henceforth as ko'a without ambiguity. Example 7.36, “ ” is equivalent to Example 7.21, “ ” and eliminates any possibility of ko'a being interpreted by the listener as referring to Alice.

The cmavo go'i, go'a, and go'u follow exactly the same rules as ri, ra, and ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:

Example 7.37.

xu

zo

djan.

cmene

do

.i

go'i

[True-false?]

The-word

“  John”

is-the-name

of

you?

[repeat

last

bridi].

Is John your name? Yes.

Example 7.38.

mi

klama

le

zarci

.i

do

go'i

I

go-to

the

store.

You

[repeat

last

bridi].

I go to the store. You, too.

Note that Example 7.38, “ ” means the same as Example 7.26, “ ”, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use go'i cei broda or the like, analogously to ri goi ko'a in Example 7.36, “ ”.

The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo go'e means the same as go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:

Example 7.39.

A:

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

B:

mi

nelci

le

si'o

mi

go'i

A:

do

go'e

A:

I

[future]

go-to

the

store.

B:

I

like

the

concept-of

I

[repeat

last

bridi].

A:

You

[repeat

last

bridi

but

one].

A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too.

Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction): le si'o mi go'i means le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the word mi explicitly to replace the x1 of mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like mi is replacing mi? Because B's mi refers to B, whereas A's mi refers to A. If B said:

Example 7.40.

mi

nelci

le

si'o

go'i

that would mean:

I like the idea of your going to the store.

The repetition signalled by go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to do, meaning B. Note that in Example 7.39, “ ”, the tense ba (future time) is carried along by both go'i and go'e.

Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:

Example 7.41.

le

xekri

mlatu

cu

klama

le

zarci

.i

le

go'i

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

black

cat

goes-to

the

store.

That-described-as-the-x1-place-of

[repeat

last

bridi]

walks-on

the

ice.

The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.

Here the go'i repeats le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is le xekri mlatu, le go'i means le xekri mlatu.

The cmavo go'o, nei, and no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi ( no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:

Example 7.42.

mi

nupre

le

nu

mi

go'o

.i

ba

dunda

le

djini

le

bersa

.i

ba

dunda

le

zdani

le

tixnu

I

promise

the

event-of

I

[repeat

future

bridi]

[Future]

give

the

money

to-the

son

[Future]

give

the

house

to-the

daughter

I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.

(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use le bersa/tixnu be mi.)

For good examples of nei and no'a, we need nested bridi contexts:

Example 7.43.

mi

se

pluka

le

nu

do

pensi

le

nu

nei

kei

pu

le

nu

do

zukte

I

am-pleased-by

the

event-of

(you

think-about

(the

event-of

[main

bridi])

before

the-event

of

(your

acting).

I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.

Example 7.44.

mi

ba

klama

ca

le

nu

do

no'a

I

[future]

go

[present]

the

event-of

you

[repeats

outer

bridi]

I will go when you do.

Finally, ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:

Example 7.45.

mi

ba

lumci

lemi

karce

I will wash my car.

you might reply either:

Example 7.46.

mi

go'i

I will wash your car.

or:

Example 7.47.

mi

go'i

ra'o

I will wash my car.

The ra'o forces the second mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternative to do go'e in B's statement in Example 7.39, “ ”.

The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.

However, a ri-series or go'a-series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:

Example 7.48.

la

djan.

cusku

lu

mi

klama

le

zarci

li'u

.i

la

.alis.

cusku

lu

mi

go'i

li'u

John

says

[quote]

I

go-to

the

store

[unquote].

Alice

says

[quote]

I

[repeat]

[unquote].

John says,   “I am going to the store.” Alice says, “Me too.”

Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.

Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo'e

KOhA

zo'e-series

the obvious value

zu'i

KOhA

zo'e-series

the typical value

zi'o

KOhA

zo'e-series

the nonexistent value

co'e

GOhA

co'e-series

has the obvious relationship

The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo zo'e represents an elliptical value for this sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as “whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express”.

The cmavo zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:

Example 7.49.

mi

klama

le

bartu

be

le

zdani

le

nenri

be

le

zdani

zu'i

zu'i

I

go

to-the

outside

of

the

house

from-the

inside

of

the

house

[by-typical-route]

[by-typical-means]

In Example 7.49, “ ”, the first zu'i probably means something like “by the door”, and the second zu'i probably means something like “on foot”, those being the typical route and means for leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise during a fire, neither zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use zu'i in “by standard” places.

Finally, the cmavo zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of zbasu is:

actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3

Consider the sentence

Living things are made from cells.

This cannot be correctly expressed as:

Example 7.50.

loi

jmive

cu

se

zbasu

[zo'e]

fi

loi

selci

The-mass-of

living-things

is-made

[by-something]

from

the-mass-of

cells

because the zo'e, expressed or understood, in Example 7.50, “ ” indicates that there is still a “maker” in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone “makes” living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a “maker”: however, an alternative strategy is to use zi'o to eliminate the maker place:

Example 7.51.

loi

jmive

cu

se

zbasu

zi'o

loi

selci

The-mass-of

living-things

is-made

[without-maker]

from

the-mass-of

cells.

Note: The use of zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:

Example 7.52.

mi

zbasu

le

dinju

loi

mudri

I

make

the

building

from-some-of-the-mass-of

wood.

I make the building out of wood.

Example 7.53.

zi'o

zbasu

le

dinju

loi

mudri

[without-maker]

makes

the

building

from-some-of-the-mass-of

wood.

The building is made out of wood.

Example 7.54.

mi

zbasu

zi'o

loi

mudri

I

make

[without-thing-made]

from-some-of-the-mass-of

wood.

I build using wood.

Example 7.55.

mi

zbasu

le

dinju

zi'o

I

make

the

building

[without-material].

I make the building.

If Example 7.52, “ ” is true, then Example 7.53, “ ” through Example 7.55, “ ” must be true also. However, Example 7.51, “ ” does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non- zi'o) sumti.

The pro-bridi co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of co'e as a selbri place-holder:

Example 7.56.

mi

troci

le

nu

mi

co'e

le

vorme

I

try

the

event-of

my

[doing-the-obvious-action]

to-the

door.

I try the door.

The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.

The form of co'e was chosen to resemble zo'e; the cmavo do'e of selma'o BAI (see the section called “Modal tags: BAI”) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.

Note that do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.

Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vo'a

KOhA

vo'a-series

x1 of this bridi

vo'e

KOhA

vo'a-series

x2 of this bridi

vo'i

KOhA

vo'a-series

x3 of this bridi

vo'o

KOhA

vo'a-series

x4 of this bridi

vo'u

KOhA

vo'a-series

x5 of this bridi

soi

SOI

reciprocity

se'u

SEhU

soi terminator

The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:

Example 7.57.

mi

lumci

vo'a

I wash myself

Example 7.58.

mi

klama

le

zarci

vo'e

I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].

To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”.

The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like “vice versa”:

Example 7.59.

mi

prami

do

soi

vo'a

vo'e

I

love

you

[reciprocity]

[x1

of

this

bridi]

[x2

of

this

bridi].

I love you and vice versa (swapping   “I” and “you”).

The significance of soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by vo'a) and the x2 (specified by vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows soi, then the sumti immediately preceding soi is understood to be one of those involved:

Example 7.60.

mi

prami

do

soi

vo'a

I

love

you

[reciprocity]

[x1

of

this

bridi].

again involves the x1 and x2 places.

Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:

Example 7.61.

mi

bajykla

ti

ta

soi

vo'e

mi

bajykla

ti

ta

soi

vo'e

vo'i

soi

vo'e

vo'i

mi

bajykla

ti

ta

I

runningly-go

to

this

from

that

and

vice

versa

(to

that

from

this).

The elidable terminator for soi is se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the soi, and the soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where se'u is required:

Example 7.62.

mi

bajykla

ti

soi

vo'i

se'u

ta

I

runningly-go

to-this

[reciprocity]

[x3

of

this

bridi]

from-that

I run to this from that and vice versa.

sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma

KOhA

sumti question

mo

GOhA

bridi question

Lojban questions are more fully explained in the section called “Questions and answers”, but ma and mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:

Example 7.63.

do

klama

ma

You

go

to-what-destination?

Where are you going?

The cmavo mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:

Example 7.64.

do

mo

What

predicate

is

true

as

applied

to

you?

How are you?

What are you doing?

What are you?

Example 7.65, “ ” is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.

(One thing it probably does not mean is “Who are you?” in the sense “What is your name/identity?”, which is better expressed by:

Example 7.65.

ma

cmene

do

What

sumti

is-the-name-of

you?

What is your name?

or even

Example 7.66.

doi

ma

O

[what

sumti?]

which uses the vocative doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)

A further example of mo:

Example 7.67.

lo

mo

prenu

cu

darxi

do

.i

barda

A

[what

selbri?]

type-of

person

hit

you?

(Observative:)

A

big

thing.

Which person hit you? The big one.

When ma or mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:

Example 7.68.

ma

djuno

ma

[What

sumti]

knows

[what

sumti]?

Who knows what?

Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke'a

KOhA

relativized sumti

This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:

Example 7.69.

mi

catlu

lo

mlatu

poi

[zo'e]

zbasu

ke'a

lei

slasi

I

see

a

cat

such-that

something-unspecified

makes

the-thing-being-relativized

[the

cat]

from-some-mass-of

plastic.

I see a cat made of plastic.

If ke'a were omitted from Example 7.69, “ ”, it might be confused with:

Example 7.70.

mi

catlu

lo

mlatu

poi

[ke'a]

zbasu

lei

slasi

I

see

a

cat

such-that

the-thing-being-relativized

[the

cat]

makes

a-mass-of

plastic

I see a cat that makes plastic.

The anaphora cmavo ri cannot be used in place of ke'a in Example 7.69, “ ” and Example 7.70, “ ”, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the ke'a appears.

Note that ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses, ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see the section called “Relative clauses within relative clauses”).

Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ce'u

KOhA

abstraction focus

The cmavo ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo ka. Abstractions, including the uses of ce'u, are discussed in full in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction.

In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:

Example 7.71.

le

ka

ce'u

gleki

the

property-of

(X

being-happy)

the

property

of

being

happy

happiness

and

Example 7.72.

le

ka

gleki

ce'u

the

property-of

(being-happy

about-X)

the property of being that which someone is happy about

Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da

KOhA

da-series

something-1

de

KOhA

da-series

something-2

di

KOhA

da-series

something-3

bu'a

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-1

bu'e

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-2

bu'i

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-3

Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of Example 7.2, “ ” is:

Example 7.73.

la

djan.

cu

lafti

da

poi

grana

ku'o

gi'e

desygau

da

John

raised

something-1

which

is-a-stick

and

shake-did

something-1.

John picked up a stick and shook it.

Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da'o

DAhO

cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.

Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with goi or cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally last until re-bound; details are available in the section called “A few notes on variables”.

Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the bridi in which they appear; and ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.

Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are used.

However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containing it. One use of da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.

In addition, the cmavo ni'o and no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in the section called “Paragraphs: NIhO”.

The identity predicate: du

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du

GOhA

identity

The cmavo du has the place structure:

x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...

and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi. du serves as mathematical “=”, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban.

The main difference between

Example 7.74.

ko'a

du

le

nanmu

It-1

is-identical-to

the

man

and

Example 7.75.

ko'a

mintu

le

nanmu

It-1

is-the-same-as

the

man

is this defining nature. Example 7.74, “ ” presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for information about what ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels the need to define ko'a for later reference. A bridi with du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with du, and all are said to be identical.

Example 7.75, “ ”, however, predicates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously.

Note: du historically is derived from dunli, but dunli has a third place which du lacks: the standard of equality.

lujvo based on pro-sumti

There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See the section called “KOhA cmavo by series” for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.

Thus donta'a, meaning “you-talk”, would be interpreted as tavla be do, and would have the place structure

Example 7.76.

t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4

since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be do.

On the other hand, the lujvo donma'o, literally “you-cmavo”, which means “a second person personal pronoun”, would be interpreted as cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure:

Example 7.77.

c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4

since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the context do.

An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:

Example 7.78.

fo'a

goi

le

kulnrsu,omi

.i

lo

fo'arselsanga

x6

stands

for

Finnish-culture.

An

x6-song.

Finally, lujvo involving zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures. In brief, the convention is to use the rafsi for zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to this is zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as zilrelselpinxe, and lo zilpavypinxe, like lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.

The pro-bridi co'e, du, and bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.

KOhA cmavo by series

mi-series

mi

I (rafsi:   mib)

do

you (rafsi:   don and doi)

mi'o

you and I

mi'a

I and others, we but not you

ma'a

you and I and others

do'o

you and others

ko

you-imperative

ti-series

ti

this here; something nearby (rafsi:   tif)

ta

that there; something distant (rafsi:   taz)

tu

that yonder; something far distant (rafsi:   tuf)

di'u-series

di'u

the previous utterance

de'u

an earlier utterance

da'u

a much earlier utterance

di'e

the next utterance

de'e

a later utterance

da'e

a much later utterance

dei

this very utterance

do'i

some utterance

ko'a-series

ko'a

it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti

ko'e

it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti

ko'i

it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti

ko'o

it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti

ko'u

it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti

fo'a

it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:   fo'a)

fo'e

it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:   fo'e)

fo'i

it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:   fo'i)

fo'o

it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti

fo'u

it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti

ri-series

ri

(repeats the last sumti)

ra

(repeats a previous sumti)

ru

(repeats a long-ago sumti)

zo'e-series

zo'e

the obvious value

zu'i

the typical value

zi'o

the nonexistent value (rafsi:   zil)

vo'a-series

vo'a

x1 of this bridi

vo'e

x2 of this bridi

vo'i

x3 of this bridi

vo'o

x4 of this bridi

vo'u

x5 of this bridi

da-series

da

something-1 (rafsi:   dav/dza)

de

something-2

di

something-3

others:

ke'a

relativized sumti

ma

sumti question

ce'u

abstraction focus

GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

broda-series (not GOhA):

broda

is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi

brode

is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi

brodi

is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi

brodo

is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi

brodu

is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi

go'i-series

go'i

(repeats the last bridi)

go'a

(repeats a previous bridi)

go'u

(repeats a long-ago bridi)

go'e

(repeats the last-but-one bridi)

go'o

(repeats a future bridi)

nei

(repeats the current bridi)

no'a

(repeats the next outer bridi)

bu'a-series

bu'a

some-predicate-1 (rafsi:   bul)

bu'e

some-predicate-2

bu'i

some-predicate-3

others:

co'e

has the obvious relationship (rafsi:   com/co'e)

mo

bridi question

du

identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ...

dub

du'o

Other cmavo discussed in this chapter

goi

GOI

pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)

cei

CEI

pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)

ra'o

RAhO

pro-sumti/pro-bridi update

soi

SOI

reciprocity

se'u

SEhU

soi terminator

da'o

DAhO

cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

Chapter 8. Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated

What are you pointing at?

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

poi

NOI

restrictive relative clause introducer

ke'a

GOhA

relative pro-sumti

ku'o

KUhO

relative clause terminator

Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti ti if it is nearby, or ta if it is somewhat further away, or tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in Chapter 7, Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi.)

However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and says:

Example 8.1.

ti

cu

barda

This-one

is-big.

What is the referent of ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nose? Or even (for ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean “these ones” as well as “this one”) the pores on the person's nose?

To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a “relative clause”. Relative clauses are usually attached to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose, noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.

In between the poi and the ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the “relativized sumti”). Here are some examples before we go any further:

Example 8.2.

ti

poi

ke'a

prenu

ku'o

cu

barda

This-thing

such-that-(IT

is-a-person)

is-large.

This

thing

which

is

a

person

is

big.

This person is big.

Example 8.3.

ti

poi

ke'a

nazbi

ku'o

cu

barda

This-thing

such-that-(IT

is-a-nose)

is-large.

This

thing

which

is

a

nose

is

big.

This nose is big.

Example 8.4.

ti

poi

ke'a

nazbi

kapkevna

ku'o

cu

barda

This-thing

such-that-(IT

is-a-nose-type-of

skin-hole)

is-big.

These

things

which

are

nose-pores

are

big.

These nose-pores are big.

In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word “IT”, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in Example 8.2, “ ” through Example 8.4, “ ”, the cmavo ti) to which the relative clause is attached.

Of course, there is no reason why ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:

Example 8.5.

tu

poi

le

mlatu

pu

lacpu

ke'a

ku'o

cu

ratcu

That-distant-thing

such-that

(the

cat

[past]

drags

IT)

is-a-rat.

That

thing

which

the

cat

dragged

is

a

rat.

What the cat dragged is a rat.

Example 8.6.

ta

poi

mi

djica

le

nu

mi

ponse

ke'a

[kei]

ku'o

cu

bloti

That-thing

such-that(

I

desire

the

event-of(

I

own

IT

)

)

is-a-boat.

That thing that I want to own is a boat.

In Example 8.6, “ ”, ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction) within a relative clause.

Like any sumti, ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:

Example 8.7.

ti

poi

nazbi

cu

barda

This-thing

which

is-a-nose

is-big.

almost certainly means the same thing as Example 8.3, “ ”. However, ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:

Example 8.8.

tu

poi

le

mlatu

pu

lacpu

cu

ratcu

That-distant-thing

which

the

cat

[past]

drags

is-a-rat

is equivalent to Example 8.4, “ ”.

As stated before, ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter, ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus, Example 8.2, “ ” can be written:

Example 8.9.

ti

poi

prenu

cu

barda

That

which

is-a-person

is-big.

That person is big.

without any change in meaning. Note that poi is translated “which” rather than “such-that” when ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word “which” is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are “who” and “that”, as in:

Example 8.10.

I saw a man who was going to the store.

and

Example 8.11.

The building that the school was located in is large.

In Example 8.10, “ ” the relative clause is “who was going to the store”, and in Example 8.11, “ ” it is “that the school was located in”. Sometimes “who”, “which”, and “that” are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.

Incidental relative clauses

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

noi

NOI

incidental relative clause introducer

There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply “non-restrictive”) relative clauses introduced by noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in the section called “What are you pointing at?” are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)

Consider the following examples:

Example 8.12.

le

gerku

poi

blanu

cu

barda

The

dog

which

is-blue

is-large.

The dog which is blue is large.

Example 8.13.

le

gerku

noi

blanu

cu

barda

The

dog

incidentally-which

is-blue

is-large.

The dog, which is blue, is large.

In Example 8.12, “ ”, the information conveyed by poi blanu is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In Example 8.13, “ ”, on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause noi blanu just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)

In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by “that” as well as “which” and “who”, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with “that”. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo poi and noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.

Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:

Example 8.14.

mi

noi

jdice

cu

zvati

I

who-incidentally

am-a-judge

am-at

[some-place].

I, a judge, am present.

In this example, mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.

Example 8.15.

xu

do

viska

le

mi

karce

noi

blabi

[True?]

You

see

my

car

incidentally-which

is-white.

Do you see my car, which is white?

In Example 8.15, “ ”, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since le karce can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast Example 8.16, “ ” with a restrictive relative clause:

Example 8.16.

xu

do

viska

le

mi

karce

poi

blabi

[True?]

You

see

my

car

which

is-white.

Do

you

see

my

car

that

is

white?

Do you see my white car?

Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti le mi karce (and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only. Example 8.16, “ ” means much the same as Example 8.17, “ ”, which does not use a relative clause:

Example 8.17.

xu

do

viska

le

mi

blabi

karce

[True?]

You

see

my

white

car.

Do you see my car, the white one?

So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However, blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of Example 8.16, “ ” can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.

Relative phrases

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe

GOI

restrictive association

po

GOI

restrictive possession

po'e

GOI

restrictive intrinsic possession

po'u

GOI

restrictive identification

ne

GOI

incidental association

no'u

GOI

incidental identification

ge'u

GEhU

relative phrase terminator

There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.

Here is an example of pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:

Example 8.18.

le

stizu

pe

mi

cu

blanu

The

chair

associated-with

me

is-blue.

My chair is blue.

Example 8.19.

le

stizu

poi

ke'a

srana

mi

cu

blanu

The

chair

such-that(

IT

is-associated-with

me)

is-blue.

In Example 8.18, “ ” and Example 8.19, “ ”, the link between the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind.

Here is an example of po:

Example 8.20.

le

stizu

po

mi

cu

xunre

The

chair

specific-to

me

is

red.

Example 8.21.

le

stizu

poi

ke'a

se

steci

srana

mi

cu

xunre

The

chair

such-that

(IT

is-specifically

associated-with

me)

is-red.

Example 8.20, “ ” and Example 8.21, “ ” contrast with Example 8.18, “ ” and Example 8.19, “ ”: the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) contrast between Example 8.18, “ ” and Example 8.20, “ ” is that pe mi would be appropriate for a chair the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not he or she was currently occupying it).

As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by po is usually called “possession”, although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity ( steci in Lojban).

Here is an example of po'e, as well as another example of po:

Example 8.22.

le

birka

po'e

mi

cu

spofu

The

arm

intrinsically-possessed-by

me

is-broken

Example 8.23.

le

birka

poi

jinzi

ke

se

steci

srana

mi

cu

spofu

The

arm

which

is-intrinsically

(specifically

associated-with)

me

is-broken.

Example 8.24.

le

botpi

po

mi

cu

spofu

The

bottle

specific-to

me

is-broken

Example 8.22, “ ” and Example 8.23, “ ” on the one hand, and Example 8.24, “ ” on the other, illustrate the contrast between two types of possession called “intrinsic” and “extrinsic”, or sometimes “inalienable” and “alienable”, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of Example 8.22, “ ”, people are usually taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.)

By contrast, the bottle of Example 8.24, “ ” can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the “inalienable rights” of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.

Note that Example 8.22, “ ” can also be expressed without a relative clause:

Example 8.25.

le

birka

be

mi

cu

spofu

The

arm

of-body

me

is

broken

reflecting the fact that the gismu birka has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.

Here is an example of po'u:

Example 8.26.

le

gerku

po'u

le

mi

pendo

cu

cinba

mi

The

dog

which-is

my

friend

kisses

me.

Example 8.27.

le

gerku

poi

du

le

mi

pendo

cu

cinba

mi

The

dog

which

=

my

friend

kisses

me.

The cmavo po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather identity. (Note that it means poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)

In Example 8.26, “ ”, the use of po'u tells us that le gerku and le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider the contrast between Example 8.26, “ ” and:

Example 8.28.

le

mi

pendo

po'u

le

gerku

cu

cinba

mi

My

friend

which-is

the

dog

kisses

me.

The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge about the situation may not be. In Example 8.26, “ ”, the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.

Example 8.28, “ ”, however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:

Example 8.29.

le

tcadu

po'u

la

nu,iork

The city of New York [not another city]

Example 8.30.

la

nu,iork

po'u

le

tcadu

New York the city (not the state or some other New York)

The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:

Example 8.31.

le

kabri

pe

le

mi

pendo

cu

cmalu

The

cup

associated-with

my

friend

is

small.

My friend's cup is small

Example 8.32.

le

mi

pendo

pe

le

kabri

cu

cmalu

My

friend

associated-with

the

cup

is

small.

My friend, the one with the cup, is small.

Example 8.31, “ ” is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas Example 8.32, “ ” is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about “my friend of the cup”, as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to “possess” the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive – “the cup's friend of mine” looks like nonsense – but Lojban has no trouble doing so.

Finally, the cmavo ne and no'u stand to pe and po'u, respectively, as noi does to poi- they provide incidental information:

Example 8.33.

le

blabi

gerku

ne

mi

cu

batci

do

The

white

dog,

incidentally-associated-with

me,

bites

you.

The white dog, which is mine, bites you.

In Example 8.33, “ ”, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.

Distinguishing between po'u and no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:

Example 8.34.

le

nanmu

no'u

la

djim.

cu

terpemci

The

man,

incidentally-who-is

Jim,

is-a-poet.

The man, Jim, is a poet.

Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then

Example 8.35.

le

nanmu

po'u

la

djim.

cu

terpemci

The

man

who-is

Jim

is-a-poet.

The man Jim is a poet.

is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.

It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence

Example 8.36.

The man put his hands in his pockets.

seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pockets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put into his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence

Example 8.37.

le

nanmu

cu

punji

le

xance

le

daski

The

man

puts

the

hand

at-locus-the

pocket.

is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.

Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in the section called “Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series”, as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)

Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'e

ZIhE

relative clause joiner

Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:

Example 8.38.

le

gerku

poi

blabi

zi'e

poi

batci

le

nanmu

cu

klama

The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.

The most usual translation of zi'e in English is “and”, but zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.

It is perfectly correct to use zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds:

Example 8.39.

le

gerku

poi

blabi

zi'e

noi

le

mi

pendo

cu

ponse

ke'a

cu

klama

The

dog

that-is

(white)

and

incidentally-such-that

(my

friend

owns

IT)

goes.

The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.

In Example 8.39, “ ”, the restrictive clause poi blabi specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.

It is also possible to connect relative phrases with zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:

Example 8.40.

le

botpi

po

mi

zi'e

poi

blanu

cu

spofu

The

bottle

specific-to

me

and

which-is

blue

is-broken.

My blue bottle is broken.

Note that if the colloquial translation of Example 8.40, “ ” were “My bottle, which is blue, is broken”, then noi rather than poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written, Example 8.40, “ ” suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.

Example 8.41.

mi

ba

zutse

le

stizu

pe

mi

zi'e

po

do

zi'e

poi

xunre

I

[future]

sit-in

the

chair

associated-with

me

and

specific-to

you

and

which-is

red.

I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.

Example 8.41, “ ” illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and po do, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)

Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:

Example 8.42.

mi

ba

citka

le

dembi

pe

mi

zi'e

poi

cpana

le

mi

palta

zi'e

noi

do

dunda

ke'a

mi

I

[future]

eat

the

beans

associated-with

me

and

which

are-upon

my

plate

and

which-incidentally

you

gave

IT

to-me.

I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.

Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voi

NOI

non-veridical relative clause introducer

There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause: voi. Relative clauses introduced by voi are restrictive, like those introduced by poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between poi and voi relative clauses. A poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense that a description using lo or loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For example:

Example 8.43.

le

gerku

poi

blabi

cu

klama

The

dog

which

is-white

goes.

it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and the speaker uses le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,

Example 8.44.

le

gerku

voi

blabi

cu

klama

The

dog

which-I-describe-as

white

goes.

puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way, voi is like le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.

As a result, the following two sentences

Example 8.45.

le

nanmu

cu

ninmu

That-which-I-describe-as

a-man

is-a-woman.

The   “guy” is actually a gal.

Example 8.46.

ti

voi

nanmu

cu

ninmu

This-thing

which-I-describe-as

a-man

is-a-woman.

mean essentially the same thing (except that Example 8.46, “ ” involves pointing thanks to the use of ti, whereas Example 8.45, “ ” doesn't), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a woman.

Relative clauses and descriptors

So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.

There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor ( le, lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is ku), and after the ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus Example 8.43, “ ”, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:

Example 8.47.

le

gerku

poi

blabi

ku'o

ku

cu

klama

vau

The

(dog

which

(is-white)

)

goes.

The dog which is white is going.

Here ku'o is the terminator paired with poi and ku with le, and vau is the terminator of the whole bridi.

When a simple descriptor using le, like le gerku, has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to Example 8.47, “ ”:

Example 8.48.

le

poi

blabi

ku'o

gerku

cu

klama

The

such-that

(it-is-white)

dog

goes.

Example 8.49.

le

gerku

ku

poi

blabi

cu

klama

The

(dog)

which

is-white

goes.

Example 8.47, “ ” will seem most natural to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses after the noun phrases they are attached to; Example 8.48, “ ”, on the other hand, may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in Example 8.48, “ ”, the elidable terminator ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause ( blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description ( gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose of the form appearing in Example 8.49, “ ” will be apparent shortly.

As is explained in detail in the section called “Quantified descriptions”, two different numbers (known as the “inner quantifier” and the “outer quantifier”) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,

Example 8.50.

re

le

mu

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

Two-of

the

five

persons

go

to-the

market.

Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.

mu is the inner quantifier and re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause is poi ninmu (meaning “who are women”). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.

Example 8.51.

re

le

poi

ninmu

ku'o

mu

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

Two

of

the

such-that([they]

are-women)

five

persons

go

to-the

market.

Two women out of the five persons go to the market.

Example 8.52.

re

le

mu

prenu

poi

ninmu

[ku]

cu

klama

le

zarci

Two

of

the

(five

persons

which

are-women)

go

to-the

market.

Two of the five women go to the market.

Example 8.53.

re

le

mu

prenu

ku

poi

ninmu

cu

klama

le

zarci

(Two

of

the

five

persons)

which

are-women

go

to-the

market.

Two women out of the five persons go to the market.

As the parentheses show, Example 8.52, “ ” means that all five of the persons are women, whereas Example 8.53, “ ” means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit ku, as in Example 8.53, “ ”, then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no ku, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.

What about Example 8.51, “ ”? By convention, it means the same as Example 8.53, “ ”, and it requires no ku, but it does typically require a ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes before the inner quantifier.

When le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be ro (meaning “all”), as is explained in the section called “Quantified descriptions”. Thus le gerku is taken to mean “all of the things I refer to as dogs”, possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is lo, the difference is quite important:

Example 8.54.

lo

prenu

ku

noi

blabi

cu

klama

le

zarci

(Some

persons)

incidentally-which

are-white

go

to-the

market.

Some people, who are white, go to the market.

Example 8.55.

lo

prenu

noi

blabi

[ku]

cu

klama

le

zarci

Some

(persons

incidentally-which

are-white)

go

to-the

market.

Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.

Both Example 8.54, “ ” and Example 8.55, “ ” tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is ro (meaning “all”), and the default outer quantifier is su'o (meaning “at least one”). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.

In Example 8.54, “ ”, the relative clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, who are white, are going. But in Example 8.55, “ ”, the relative clause actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning “First take all persons – by the way, they're all white”. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is false.

The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use ku when attaching a noi relative clause to a lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.

When the descriptor is la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the ku is not. Therefore,

Example 8.56.

mi

viska

la

nanmu

poi

terpa

le

ke'a

xirma

[ku]

I

see

that-named

(

“  man which fears the of-IT horse”

).

I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.

says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas

Example 8.57.

mi

viska

la

nanmu

ku

poi

terpa

le

ke'a

xirma.

I

see

that-named(

“  Man”

)

which

fears

the

of-IT

horse.

I see the person named   “Man” who is afraid of his horse.

refers to one (or more) of those named “Man”, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.

Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like re karce, which means almost the same as re lo karce (which in turn means the same as re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the- ku variety. Here is an example:

Example 8.58.

mi

ponse

re

karce

[ku]

poi

xekri

I

possess

two

cars

which-are

black.

The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating ku.) Use an explicit lo instead.

Possessive sumti

In Example 8.15, “ ” through Example 8.17, “ ”, the sumti le mi karce appears, glossed as “my car”. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a pe relative phrase. So

Example 8.59.

le

mi

karce

cu

xunre

My

car

is-red.

and

Example 8.60.

le

pe

mi

karce

cu

xunre

The

(associated-with

me)

car

is-red.

mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no special considerations of quantifiers here,

Example 8.61.

le

karce

pe

mi

cu

xunre

The

car

associated-with

me

is-red.

means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in Example 8.59, “ ” is called a “possessive sumti”. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense of ownership, but like pe relative phrases, indicates only weak association; you can say le mi karce even if you've only borrowed it for the night. (In English, “my car” usually means le karce po mi, but we do not have the same sense of possession in “my seat on the bus”; Lojban simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti, mi in Example 8.59, “ ”, is correspondingly called the “possessor sumti”.

Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. When preposed relative clauses of the Example 8.60, “ ” type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them.

Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual “descriptor + quantifier + sumti” type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in Chapter 6, To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti.

Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:

Example 8.62.

le

le

nanmu

ku

karce

cu

blanu

The

(associated-with-the

man)

car

is

blue.

The man's car is blue.

Note the explicit ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.

And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:

Example 8.63.

le

li

mu

jdice

se

bende

The

of-the-number-five

judging

team-member

Juror number 5

which is not quite the same as “the fifth juror”; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.

A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:

Example 8.64.

le

mi

noi

sipna

vau

karce

cu

na

klama

The

of-me

incidentally-which-(is-sleeping)

car

isn't

going.

means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:

Example 8.65.

le

mi

karce

poi

sipna

cu

na

klama

The

of-me

car

which

sleeps

isn't

going.

Note that Example 8.64, “ ” uses vau rather than ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative, ku'o.

Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

vu'o

VUhO

relative clause attacher

Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:

Example 8.66.

li

pai

noi

na'e

frinu

namcu

The-number

pi,

incidentally-which

is-a-non-

fraction

number

The irrational number pi

And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:

Example 8.67.

lu

mi

klama

le

zarci

li'u

noi

mi

cusku

ke'a

cu

jufra

[quote]

I

go

to-the

market

[unquote]

incidentally-which-(I

express

IT)

is-a-sentence.

“I'm going to the market”, which I'd said, is a sentence.

which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.

In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in the section called “sumti qualifiers”) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:

Example 8.68.

la'e

poi

tolcitno

vau

lu

le

xunre

cmaxirma

li'u

cu

zvati

le

vu

kumfa

A-referent-of

(which

is-old)

[quote]

The

Red

Small-horse

[unquote]

is-at

the

[far

distance]

room.

An old   “The Red Pony” is in the far room.

Example 8.68, “ ” is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the string of words “The Red Pony”. If the la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted, Example 8.68, “ ” would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of “The Red Pony” is identified by the restrictive relative clause. Example 8.68, “ ” means exactly the same as:

Example 8.69.

la'e

lu

le

xunre

cmaxirma

li'u

lu'u

poi

to'ercitno

cu

zvati

le

vu

kumfa

A-referent-of

([quote]

The

Red

Small-horse

[unquote])

which

is-old

is-at

the

[far

distance]

room.

and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!

Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System). For example,

Example 8.70.

la

frank.

.e

la

djordj.

noi

nanmu

cu

klama

le

zdani

Frank

and

George

incidentally-who

is-a-man

go

to-the

house.

Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.

The incidental claim in Example 8.70, “ ” is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sumti.

To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in Example 8.70, “ ”, a new cmavo is needed, vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.

Example 8.71.

la

frank.

.e

la

djordj.

vu'o

noi

nanmu

cu

klama

le

zdani

Frank

and

George

incidentally-who

are-men

go

to-the

house.

Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.

The presence of vu'o here means that the relative clause noi nanmu extends to the entire logically connected sumti la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.

English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of Example 8.70, “ ” and Example 8.71, “ ” by making use of number: “who is” rather than “who are”. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular and plural verbs: nanmu can mean “is a man” or “are men”, so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if nanmu (meaning “is-a-man”) were replaced with pu bajra ( “ran”), English would have to make the distinction some other way:

Example 8.72.

la

frank.

.e

la

djordj.

noi

pu

bajra

cu

klama

le

zdani

Frank

and

(George

who

[past]

runs)

go

to-the

house.

Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

Example 8.73.

la

frank.

.e

la

djordj.

vu'o

noi

pu

bajra

cu

klama

le

zdani

(Frank

and

George)

who

[past]

run

go

to-the

house.

Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.

In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.

Relative clauses in vocative phrases

Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in the section called “The syntax of vocative phrases”. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called “vocative words”; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:

Example 8.74.

coi.

frank.

Hello, Frank.

Example 8.75.

co'o

xirma

Goodbye, horse.

Example 8.76.

fi'i

la

frank.

.e

la

djordj.

Welcome, Frank and George!

Note that Example 8.75, “ ” says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named “Horse”. In a sense, Example 8.75, “ ” is ambiguous between co'o le xirma and co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying “George” doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.

Similarly, Example 8.74, “ ” can be thought of as an abbreviation of:

Example 8.77.

coi

la

frank.

Hello,

the-one-named

“  Frank”

.

Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end of some complete construct; or, as in Example 8.74, “ ” to Example 8.76, “ ”, as sentences by themselves.

As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:

Example 8.78.

coi.

frank.

poi

xunre

se

bende

Hello,

Frank

who

is-a-red

team-member

Hello, Frank from the Red Team!

The restrictive relative clause in Example 8.78, “ ” suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.

A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:

Example 8.79.

co'o

poi

mi

zvati

ke'a

ku'o

xirma

Goodbye,

such-that-(I

am-at

IT)

horse

Goodbye, horse where I am!

Example 8.80.

co'o

xirma

poi

mi

zvati

Goodbye,

horse

such-that-(I

am-at-it).

Example 8.79, “ ” and Example 8.80, “ ” mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.

Relative clauses within relative clauses

For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:

Example 8.81.

le

prenu

poi

zvati

le

kumfa

poi

blanu

cu

masno

The

person

who

is-in

the

room

which

is-blue

is-slow.

However, an ambiguity can exist if ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on ke'a:

Example 8.82.

le

prenu

poi

zvati

le

kumfa

poi

ke'axire

zbasu

ke'a

cu

masno

The

person

who

is-in

the

room

which

IT-sub-2

built

IT

is-slow.

The person who is in the room which he built is slow.

Here, the meaning of “IT-sub-2” is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore, ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain ke'a.

Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi:

Example 8.83.

le

prenu

poi

ke'a

goi

ko'a

zo'u

ko'a

zvati

le

kumfa

poi

ke'a

goi

ko'e

zo'u

ko'a

zbasu

ke'a

cu

masno

The

man

who

(IT

=

it1

:

it1

is-in

the

room

which

(IT

=

it2

:

it1

built

it2)

is-slow.

Example 8.83, “ ” is more verbose than Example 8.82, “ ”, but may be clearer, since it explicitly spells out the two ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo ko'a and ko'e (explained in the section called “Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series”).

Index of relative clause cmavo

Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):

noi

incidental clauses

poi

restrictive clauses

voi

restrictive clauses (non-veridical)

Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):

goi

pro-sumti assignment

pe

restrictive association

ne

incidental association

po

extrinsic (alienable) possession

po'e

intrinsic (inalienable) possession

po'u

restrictive identification

no'u

incidental identification

Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):

ke'a

pro-sumti for relativized sumti

Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):

zi'e

joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti

Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):

vu'o

causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti

Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):

ku'o

relative clause elidable terminator

ge'u

relative phrase elidable terminator

Chapter 9. To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals

Introductory

The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a selbri.

The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the “place structure” of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.

For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in Chapter 12, Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.

The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu klama:

klama x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5.

The “x1 ... x5” indicates that klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.

The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.

Standard bridi form: cu

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu

CU

prefixed selbri separator

The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:

Example 9.1.

mi

cu

klama

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

le

karce

I

go

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-the

road

using-the

car.

Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:

x1

agent

mi

x2

destination

la bastn.

x3

origin

la .atlantas.

x4

route

le dargu

x5

means

le karce

(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as Example 9.1, “ ”; this fact will not be reiterated.)

This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called “standard bridi form”, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:

Example 9.2.

mi

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

le

karce

cu

klama

I,

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-the

road

using-the

car,

go.

Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, the same order is maintained.

Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selbri and others after it:

Example 9.3.

mi

la

bastn.

cu

klama

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

le

karce

I

to-Boston

go

from-Atlanta

via-the

road

using-the

car.

All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus, Example 9.2, “ ” places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end); Example 9.3, “ ” emphasizes la bastn., because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.

In all these examples, the cmavo cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.

The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:

Example 9.4.

klama

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

le

karce

A-goer

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-the

road

using-the

car.

Goes

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-the

road

using-the

car.

Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!

Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In Example 9.4, “ ”, klama is glossed “a goer” rather than “go” because “Go” at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command: “Go to Boston!”. Example 9.4, “ ” is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an “observative”, because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.

(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see Example 9.14, “ ”.)

Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:

Example 9.5.

mi

klama

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

I

go

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

(via

an

unspecified

route,

using

an

unspecified

means).

Example 9.5, “ ” has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in

Example 9.6.

mi

klama

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

le

karce

I

go

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-the

car.

le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore Example 9.6, “ ” means:

I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.

This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:

Example 9.7.

mi

klama

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

zo'e

le

karce

I

go

to-Boston

from-Atlanta

via-something-unspecified

using-the

car.

Here the sumti cmavo zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place; zo'e means “the unspecified thing” and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context.

Tagging places: FA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fa

FA

tags x1 place

fe

FA

tags x2 place

fi

FA

tags x3 place

fo

FA

tags x4 place

fu

FA

tags x5 place

fi'a

FA

place structure question

In sentences like Example 9.1, “ ”, it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo fa, fe, fi, fo, and fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:

Example 9.8.

fa

mi

cu

klama

fe

la

bastn.

fi

la

.atlantas.

fo

le

dargu

fu

le

karce

x1=

I

go

x2=

Boston

x3=

Atlanta

x4=

the

road

x5=

the

car.

I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.

In Example 9.8, “ ”, the tag fu before le karce clarifies that le karce occupies the x5 place of klama. The use of fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that le karce occupies it.

In Example 9.8, “ ”, the tags are overkill; they serve only to make Example 9.1, “ ” even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification:

Example 9.9.

fa

mi

klama

fe

le

zdani

be

mi

be'o

poi

nurma

vau

fi

la

nu,IORK.

x1=

I

go

x2=

(the

house

of

me)

which

is-rural

x3=

New

York.

In Example 9.9, “ ”, the place structure of klama is as follows:

x1

agent

mi

x2

destination

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau

x3

origin

la nu,IORK.

x4

route

(empty)

x5

means

(empty)

The fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.

Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:

Example 9.10.

klama

fa

mi

fi

la

.atlantas.

fu

le

karce

fe

la

bastn.

fo

le

dargu

go

x1=

I

x3=

Atlanta

x5=

the

car

x2=

Boston

x4=

the

road.

Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.

Note that no cu is permitted before the selbri in Example 9.10, “ ”, because cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and Example 9.10, “ ” has no such sumti.

Example 9.11.

fu

le

karce

fo

le

dargu

fi

la

.atlantas.

fe

la

bastn.

cu

klama

fa

mi

x5=

the

car

x4=

the

road

x3=

Atlanta

x2=

Boston

go

x1=I

Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.

Example 9.11, “ ” exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in Example 9.1, “ ” and Example 9.8, “ ”, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:

Example 9.12.

le

karce

le

dargu

la

.atlantas.

la

bastn.

cu

klama

mi

The

car

to-the

road

from-Atlanta

via-Boston

goes

using-me.

The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.

the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.

Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for zo'e or special rules about the x1 place:

Example 9.13.

klama

fi

la

.atlantas.

fe

la

bastn.

fu

le

karce

A-goer

x3=

Atlanta

x2=

Boston

x5

=

the

car.

A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.

Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with fa or fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.

What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:

Example 9.14.

klama

fa

mi

la

bastn.

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

le

karce

Go

x1=

I

x2=

Boston

x3=

Atlanta

x4=

the

road

x5=

the

car.

Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.

In Example 9.14, “ ”, the fa causes mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.

Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:

Example 9.15.

mi

klama

fi

la

.atlantas.

le

dargu

fe

la

bastn.

le

karce

I

go

x3=

Atlanta,

the

road

x2=

Boston,

the

car.

I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.

In Example 9.15, “ ”, mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti, la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag fi, and le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of following la .atlantas.. Finally, la bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its tag fe, and le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.

Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.

It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:

Example 9.16.

[fa]

la

rik.

fa

la

djein.

klama

[fe]

le

skina

fe

le

zdani

fe

le

zarci

[x1=]

Rick

x1=

Jane

goes-to

[x2=]

the

movie

x2=

the

house

x2=

the

office

may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.

The cmavo fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:

Example 9.17.

fi'a

do

dunda

[fe]

le

vi

rozgu

[what

place]?

you

give

x2=

the

nearby

rose

In

what

way

are

you

involved

in

the

giving

of

this

rose?

Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?

In Example 9.17, “ ”, the speaker uses the selbri dunda, whose place structure is:

dunda x1 gives x2 to x3

The tagged sumti fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by le rozgu). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo: fa if the listener is the giver, fi if he/she is the receiver.

I have inserted the tag fe in brackets into Example 9.17, “ ”, but it is actually not necessary, because fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore, le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.

There is also another member of FA, namely fai, which is discussed in the section called “Modal conversion: JAI”.

Conversion: SE

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

se

SE

2nd place conversion

te

SE

3rd place conversion

ve

SE

4th place conversion

xe

SE

5th place conversion

So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.

Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no “1st place conversion” cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.

Here are the place structures of se klama:

x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5

and te klama:

x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5

and ve klama:

x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5

and xe klama:

x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5

Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.

Consider the following pair of examples:

Example 9.18.

la

bastn.

cu

se

klama

mi

Boston

is-the-destination

of-me.

Boston

is

my

destination.

Boston is gone to by me.

Example 9.19.

fe

la

bastn.

cu

klama

fa

mi

x2

=

Boston

go

x1=I.

To Boston go I.

Example 9.18, “ ” and Example 9.19, “ ” mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different. Example 9.18, “ ” has la bastn. in the x1 place and mi in the x2 place of the selbri se klama, and uses standard bridi order; Example 9.19, “ ” has mi in the x1 place and la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri klama, and uses a non-standard order.

The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions le dargu and le karce. To this we could add:

Example 9.20.

le

klama

the

go-er,

the

one

who

goes

In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of klama), we must convert the selbri to se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is

Example 9.21.

le

se

klama

the destination gone to by someone

Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:

Example 9.22.

le

te

klama

the origin of someone's going

Example 9.23.

le

ve

klama

the route of someone's going

Example 9.24.

le

xe

klama

the means by which someone goes

Example 9.23, “ ” does not mean “the route” plain and simple: that is le pluta, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A “road” on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called le pluta, but it cannot be le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom it is le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).

When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in ke…ke'e brackets:

Example 9.25.

mi

se

ke

blanu

zdani

[ke'e]

ti

I

[2nd

conversion]

blue

house

this-thing

The place structure of blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of zdani, by the rule given in the section called “Introductory”. The place structure of zdani is:

zdani x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2

The place structure of se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore:

x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2

Consequently, Example 9.25, “ ” means:

I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.

Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”.

It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of te klama, producing:

x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5

On the other hand, te se klama has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of se klama:

x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5

which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.

(Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form setese, where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone: setese (or equivalently tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas texete (or xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)

Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fi'o

FIhO

modal place prefix

fe'u

FEhU

modal terminator

Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu viska, whose place structure is:

viska x1 sees x2 under conditions x3

Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.

Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say, “I see you with the left eye.” There is no place in the place structure of viska such as “with eye x4” or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:

Example 9.26.

mi

viska

do

fi'o

kanla

[fe'u]

le

zunle

I

see

you

[modal]

eye:

the

left-thing

I see you with the left eye.

The three-place relation viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely le zunle. The semantics of fi'o kanla le zunle is that le zunle fills the x1 place of kanla, whose place structure is

kanla x1 is an/the eye of body x2

Thus le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It is important to remember that even though le zunle is placed following fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of kanla. The selbri may be terminated with fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).

The term for such an added place is a “modal place”, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word “modal” is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too entrenched to change easily.) The fi'o construction marking a modal place is called a “modal tag”, and the sumti which follows it a “modal sumti”; the purely Lojban terms sumti tcita and seltcita sumti, respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.

Consider Example 9.26, “ ” again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes pilno, whose place structure is

pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3

and we can rewrite Example 9.26, “ ” as

Example 9.27.

mi

viska

do

fi'o

se

pilno

le

zunle

kanla

I

see

you

[modal]

[conversion]

use:

the

left

eye.

I see you using my left eye.

Here the selbri belonging to the modal is se pilno. The conversion of pilno is necessary in order to get the “tool” place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The “tool user” place is the x2 of se pilno (because it is the x1 of pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag fi'o pilno would mean “with tool user”, leaving the tool unspecified.

Modal tags: BAI

There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular, pilno is one of them. The place structure of pilno is:

pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3

and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo sepi'o.

Here se is used before a cmavo, namely pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag based on se pilno rather than pilno- the tool, not the tool user – the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo. Example 9.27, “ ” may therefore be rewritten as:

Example 9.28.

mi

viska

do

sepi'o

le

zunle

kanla

I

see

you

with-tool:

the

left

eye

I see you using my left eye.

The compound cmavo sepi'o is much shorter than fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought of as a single word meaning “with-tool”. The modal tag pi'o, with no se, similarly means “with-tool-user”, probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism with the place structure of pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile.

Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for example, ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu klama, has five usable forms corresponding to the five places of klama respectively:

ka'a

with-goer

seka'a

with-destination

teka'a

with-origin

veka'a

with-route

xeka'a

with-means-of-transport

Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:

Example 9.29.  (

la

.eivn.

cu

vecnu

loi

flira

cinta

ka'a

mi

Avon

sells

a-mass-of

face

paint

with-goer

me.

I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.

Example 9.29, “ ( ” may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri, vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)

Example 9.30.

mi

cadzu

seka'a

la

bratfyd.

I

walk

with-destination

Bradford.

I am walking to Bradford.

Example 9.31.

bloti

teka'a

la

nu,IORK.

[Observative:]

is-a-boat

with-origin

New

York

A boat from New York!

Example 9.32.

do

bajra

veka'a

lo

djine

You

run

with-route

a

circle.

You are running in circles.

Example 9.33.

mi

citka

xeka'a

le

vinji

I

eat

with-means-of-transport

the

airplane.

I eat in the airplane.

There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as “with”, “without”, and “by means of”. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.

All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in the section called “CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms” shows the exceptions.

There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu: do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:

Example 9.34.

lo

nanmu

be

do'e

le

berti

cu

klama

le

tcadu

Some

man

[related

to]

the

north

came

to-the

city.

A man of the north came to the city.

Here le berti is provided as a modal place of the selbri nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition “of”. Example 9.34, “ ” also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of be are more fully explained in the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”.

Modal sentence connection: the causals

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ri'a

BAI

rinka modal: physical cause

ki'u

BAI

krinu modal: justification

mu'i

BAI

mukti modal: motivation

ni'i

BAI

nibli modal: logical entailment

This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the grammatical construct called “modal sentence connection”. On the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications: ja'e means “with result”, and so seja'e means “with cause of unspecified nature”; likewise, gau means “with agent” and tezu'e means “with purpose”. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)

There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as “causal”:

rinka

event x1 physically causes event x2

krinu

event x1 is the justification for event x2

mukti

event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2

nibli

event x1 logically entails event x2

Each of these gismu has a related modal: ri'a, ki'u, mu'i, and ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:

Example 9.35.

le

spati

cu

banro

ri'a

le

nu

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

The

plant

grows

with-physical-cause

the

event-of

you

water

give

to

the

plant.

The plant grows because you water it.

Example 9.36.

la

djan.

cpacu

le

pamoi

se

jinga

ki'u

le

nu

la

djan.

jinga

John

gets

the

first

prize

with-justification

the

event-of

John

wins.

John got the first prize because he won.

Example 9.37.

mi

lebna

le

cukta

mu'i

le

nu

mi

viska

le

cukta

I

took

the

book

with-motivation

the

event-of

I

saw

the

book.

I took the book because I saw it.

Example 9.38.

la

sokrates.

morsi

binxo

ni'i

le

nu

la

sokrates.

remna

Socrates

dead-became

with-logical-justification

Socrates

is-human.

Socrates died because Socrates is human.

In Example 9.35, “ ” through Example 9.38, “ ”, the same English word “because” is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on Example 9.35, “ ”, and explore some variations on it.

As written, Example 9.35, “ ” claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction) without actually making a claim. If I express Example 9.35, “ ”, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:

Example 9.39.

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

seri'a

le

nu

ri

banro

You

water-give

to

the

plant

with-physical-effect

it

grows.

You water the plant; therefore, it grows.

with the ri'a changed to seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:

Example 9.40.

le

nu

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

cu

rinka

le

nu

le

spati

cu

banro

The

event-of

(you

water-give

to

the

plant)

causes

the

event-of

(the

plant

grows).

Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows.

does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in Example 9.40, “ ”, I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of “if-then” in English quite distinct from the logical connective “if-then” explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System.

Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:

Example 9.41.

le

spati

cu

banro

.iri'abo

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

The

plant

grows.

Because

you

water-give

to

the

plant.

The plant grows because you water it.

Example 9.42.

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

.iseri'abo

le

spati

cu

banro

You

water-give

to

the

plant.

Therefore

it

grows.

You water the plant; therefore, it grows.

The compound cmavo .iri'abo and .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the initial i indicates. The final bo is necessary to prevent the modal from “taking over” the following sumti. If the bo were omitted from Example 9.41, “ ” we would have:

Example 9.43.

le

spati

cu

banro

.i

ri'a

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

The

plant

grows.

Because

of

you,

[something]

water-gives

to

the

plant.

The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.

Because ri'a do is a modal sumti in Example 9.43, “ ”, there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of djacu dunda, and the translation must be changed.

The effect of sentences like Example 9.41, “ ” and Example 9.42, “ ” is that the modal, ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.

In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by Example 9.41, “ ” and Example 9.42, “ ”. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an “in-language” modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.

Other modal connections

Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.) the section called “Modal sentence connection: the causals” exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:

Example 9.44.

mi

jgari

lei

djacu

.iri'abo

mi

jgari

le

kabri

I

grasp

the-mass-of

water

with-physical-cause

I

grasp

the

cup.

Causing

the

mass

of

water

to

be

grasped

by

me,

I

grasped

the

cup.

I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.

An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of “both” and “and” in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).

To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus gi before the first bridi, and gi between the two. No i is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of Example 9.44, “ ” is:

Example 9.45.

ri'agi

mi

jgari

le

kabri

gi

mi

jgari

lei

djacu

With-physical-cause

I

grasp

the

cup,

I

grasp

the-mass-of

water.

Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.

Note that the cause, the x1 of rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of Example 9.44, “ ”, we could say:

Example 9.46.

seri'agi

mi

jgari

lei

djacu

gi

mi

jgari

le

kabri

With-physical-effect

I

grasp

the-mass-of

water,

I

grasp

the

cup.

In English, the sentence “Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup” is ungrammatical, because “therefore” is not grammatically equivalent to “because”. In Lojban, seri'agi can be used just like ri'agi.

When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.

When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:

Example 9.47.

mi

jgari

ri'agi

le

kabri

gi

lei

djacu

I

grasp

because

the

cup,

the-mass-of

water.

Example 9.47, “ ” means exactly the same as Example 9.44, “ ” through Example 9.46, “ ”, but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.

If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in the section called “Termset logical connection”, but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.

Example 9.48.

mi

dunda

le

cukta

la

djan.

.imu'ibo

la

djan.

dunda

lei

jdini

mi

I

gave

the

book

to

John.

Motivated-by

John

gave

the-mass-of

money

to-me.

I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.

means the same as:

Example 9.49.

nu'i

mu'igi

la

djan.

lei

jdini

mi

gi

mi

le

cukta

la

djan.

nu'u

dunda

[start]

because

John,

the-mass-of

money,

me;

I,

the

book,

John

[end]

gives.

Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.

There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in the section called “Compound bridi”, but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it. Example 9.37, “ ” is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:

Example 9.50.

mi

mu'igi

viska

le

cukta

gi

lebna

le

cukta

I,

because

saw

the

book,

took

the

book.

Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even possible to shorten Example 9.50, “ ” further to:

Example 9.51.

mi

mu'igi

viska

gi

lebna

vau

le

cukta

I

because

saw,

therefore

took,

the

book.

where le cukta is set off by the non-elidable vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – see the section called “Compound bridi” for more explanations.

Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing out that Example 9.51, “ ” can be further rearranged to:

Example 9.52.

mi

le

cukta

mu'igi

viska

gi

lebna

I,

the

book,

because

saw,

therefore

took.

which doesn't require the extra vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.

Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.

Example 9.53.

li

ny.

du

li

vo

.ini'ibo

li

ny.

du

li

re

su'i

re

the

number

n

=

the-number

4.

Entailed-by

the-number

n

=

the-number

2

+

2.

n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.

can be reduced to:

Example 9.54.

li

ny.

du

li

ni'igi

vei

re

su'i

re

[ve'o]

gi

vo

the-number

n

=

the-number

because

(

2

+

2

)

therefore

4.

n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.

The cmavo vei and ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that ni'igi affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first re. (The right parenthesis, ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does Example 9.54, “ ” justice.

Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in the section called “Modal sentence connection: the causals” and the section called “Other modal connections”.

Modal selbri

Consider the example:

Example 9.55.

mi

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

bai

tu'a

la

frank.

I

speak

in-language

Lojban

with-compeller

some-act-by

Frank.

I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.

Example 9.55, “ ” has two modal sumti, using the modals bau and bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify Example 9.55, “ ” to:

Example 9.56.

mi

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

bai

[ku].

I

speak

in-language

Lojban

under-compulsion.

In Example 9.56, “ ”, the elidable terminator ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normally follow bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compels but keep the language vague:

Example 9.57.

mi

tavla

bau

[ku]

bai

tu'a

la

frank.

I

speak

in-some-language

under-compulsion-by

some-act-by

Frank.

We are also free to move the modal-plus- ku around the bridi:

Example 9.58.

bau

[ku]

bai

ku

mi

tavla

In-some-language

under-compulsion

I

speak.

An alternative to using ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, the cu is almost never necessary.

Example 9.59.

mi

bai

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

I

compelledly

speak

in-language

Lojban.

In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct. Example 9.59, “ ” is very similar in meaning to:

Example 9.60.

mi

se

bapli

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

I

compelledly-speak

in-language

Lojban.

The se conversion is needed because bapli tavla would be a “compeller type of speaker” rather than a “compelled (by someone) type of speaker”, which is what a bai tavla is.

If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using fi'o, then fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:

Example 9.61.

mi

fi'o

kanla

fe'u

viska

do

I

with-eye

see

you.

I see you with my eye(s).

There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System for more on logical and non-logical connections):

Example 9.62.

mi

bai

ke

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi

cadzu

le

bisli

[ke'e]

I

under-compulsion

(both

go

to-the

market

and

walk

on-the

ice).

Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.

Here the bai is spread over both klama le zarci and cadzu le bisli, and the ge ... gi represents the logical connection “both-and” between the two.

Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with tu'e and tu'u, which are explained in more detail in the section called “Sentences: I”:

Example 9.63.

bai

tu'e

mi

klama

le

zarci

.i

mi

cadzu

le

bisli

[tu'u]

Under-compulsion

[start]

I

go

to-the

market.

I

walk

on-the

ice

[end].

means the same thing as Example 9.62, “ ”.

Note: Either BAI modals or fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.

Modal relative phrases; Comparison

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe

GOI

restrictive relative phrase

ne

GOI

incidental relative phrase

mau

BAI

zmadu modal

me'a

BAI

mleca modal

Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:

Example 9.64.

la

.apasionatas.

poi

se

cusku

la

.artr.

rubnstain.

cu

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata

which

is-expressed-by

Arthur

Rubinstein

is-liked-by

me.

Example 9.65.

la

.apasionatas.

noi

se

finti

la

betovn.

cu

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata,

which

is-created-by

Beethoven,

is-liked-by

me.

In Example 9.64, “ ”, la .apasionatas. refers to a particular performance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause poi se cusku uses the cmavo poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of la .apasionatas to the performance in question.

In Example 9.65, “ ”, however, la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cmavo noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.

The cmavo pe and ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to poi and noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate Example 9.64, “ ” and Example 9.65, “ ” to:

Example 9.66.

la

.apasionatas.

pe

la

.artr.

rubnstain.

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata

of

Arthur

Rubinstein

is-liked-by

me.

Example 9.67.

la

.apasionatas.

ne

la

betovn.

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata,

which

is

of

Beethoven,

is-liked-by

me.

Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (in Example 9.66, “ ”) and Beethoven (in Example 9.67, “ ”), and that the relationships are respectively restrictive and incidental.

It happens that both cusku and finti have BAI cmavo, namely cu'u and fi'e. We can recast Example 9.66, “ ” and Example 9.67, “ ” as:

Example 9.68.

la

.apasionatas

pe

cu'u

la

.artr.

rubnstain.

cu

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata

expressed-by

Arthur

Rubinstein

is-liked-by

me.

Example 9.69.

la

.apasionatas

ne

fi'e

la

betovn.

cu

se

nelci

mi

The

Appassionata,

invented-by

Beethoven,

is-liked-by

me.

Example 9.68, “ ” and Example 9.69, “ ” have the full semantic content of Example 9.64, “ ” and Example 9.65, “ ” respectively.

Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo mau and me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu zmadu (more than) and mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures are:

zmadu:

x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4

mleca:

x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4

Here are some examples:

Example 9.70.

la

frank.

nelci

la

betis.

ne

semau

la

meiris.

Frank

likes

Betty,

which-is

more-than

Mary.

Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.

Example 9.70, “ ” requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form semau because the x2 place of zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.

Example 9.71.

la

frank.

nelci

la

meiris.

ne

seme'a

la

betis.

Frank

likes

Mary,

which-is

less-than

Betty.

Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.

Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase Example 9.70, “ ” using me'a rather than semau, and Example 9.71, “ ” using mau rather than seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo, mau and me'a are more useful when converted with se.

If the ne were omitted in Example 9.70, “ ” and Example 9.71, “ ”, the modal sumti ( la meiris. and la betis. respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation. Example 9.71, “ ” would become:

Example 9.72.

la

frank.

nelci

la

meiris.

seme'a

la

betis.

Frank

likes

Mary

is-less-than

Betty.

Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.

which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.

Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:

Example 9.73.

le

ni

la

frank.

nelci

la

betis.

cu

zmadu

le

ni

la

frank.

nelci

la

meiris.

The

quantity-of

Frank's

liking

Betty

is-more-than

the

quantity-of

Frank's

liking

Mary.

The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals other than semau and seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are: seba'i ( “instead of”), ci'u ( “on scale”), de'i ( “dated”), du'i ( “as much as”). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

Mixed modal connection

It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:

Example 9.74.

mi

nelci

do

.ije

mi

nelci

la

djein.

I

like

you.

And

I

like

Jane.

which is a logical connection, and

Example 9.75.

mi

nelci

do

.iki'ubo

mi

nelci

la

djein.

I

like

you.

Justified-by

I

like

Jane.

The meanings of Example 9.74, “ ” and Example 9.75, “ ” can be simultaneously expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:

Example 9.76.

mi

nelci

do

.ijeki'ubo

mi

nelci

la

djein.

I

like

you.

And

justified-by

I

like

Jane.

Here the two sentences mi nelci do and mi nelci la djein. are simultaneously asserted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical connective je comes before the modal ki'u in all such mixed connections.

Since mi nelci do and mi nelci la djein. differ only in the final sumti, we can transform Example 9.76, “ ” into a mixed sumti connection:

Example 9.77.

mi

nelci

do

.eki'ubo

la

djein.

I like you and/because Jane.

Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.

There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of Example 9.77, “ ” would be:

Example 9.78.

mi

nelci

do

gi'eki'ubo

nelci

la

djein.

I like you and/because like Jane.

The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.

Example 9.79.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.ijeseri'abo

tu'e

mi

bevri

le

gerku

.ijadu'ibo

mi

bevri

le

mlatu

[tu'u]

I

carry

the

sack.

And

[effect]

(I

carry

the

dog.

And/or

[equal]

I

carry

the

cat.)

I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.

Example 9.80.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

gi'eseri'ake

bevri

le

gerku

gi'adu'ibo

bevri

le

mlatu

[ke'e]

I

carry

the

sack

and

[effect]

(carry

the

dog

and/or

[equal]

carry

the

cat).

I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.

Example 9.81.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.eseri'ake

le

gerku

.adu'ibo

le

mlatu

[ke'e]

I

carry

the

sack

and

[effect]

(the

cat

and/or

[equal]

the

dog).

I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.

In Example 9.79, “ ”, the tu'e…tu'u brackets are the equivalent of the ke…ke'e brackets in Example 9.80, “ ” and Example 9.81, “ ”, because ke…ke'e cannot extend across more than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the .ijeseri'abo to .ije seri'a, which would show that the tu'e…tu'u portion was an effect, but would not pin down the mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a tense; see Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System) to modify the whole of a tu'e…tu'u construct.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

Modal conversion: JAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai

JAI

modal conversion

fai

FA

modal place structure tag

So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,

Example 9.82.

mi

cusku

bau

la

lojban.

I

express

[something]

in-language

Lojban.

has an explicit x1 place occupied by mi and an explicit bau place occupied by la lojban. To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of Example 9.82, “ ” is:

Example 9.83.

la

lojban.

jai

bau

cusku

fai

mi

Lojban

is-the-language-of-expression

used-by

me.

In Example 9.83, “ ”, the modal place la lojban. has become the x1 place of the new selbri jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special “unnumbered place” marked by the tag fai of selma'o FA.

Note: For the purposes of place numbering, fai behaves like fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the other places around it.

Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to “the language of an expression” as le jai bau cusku, for example.

In addition, it is grammatical to use jai without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in the section called “Lojban sumti raising”. The following two examples mean the same thing:

Example 9.84.

le

nu

mi

lebna

le

cukta

cu

se

krinu

le

nu

mi

viska

le

cukta

The

event-of

(I

take

the

book)

is-justified-by

the

event-of

(I

see

the

book).

My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.

Example 9.85.

mi

jai

se

krinu

le

nu

mi

viska

le

cukta

kei

[fai

le

nu

mi

lebna

le

cukta]

I

am-justified

by

the

event-of

(I

see

the

book)

[namely,

the

event-of

(I

take

the

book)]

I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.

Example 9.85, “ ”, with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that “I am justified” whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o-plus-selbri modals.

Modal negation

Negation is explained in detail in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between “John didn't go to Paris” (contradictory negation) and “John went to (somewhere) other than Paris” (scalar negation).

Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with -nai is to deny a causal relationship:

Example 9.86.

mi

nelci

do

mu'inai

le

nu

do

nelci

mi

I like you, but not because you like me.

Example 9.86, “ ” denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.

Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.

Example 9.87.

le

spati

cu

banro

na'emu'i

le

nu

do

djacu

dunda

fi

le

spati

The

plant

grows

other-than-motivated-by

the

event-of

you

water-give

to

the

plant.

Example 9.87, “ ” says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but Example 9.87, “ ” doesn't say what it is (presumably ri'a).

Note: Modals made with fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.

Sticky modals

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki

KI

stickiness flag

Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this “stickiness” is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo ki of selma'o KI. For example,

Example 9.88.

mi

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

bai

ki

tu'a

la

frank.

.ibabo

mi

tavla

bau

la

gliban.

I

speak

in-language

Lojban

compelled-by

some-property-of

Frank.

Afterward,

I

speak

in-language

English.

means the same as:

Example 9.89.

mi

tavla

bau

la

lojban.

bai

tu'a

la

frank.

.ibabo

mi

tavla

bau

la

gliban.

bai

tu'a

la

frank.

I

speak

in-language

Lojban

compelled-by

some-property-of

Frank.

Afterward,

I

speak

in-language

English

compelled-by

some-property-of

Frank.

In Example 9.88, “ ”, bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made applicable to every following bridi. bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.

To cancel stickiness, use the form BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist ( ki is used for both modals and tenses), use ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form ki ku) anywhere in the bridi:

Example 9.90.

mi

ki

tavla

I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).

Note: Modals made with fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.

Logical and non-logical connection of modals

Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result, Example 9.91, “ ” and Example 9.92, “ ” mean the same thing:

Example 9.91.

la

frank.

bajra

seka'a

le

zdani

.ije

la

frank.

bajra

teka'a

le

zdani

Frank

runs

with-destination

the

house.

And

Frank

runs

with-origin

the

house.

Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.

Example 9.92.

la

frank.

bajra

seka'a

je

teka'a

le

zdani

Frank

runs

with-destination

and

with-origin

the

house.

Frank runs to and from the house.

Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:

Example 9.93.

la

frank.

bajra

seka'a

le

zdani

ce'e

teka'a

le

zdani

Frank

runs

with-destination

the

house

[joined-to]

with-origin

the-house.

The cmavo ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System and Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.

CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one ( do'e, discussed in the section called “Modal tags: BAI”), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.

bai

bapli

bau

bangu

cau

claxu

fau

fasnu

gau

gasnu

kai

ckaji

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

mau

zmadu

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

koi

korbi

rai

traji

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

sau

sarcu

tai

tamsmi

based on lujvo, not gismu

zau

zanru

ga'a

zgana

kai

ckaji

has CVV form (monosyllable)

ki'i

ckini

la'u

klani

has irregular 2nd V

le'a

klesi

has irregular 2nd V

mau

zmadu

has CVV form (monosyllable)

me'e

cmene

ra'a

srana

ra'i

krasi

rai

traji

has CVV form (monosyllable)

ti'i

stidi

tu'i

stuzi

fi'e

finti

la'u

klani

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

le'a

klesi

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

ma'e

marji

mu'u

mupli

ti'u

tcika

va'o

vanbi

ri'i

lifri

uses 3rd consonant of gismu

tai

tamsmi

based on lujvo, not gismu

va'u

xamgu

CV'V cmavo can't begin with   x

Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by se.

For those cmavo with meaningful te, ve, and even xe conversions (depending on the number of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.

It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.

ba'i

basti

replaced by

instead of

bai

bapli

compelled by

compelling

bau

bangu

in language

in language of

be'i

benji

sent by

transmitting

sent to

with transmit origin

transmitted via

ca'i

catni

by authority of

with authority over

cau

claxu

lacked by

without

ci'e

ciste

in system

with system function

of system components

ci'o

cinmo

felt by

feeling emotion

ci'u

ckilu

on the scale

on scale measuring

cu'u

cusku

as said by

expressing

as told to

expressed in medium

de'i

detri

dated

on the same date as

di'o

diklo

at the locus of

at specific locus

do'e

-----

vaguely related to

du'i

dunli

as much as

equal to

du'o

djuno

according to

knowing facts

knowing about

under epistemology

fa'e

fatne

reverse of

in reversal of

fau

fasnu

in the event of

fi'e

finti

created by

creating work

created for purpose

ga'a

zgana

to observer

observing

observed by means

observed under conditions

gau

gasnu

with agent

as agent in doing

ja'e

jalge

resulting in

results because of

ja'i

javni

by rule

by rule prescribing

ji'e

jimte

up to limit

as a limit of

ji'o

jitro

under direction

controlling

ji'u

jicmu

based on

supporting

ka'a

klama

gone to by

with destination

with origin

via route

by transport mode

ka'i

krati

represented by

on behalf of

kai

ckaji

characterizing

with property

ki'i

ckini

as relation of

related to

with relation

ki'u

krinu

justified by

with justified result

koi

korbi

bounded by

as boundary of

bordering

ku'u

kulnu

in culture

in culture of

la'u

klani

as quantity of

in quantity

le'a

klesi

in category

as category of

defined by quality

li'e

lidne

led by

leading

ma'e

marji

of material

made from material

in material form of

ma'i

manri

in reference frame

as a standard of

mau

zmadu

exceeded by

more than

me'a

mleca

undercut by

less than

me'e

cmene

with name

as a name for

as a name to

mu'i

mukti

motivated by

motive therefore

mu'u

mupli

exemplified by

as an example of

ni'i

nibli

entailed by

entails

pa'a

panra

in addition to

similar to

similar in pattern

similar by standard

pa'u

pagbu

with component

as a part of

pi'o

pilno

used by

using tool

po'i

porsi

in the sequence

sequenced by rule

pu'a

pluka

pleased by

in order to please

pu'e

pruce

by process

processing from

processing into

passing through stages

ra'a

srana

pertained to by

concerning

ra'i

krasi

from source

as an origin of

rai

traji

with superlative

superlative in

at extreme

superlative among

ri'a

rinka

caused by

causing

ri'i

lifri

experienced by

experiencing

sau

sarcu

requiring

necessarily for

necessarily under conditions

si'u

sidju

aided by

assisting in

ta'i

tadji

by method

as a method for

tai

tamsmi

as a form of

in form

in form similar to

ti'i

stidi

suggested by

suggesting

suggested to

ti'u

tcika

with time

at the time of

tu'i

stuzi

with site

as location of

va'o

vanbi

under conditions

as conditions for

va'u

xamgu

benefiting from

with beneficiary

zau

zanru

approved by

approving

zu'e

zukte

with actor

with means to goal

with goal

The lujvo tamsmi on which tai is based is derived from the tanru tarmi simsa and has the place structure:

tamsmi x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4

This lujvo is employed because tarmi does not have a place structure useful for the modal's purpose.

Chapter 10. Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System

Introductory

This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form “How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?” Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reader should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being correctly understood.

The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be creatively and productively combined.

What is “tense”? Historically, “tense” is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time actually expressed:

I go to London tomorrow.

I will go to London tomorrow.

I am going to London tomorrow.

all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense usually called “present progressive”. Likewise, a newspaper headline says “JONES DIES”, although it is obvious that the time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.

In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information about location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional in Lojban: a sentence like:

Example 10.1.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

the

market.

can be understood as:

I went to the market.

I am going to the market.

I have gone to the market.

I will go to the market.

I continually go to the market.

as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is correct.

The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the cu, and can in fact always replace the cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples, pu is the tense marker for “past time”:

Example 10.2.

mi

cu

pu

klama

le

zarci

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

in-the-past

go-to

the

market.

I went to the market.

It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding ku after it. This ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:

Example 10.3.

puku

mi

klama

le

zarci

In-the-past

I

go-to

the

market.

Earlier, I went to the market.

Example 10.4.

mi

klama

puku

le

zarci

I

go-to

in-the-past

the

market.

I went earlier to the market.

Example 10.5.

mi

klama

le

zarci

pu

[ku]

I

go-to

the

market

in-the-past.

I went to the market earlier.

Example 10.2, “ ” through Example 10.5, “ ” are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as Example 10.3, “ ” through Example 10.5, “ ” exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.

Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi

VA

short distance

va

VA

medium distance

vu

VA

long distance

zu'a

FAhA

left

ri'u

FAhA

right

ga'u

FAhA

up

ni'a

FAhA

down

ca'u

FAhA

front

ne'i

FAhA

within

be'a

FAhA

north of

(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in the section called “Summary of tense selma'o”.)

Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more familiar time tenses of the section called “Introductory”, asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in the section called “Temporal tenses: PU and ZI”.

English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.

Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:

Example 10.6.

le

nanmu

va

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[medium

distance]

bites

the

dog.

Over there the man is biting the dog.

What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can understand the va as saying: “If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified).” This “imaginary journey” can be used to understand not only Example 10.6, “ ”, but also every other spatial tense construct.

Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a VA cmavo:

Example 10.7.

le

nanmu

zu'a

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[left]

bites

the

dog.

Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reasonable translation is:

To my left, the man bites the dog.

The “my” does not have an explicit equivalent in the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.

(Etymologically, by the way, zu'a is derived from zunle, the gismu for “left”, whereas vi, va, and vu are intended to be reminiscent of ti, ta, and tu, the demonstrative pronouns “this-here”, “that-there”, and “that-yonder”.)

What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must come before the distance:

Example 10.8.

le

nanmu

zu'avi

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[left]

[short

distance]

bites

the

dog.

Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

As explained in the section called “Introductory”, it would be perfectly correct to use ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:

Example 10.9.

zu'aviku

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

[Left]

[short

distance]

the

man

bites

the

dog.

Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.

Compound spatial tenses

Humph, says the reader: this talk of “imaginary journeys” is all very well, but what's the point of it? – zu'a means “on the left” and vi means “nearby”, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:

Example 10.10.

le

nanmu

ga'u

zu'a

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[up]

[left]

bites

the

dog.

The proper interpretation of Example 10.10, “ ” is that the imaginary journey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then to the left. A translation might read:

Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.

(Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-biting is going on at the edge of the street.)

In the English translation, the keywords “left” and “above” occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we “unfold” Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.

The opposite order also makes sense:

Example 10.11.

le

nanmu

zu'a

ga'u

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[left]

[up]

bites

the

dog.

Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.

In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the North Pole.

Each direction can have a distance following:

Example 10.12.

le

nanmu

zu'avi

ga'uvu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[left]

[short

distance]

[up]

[long

distance]

bites

the

dog.

Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog.

A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, without any specified direction. ( Example 10.6, “ ”, with VA alone, is really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.)

Example 10.13.

le

nanmu

vi

zu'a

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[short

distance]

[left]

bites

the

dog.

Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.

Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or without specified distances for each:

Example 10.14.

le

nanmu

ca'uvi

ni'ava

ri'uvu

ne'i

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[front]

[short]

[down]

[medium]

[right]

[long]

[within]

bites

the

dog.

Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me, the man bites the dog.

Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter the Lojban version of Example 10.14, “ ” is than the English version.

Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu

PU

past

ca

PU

present

ba

PU

future

zi

ZI

short time distance

za

ZI

medium time distance

zu

ZI

long time distance

Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)

Example 10.15.

le

nanmu

pu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[past]

bites

the

dog.

The man bit the dog.

means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)

Lojban recognizes three temporal directions: pu for the past, ca for the present, and ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gismu purci, cabna, and balvi. See the section called “Tenses versus modals” for an explanation of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative directions as well as “direction-like relationships” like “surrounding”, “within”, “touching”, etc. (See the section called “Summary of tense selma'o” for a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU?

The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measurements. We have a sense of “now” which includes part of the objective past and part of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into three parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a separate time-direction cmavo for the “zero direction”, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for the zero space direction: bu'u, which means something like “coinciding”.

(Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed to be a “point-like observer” in the relativistic sense: they do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective but also observer-based.)

Here are some examples of temporal tenses:

Example 10.16.

le

nanmu

puzi

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[past]

[short

distance]

bites

the

dog.

A short time ago, the man bit the dog.

Example 10.17.

le

nanmu

pu

pu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[past]

[past]

bites

the

dog.

Earlier

than

an

earlier

time

than

now,

the

man

bit

the

dog.

The man had bitten the dog.

The man had been biting the dog.

Example 10.18.

le

nanmu

ba

puzi

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[future]

[past]

[short]

bites

the

dog.

Shortly

earlier

than

some

time

later

than

now,

the

man

will

bite

the

dog.

Soon

before

then,

the

man

will

have

bitten

the

dog.

The man will have just bitten the dog.

The man will just have been biting the dog.

What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs:

Example 10.19.

le

nanmu

zi

pu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[short]

[past]

bites

the

dog.

Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite the dog.

Example 10.20.

le

nanmu

zu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[long]

bites

the

dog.

A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the dog.

Example 10.19, “ ” and Example 10.20, “ ” are perfectly legitimate, but may not be very much used: zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the future. A rough translation might be “about now, but not exactly now”.

Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction ( “nearby” or “far away”), but we live only from past to future, and the idea of an event which happens “nearby in time” is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limitation of English.

Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense:

Example 10.21.

le

nanmu

puzu

vu

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[past]

[long

time]

[long

space]

bites

the

dog.

Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.

Alternatively,

Example 10.22.

le

nanmu

batci

le

gerku

puzuvuku

The

man

bites

the

dog

[past]

[long

time]

[long

space].

The man bit the dog long ago and far away.

Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ve'i

VEhA

short space interval

ve'a

VEhA

medium space interval

ve'u

VEhA

long space interval

ze'i

ZEhA

short time interval

ze'a

ZEhA

medium time interval

ze'u

ZEhA

long time interval

So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more “spread out” than that: mi vasxu (I breathe) is something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.

Example 10.23.

le

verba

ve'i

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[small

space

interval]

walks-on

the

ice.

In

a

small

space,

the

child

walks

on

the

ice.

The child walks about a small area of the ice.

means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as “small, medium, large”, and are relative to the context: a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room.

Here is an example using a time interval:

Example 10.24.

le

verba

ze'a

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[medium

time

interval]

walks-on

the

ice.

For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.

Note that with no time direction word, Example 10.24, “ ” does not say when the walking happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to specify both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval always comes afterward:

Example 10.25.

le

verba

pu

ze'a

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[past]

[medium

time

interval]

walks-on

the

ice.

For

a

medium

time,

the

child

walked

on

the

ice.

The child walked on the ice for a while.

In Example 10.25, “ ”, the relationship of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this question can be conclusively answered:

Example 10.26.

mi

ca

ze'ica

cusku

dei

I

[present]

[short

time

interval

-

present]

express

this-utterance.

I am now saying this sentence.

means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is Example 10.26, “ ”. Of course, “short” is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sentence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, the era of Homo sapiens would only be a ze'i interval.

By contrast,

Example 10.27.

mi

ca

ze'ipu

cusku

dei

I

[present]

[short

time

interval

-

past]

express

this-utterance.

I have just been saying this sentence.

means that for a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been expressing Example 10.27, “ ”. Here the imaginary journey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves into the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example:

Example 10.28.

mi

pu

ze'aba

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[past]

[medium

time

interval

-

future]

eat

my

meal.

For

a

medium

time

afterward,

I

ate

my

meal.

I ate my meal for a while.

With ca instead of ba, Example 10.28, “ ” becomes Example 10.29, “ ”,

Example 10.29.

mi

pu

ze'aca

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[past]

[medium

time

interval

-

present]

eat

my

meal.

For

a

medium

time

before

and

afterward,

I

ate

my

meal.

I ate my meal for a while.

because the interval would then be centered on the past moment rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial English translations are the same – English is not well-suited to representing this distinction.

Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and without specified directions:

Example 10.30.

ta

ri'u

ve'i

finpe

That-there

[right]

[short

space

interval]

is-a-fish.

That thing on my right is a fish.

In Example 10.30, “ ”, there is no equivalent in the colloquial English translation of the “small interval” which the fish occupies. Neither the Lojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare Example 10.31, “ ”:

Example 10.31.

ta

ri'u

ve'ica'u

finpe

That-there

[right]

[short

space

interval

-

front]

is-a-fish.

That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.

Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.

Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in the section called “Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA”? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:

Example 10.32.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

go-to

the

market.

really means:

At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the event “I went to the market” was in progress.

The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future.

Example 10.32, “ ” points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like “I went to the market” generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban pu has no such implication.

This property of a past tense is sometimes called “aorist”, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:

Example 10.33.

le

tricu

ba

crino

The

tree

[future]

is-green.

The tree will be green.

does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.

This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see the section called “Event contours: ZAhO and re'u” (event contours) and the section called “Logical and non-logical connections between tenses” (logical connection between tenses).

Dimensionality: VIhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi'i

VIhA

on a line

vi'a

VIhA

in an area

vi'u

VIhA

through a volume

vi'e

VIhA

throughout a space/time interval

The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. I can specify that a motion “in a small space” is more specifically “in a short line”, “in a small area”, or “through a small volume”.

What about the child walking on the ice in Example 10.23, “ ” through Example 10.25, “ ”? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA:

Example 10.34.

le

verba

ve'a

vi'a

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[medium

space

interval]

[2-dimensional]

walks-on

the

ice.

In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.

Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, VEhA must come first, as Example 10.34, “ ” shows.

The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on a mountain could be called vi'a, because relatively speaking the mountain is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single mountain) would be properly described with vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.

VIhA has a member vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmavo of FAhA assigned to “pastward” and “futureward” considered as space rather than time directions – they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with a vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradictory.

Movement in space: MOhI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

mo'i

MOhI

movement flag

All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.

Example 10.35.

le

verba

mo'i

ri'u

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[movement]

[right]

walks-on

the

ice.

The child walks toward my right on the ice.

This is quite different from:

Example 10.36.

le

verba

ri'u

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[right]

walks-on

the

ice.

To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.

In either case, however, the reference frame for defining “right” and “left” is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be changed thus:

Example 10.37.

le

verba

mo'i

ri'u

cadzu

le

bisli

ma'i

vo'a

The

child

[movement]

[right]

walks

on

the

ice

in-reference-frame

the-x1-place.

The child walks toward her right on the ice.

Example 10.37, “ ” is analogous to Example 10.35, “ ”. The cmavo ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in the section called “Modal tags: BAI”), and allows specifying a reference frame.

Both a regular and a mo'i-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the mo'i construct coming last:

Example 10.38.

le

verba

zu'avu

mo'i

ri'uvi

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[left]

[long]

[movement]

[right]

[short]

walks-on

the

ice.

Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.

It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like zu'a ca'u after mo'i, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.

Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:

Example 10.39.

mi

mo'i

ca'uvu

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[movement]

[front]

[long]

eat

my

meal.

While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.

(Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)

There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time travel – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.

Interval properties: TAhE and roi

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

di'i

TAhE

regularly

na'o

TAhE

typically

ru'i

TAhE

continuously

ta'e

TAhE

habitually

di'inai

TAhE

irregularly

na'onai

TAhE

atypically

ru'inai

TAhE

intermittently

ta'enai

TAhE

contrary to habit

roi

ROI

“n” times

roinai

ROI

other than   “n” times

ze'e

ZEhA

whole time interval

ve'e

VEhA

whole space interval

Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or non-continuous actions.

Example 10.40.

mi

puzu

ze'u

velckule

I

[past]

[long

distance]

[long

interval]

am-a-school-attendee

(pupil).

Long ago I attended school for a long time.

probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,

Example 10.41.

mi

puzu

ze'u

di'i

velckule

I

[past]

[long

distance]

[long

interval]

[regularly]

am-a-pupil.

Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.

The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows: ru'i covers the entirety of the interval, di'i covers the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals; na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which part is determined by context; ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).

Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For example:

Example 10.42.

mi

ba

ta'e

klama

le

zarci

I

[future]

[habitually]

go-to

the

market.

I

will

habitually

go

to

the

market.

I will make a habit of going to the market.

specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefinite. Similarly,

Example 10.43.

mi

na'o

klama

le

zarci

I

[typically]

go-to

the

market.

I typically go/went/will go to the market.

illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.

“Intermittently” is the polar opposite notion to “continuously”, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to ru'i. For example:

Example 10.44.

le

verba

ru'inai

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[continuously-not]

walks-on

the

ice.

The child intermittently walks on the ice.

As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with -nai; ru'inai and di'inai are probably the most useful.

An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs “never”, “once”, “twice”, “thrice”, ... “always”, and by the related phrases “many times”, “a few times”, “too many times”, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus -roi:

Example 10.45.

mi

paroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[one

time]

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market once.

Example 10.46.

mi

du'eroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[too-many

times]

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market too often.

With the quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past, the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified tense need not stand alone:

Example 10.47.

mi

pu

reroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

[two

times]

go-to

the

market.

I went to the market twice.

The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.

Adding -nai to roi is also permitted, and has the meaning “other than (the number specified)”:

Example 10.48.

le

ratcu

reroinai

citka

le

cirla

The

rat

[twice-not]

eats

the

cheese.

The rat eats the cheese other than twice.

This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more times, or not at all.

It is necessary to be careful with sentences like Example 10.45, “ ” and Example 10.47, “ ”, where a quantified tense appears without an interval. What Example 10.47, “ ” really says is that during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and only once, we can use the cmavo ze'e which represents the “whole time interval”: conceptually, an interval which stretches from time's beginning to its end:

Example 10.49.

mi

ze'e

paroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[whole

interval]

[once]

go-to

the

market.

Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague, Example 10.47, “ ” might in appropriate context mean the same as Example 10.49, “ ” after all – but Example 10.49, “ ” allows us to be specific when specificity is necessary.

A PU cmavo following ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo ze'epu signifies the interval stretching from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken you); ze'eba is the interval stretching from the reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form, ze'eca, makes specific the “whole of time” interpretation just given. These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without asserting that it never will.

Example 10.50.

mi

ze'epu

noroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[whole

interval]

[past]

[never]

go-to

the

market.

I have never gone to the market.

says nothing about whether I might go in future.

The space equivalent of ze'e is ve'e, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see the section called “Space interval modifiers: FEhE” for an explanation of space interval modifiers.

Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu'o

ZAhO

inchoative

ca'o

ZAhO

continuitive

ba'o

ZAhO

perfective

co'a

ZAhO

initiative

co'u

ZAhO

cessitive

mo'u

ZAhO

completitive

za'o

ZAhO

superfective

co'i

ZAhO

achievative

de'a

ZAhO

pausative

di'a

ZAhO

resumptive

re'u

ROI

ordinal tense

The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is traditionally called “aspect”. This is not a notion well expressed by English tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian among Lojban's six source languages) consider it more important than the specification of mere position in time.

The “event contours” of selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keywords, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, an occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, and an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will be explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax, ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are found in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The imaginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of the event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies.

It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other tense cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen from an essentially timeless perspective. The “beginning” of an event is the same whether the event is in the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not to confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-relative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses.

The cmavo pu'o, ca'o, and ba'o (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respectively:

Example 10.51.

mi

pu'o

damba

I

[inchoative]

fight.

I'm on the verge of fighting.

Example 10.52.

la

stiv.

ca'o

bacru

Steve

[continuitive]

utters.

Steve continues to talk.

Example 10.53.

le

verba

ba'o

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[perfective]

walks-on

the

ice.

The child is finished walking on the ice.

As discussed in the section called “Vague intervals and non-specific tenses”, the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well. Example 10.51, “ ” through Example 10.53, “ ” illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.

Note that in Example 10.51, “ ” and Example 10.53, “ ”, pu'o and ba'o may appear to be reversed: pu'o, although etymologically connected with pu, is referring to a future event; whereas ba'o, connected with ba, is referring to a past event. This is the natural result of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or pu'o, part of an event, is in the “pastward” portion of that event, when seen from the perspective of the event itself. It is only by inference that we suppose that Example 10.51, “ ” refers to the speaker's future: in fact, no PU tense is given, so the inchoative part of the event need not be coincident with the speaker's present: pu'o is not necessarily, though in fact often is, the same as ca pu'o.

The cmavo in Example 10.51, “ ” through Example 10.53, “ ” refer to spans of time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated with an event: the beginning, marked by co'a, and the end, marked by co'u. Specifically, co'a marks the boundary between the pu'o and ca'o parts of an event, and co'u marks the boundary between the ca'o and ba'o parts:

Example 10.54.

mi

ba

co'a

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[future]

[initiative]

eat

my

meal.

I will begin to eat my meal.

Example 10.55.

mi

pu

co'u

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[past]

[cessitive]

eat

my

meal.

I ceased eating my meal.

Compare Example 10.54, “ ” with:

Example 10.56.

mi

ba

di'i

co'a

bajra

I

[future]

[regularly]

[initiative]

run.

I will regularly begin to run.

which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.

A process can have two end points, one reflecting the “natural end” (when the process is complete) and the other reflecting the “actual stopping point” (whether complete or not). Example 10.55, “ ” may be contrasted with:

Example 10.57.

mi

pu

mo'u

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[past]

[completitive]

eat

my

meal.

I finished eating my meal.

In Example 10.57, “ ”, the meal has reached its natural end; in Example 10.55, “ ”, the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end.

A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before the interruption, marked by de'a, and the point just after the interruption, marked by di'a. Some examples:

Example 10.58.

mi

pu

de'a

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[past]

[pausative]

eat

my

meal.

I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).

Example 10.59.

mi

ba

di'a

citka

le

mi

sanmi

I

[future]

[resumptive]

eat

my

meal.

I will resume eating my meal.

In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points is represented by za'o:

Example 10.60.

le

ctuca

pu

za'o

ciksi

le

cmaci

seldanfu

le

tadgri

The

teacher

[past]

[superfective]

explained

the

mathematics

problem

to

the

student-group.

The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.

That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already understood the problem.

An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo co'i:

Example 10.61.

la

djan.

pu

co'i

catra

la

djim

John

[past]

[achievative]

kills

Jim.

John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.

Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by re'u, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:

Example 10.62.

mi

pare'u

klama

le

zarci

I

[first

time]

go-to

the

store.

I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).

Note the difference between:

Example 10.63.

mi

pare'u

paroi

klama

le

zarci

I

[first

time]

[one

time]

go-to

the

store.

For the first time, I go to the store once.

and

Example 10.64.

mi

paroi

pare'u

klama

le

zarci

I

[one

time]

[first

time]

go-to

the

store.

There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.

Space interval modifiers: FEhE

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fe'e

FEhE

space interval modifier flag

Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:

Example 10.65.

ko

vi'i

fe'e

di'i

sombo

le

gurni

You-imperative

[1-dimensional]

[space:]

[regularly]

sow

the

grain.

Sow the grain in a line and evenly!

Example 10.66.

mi

fe'e

ciroi

tervecnu

lo

selsalta

I

[space:]

[three

places]

buy

those-which-are

salad-ingredients.

I buy salad ingredients in three locations.

Example 10.67.

ze'e

roroi

ve'e

fe'e

roroi

ku

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

vo

[whole

time]

[all

times]

[whole

space]

[space:]

[all

places]

The-number

2

+

2

=

the-number

4.

Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.

As shown in Example 10.67, “ ”, when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case du), it is emphasized.

The fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning “north of”.)

Example 10.68.

tu

ve'abe'a

fe'e

co'a

rokci

That-yonder

[medium

space

interval

-

north]

[space]

[initiative]

is-a-rock.

That

is

the

beginning

of

a

rock

extending

to

my

north.

That is the south face of a rock.

Here the notion of a “beginning point” represented by the cmavo co'a is transferred from “beginning in time” to “beginning in space” under the influence of the fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the ve'abe'a provides an orientation in which the south face is the “beginning” and the north face is the “end”, since the rock extends from south (near me) to north (away from me).

Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be “behind us”. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.)

If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval modifiers, the fe'e flag must be prefixed to each.

Tenses as sumti tcita

So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:

Example 10.69.

mi

klama

le

zarci

ca

le

nu

do

klama

le

zdani

I

go-to

the

market

[present]

the

event-of

you

go-to

the

house.

I go to the market when you go to the house.

Here ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with ku; instead, it governs the following sumti, the le nu construct. What Example 10.69, “ ” asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So ca, which means “now” when used with a selbri, means “simultaneously-with” when used with a sumti. Consider another example:

Example 10.70.

mi

klama

le

zarci

pu

le

nu

do

pu

klama

le

zdani

I

go-to

the

market

[past]

the

event-of

you

[past]

go-to

the

house.

The second pu is simply the past tense marker for the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. How are we to understand the first pu, the sumti tcita?

All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to the house. Example 10.70, “ ” then says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house. Example 10.70, “ ” can therefore be translated:

I had gone to the market before you went to the house.

(Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:

Example 10.71.

le

ratcu

cu

citka

le

cirla

vi

le

panka

The

rat

eats

the

cheese

[short

distance]

the

park.

The rat eats the cheese near the park.

Example 10.72.

le

ratcu

cu

citka

le

cirla

vi

le

vu

panka

The

rat

eats

the

cheese

[short

distance]

the

[long

distance]

park

The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.

Example 10.73.

le

ratcu

cu

citka

le

cirla

vu

le

vi

panka

The

rat

eats

the

cheese

[long

distance]

the

[short

distance]

park

The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.

The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with fe'e) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:

Example 10.74.

mi

morsi

ba'o

le

nu

mi

jmive

I

am-dead

[perfective]

the

event-of

I

live.

I die in the aftermath of my living.

Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast Example 10.74, “ ” with:

Example 10.75.

mi

morsi

ba

le

nu

mi

jmive

I

am-dead

[future]

the

event-of

I

live.

As explained in the section called “Vague intervals and non-specific tenses”, Example 10.75, “ ” does not exclude the possibility that I died before I ceased to live!

Likewise, we might say:

Example 10.76.

mi

klama

le

zarci

pu'o

le

nu

mi

citka

I

go-to

the

store

[inchoative]

the

event-of

I

eat

which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store, whereas

Example 10.77.

mi

klama

le

zarci

ba'o

le

nu

mi

citka

I

go-to

the

store

[perfective]

the

event-of

I

eat

would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.

Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):

Example 10.78.

le

bloti

pu

za'o

xelklama

fe'e

ba'o

le

lalxu

The

boat

[past]

[superfective]

is-a-transport-mechanism

[space]

[perfective]

the

lake.

The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.

Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification: although xelklama appears to mean simply “is-a-mode-of-transport”, it does not – the bridi of Example 10.78, “ ” has four omitted arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning.

The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:

Example 10.79.

mi

klama

le

zarci

reroi

le

ca

djedi

I

go-to

the

market

[twice]

the

[present]

day.

I go/went/will go to the market twice today.

Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti:

Example 10.80.

loi

snime

cu

carvi

ze'u

le

ca

dunra

Some-of-the-mass-of

snow

rains

[long

time

interval]

the

[present]

winter.

Snow falls during this winter.

claims that the interval specified by “this winter” is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas

Example 10.81.

loi

snime

cu

carvi

ca

le

ze'u

dunra

Some-of-the-mass-of

snow

rains

[present]

the

[long

time]

winter.

Snow falls in the long winter.

claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.

Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki

KI

sticky tense set/reset

So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a single bridi. This property is known as “stickiness”: the tense gets “stuck” and remains in effect until explicitly “unstuck”. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way-station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than from the speaker.

To make a tense sticky, suffix ki to it:

Example 10.82.

mi

puki

klama

le

zarci

.i

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

I

[past]

[sticky]

go-to

the

market.

The

man

bites

the

dog.

I went to the market. The man bit the dog.

Here the use of puki rather than just pu ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.

(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See the section called “Story time” for an explanation of “story time”, which employs a different set of conventions.)

What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?

Example 10.83.

mi

puki

klama

le

zarci

.i

le

nanmu

pu

batci

le

gerku

I

[past]

[sticky]

go-to

the

market.

The

man

[past]

bites

the

dog.

Here the second pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of Example 10.83, “ ” is:

Example 10.84.

I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog.

and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from any other sentences) to:

Example 10.85.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

.i

le

nanmu

pupu

batci

le

gerku

I

[past]

go-to

the

market.

The

man

[past]

[past]

bites

the

dog.

The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:

Example 10.86.

puku

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

[past]

I

[future]

go-to

the

market.

Earlier, I was going to go to the market.

Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating free and specified by puku, the second in the usual place and specified by ba. They are considered cumulative in the same way as the two tenses in separate sentences of Example 10.85, “ ”. Example 10.86, “ ” is therefore equivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to:

Example 10.87.

mi

puba

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

[future]

go-to

the

market.

I was going to go to the market.

Compare Example 10.88, “ ” and Example 10.89, “ ”, which have a different meaning from Example 10.86, “ ” and Example 10.87, “ ”:

Example 10.88.

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

puku

I

[future]

go-to

the

market

[past].

I will have gone to the market earlier.

Example 10.89.

mi

bapu

klama

le

zarci

I

[future]

[past]

go-to

the

market.

I will have gone to the market.

So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved, order counts – the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if there were only one tense to worry about.

But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part of a tense sticky. Consider Example 10.90, “ ”, which adds a second bridi and a ki to Example 10.86, “ ”:

Example 10.90.

pukiku

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

.i

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

[past]

[sticky]

I

[future]

go-to

the

market.

The

man

bites

the

dog.

What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not puba, but only pu, since only pu was made sticky with ki. So the translation is:

I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.

Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:

Example 10.91.

mi

pu

klama

le

ba'o

zarci

I

[past]

go-to

the

[perfective]

market

I went to the former market.

The significance of the ba'o in Example 10.91, “ ” is that the speaker's destination is described as being “in the aftermath of being a market”; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market is in the speaker's past, because the ba'o is interpreted relative to the pu tense of the main bridi.

Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:

Example 10.92.

mi

ca

jinvi

le

du'u

mi

ba

morsi

I

now

opine

the

fact-that

I

will-be

dead.

I now believe that I will be dead.

Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with respect to the opinion, which is in the present.

ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.

In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to ki. A time made sticky with kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying kixipa as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and a pair of subscripted ki tenses could be used to distinguish the two.

Story time

Making strict use of the conventions explained in the section called “Sticky and multiple tenses: KI” would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term “story” in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.

Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called “story time”, for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as “what happens next”. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.

The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:

Example 10.93.

puzuki

ku

ne'iki

le

kevna

le

ninmu

goi

ko'a

zutse

le

rokci

[past]

[long]

[sticky]

[,]

[inside]

[sticky]

the

cave,

the

woman

defined-as

she-1

sat-on

the

rock

Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.

Example 10.94.

.i

ko'a

citka

loi

kanba

rectu

She-1

[tenseless]

eat

some-of-the-mass-of

goat

flesh.

She was eating goat's meat.

Example 10.95.

.i

ko'a

pu

jukpa

ri

le

mudyfagri

She

[past]

cook

the-last-mentioned

by-method

the

wood-fire.

She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.

Example 10.96.

.i

lei

rectu

cu

zanglare

The-mass-of

flesh

is-(favorable)-warm.

The meat was pleasantly warm.

Example 10.97.

.i

le

labno

goi

ko'e

bazaki

nenri

klama

le

kevna

The

wolf

defined-as

it-2

[future]

[medium]

[sticky]

within-came

to-the

cave.

A while later, a wolf came into the cave.

Example 10.98.

.i

ko'e

lebna

lei

rectu

ko'a

It-2

[tenseless]

takes

the-mass-of

flesh

from-her-1.

It took the meat from her.

Example 10.99.

.i

ko'e

bartu

klama

It-2

out

ran

It ran out.

Example 10.93, “ ” sets both the time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using ki, just like the sentence sequences in the section called “Sticky and multiple tenses: KI”. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of Example 10.93, “ ” is marked for past tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.

Example 10.94, “ ” is tenseless. Outside story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that of Example 10.93, “ ”, since a sticky tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set in Example 10.93, “ ”).

Example 10.95, “ ” has an explicit tense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; therefore, the event of Example 10.95, “ ” happens before that of Example 10.94, “ ”. It cannot be determined if Example 10.95, “ ” happens before or after Example 10.93, “ ”.

Example 10.96, “ ” is again tenseless. Story time was not changed by the flashback in Example 10.95, “ ”, so Example 10.96, “ ” happens after Example 10.94, “ ”.

Example 10.97, “ ” specifies the future (relative to Example 10.96, “ ”) and makes it sticky. So all further events happen after Example 10.97, “ ”.

Example 10.98, “ ” and Example 10.99, “ ” are again tenseless, and so happen after Example 10.97, “ ”. (Story time is changed.)

So the overall order is Example 10.93, “ ” - Example 10.95, “ ” - Example 10.94, “ ” - Example 10.96, “ ” - (medium interval) - Example 10.97, “ ” - Example 10.98, “ ” - Example 10.99, “ ”. It is also possible that Example 10.95, “ ” happens before Example 10.93, “ ”.

If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time sufficiently.

Tenses in subordinate bridi

English has a set of rules, formally known as “sequence of tense rules”, for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:

Example 10.100.

John says that George is going to the market.

Example 10.101.

John says that George went to the market.

Example 10.102.

John said that George went to the market.

Example 10.103.

John said that George had gone to the market.

In Example 10.100, “ ” and Example 10.101, “ ”, the tense of the main sentence is the present: “says”. If George goes when John speaks, we get the present tense “is going” ( “goes” would be unidiomatic); if George goes before John speaks, we get the past tense “went”. But if the tense of the main sentence is the past, with “said”, then the tense required in the subordinate clause is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past tense “went”; if George goes before John speaks, we get the past-perfect tense “had gone”.

The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the main sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative to the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks Example 10.100, “ ” through Example 10.103, “ ”).

Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense already set in the main bridi. Thus Example 10.100, “ ” through Example 10.103, “ ” can be expressed in Lojban respectively thus:

Example 10.104.

la

djan.

ca

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

ca

klama

le

zarci

John

[present]

says

the

statement-that

George

[present]

goes-to

the

market.

Example 10.105.

la

djan.

ca

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

pu

klama

le

zarci

John

[present]

says

the

statement-that

George

[past]

goes-to

the

market.

Example 10.106.

la

djan.

pu

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

ca

klama

le

zarci

John

[past]

says

the

statement-that

George

[present]

goes-to

the

market.

Example 10.107.

la

djan.

pu

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

pu

klama

le

zarci

John

[past]

says

the

statement-that

George

[past]

goes-to

the

market.

Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is Example 10.106, “ ”. The ca looks quite odd, as if George were going to the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this ca is really a ca with respect to a reference point specified by the outer pu. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in the section called “Sticky and multiple tenses: KI”.

There is a special cmavo nau (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds like English “now”.) It is not grammatical to combine nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see the section called “Logical and non-logical connections between tenses”). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses nau at the lowest level:

Example 10.108.

la

djan.

pu

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

.alis

pu

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

pu

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

maris.

nau

klama

le

zarci

John

[past]

says

the

statement-that

Alice

[past]

says

the

statement-that

George

[past]

says

the

statement

that

Mary

[now]

goes-to

the

market.

John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.

The use of nau does not affect sticky tenses.

Tense relations between sentences

The sumti tcita method, explained in the section called “Tenses as sumti tcita”, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,

Example 10.109.

le

verba

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

zu'a

le

nu

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

The

child

walks-on

the

ice

[left]

the

event-of

the

man

bites

the

dog.

The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.

which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of le nu, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of i connecting them:

Example 10.110.

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

.izu'abo

le

verba

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

man

bites

the

dog.

[Left]

the

child

walks-on

the

ice.

The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.

.izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the i separates the sentences and the zu'a is the tense. The bo is required to prevent the zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, namely le verba.

Note that the bridi in Example 10.110, “ ” appear in the reverse order from their appearance in Example 10.109, “ ”. With .izu'abo (and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between this form and the sumti tcita form.

Example 10.110, “ ” means the same thing as:

Example 10.111.

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

.i

zu'a

la'edi'u

le

verba

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

man

bites

the

dog.

[Left]

the-referent-of-the-last-sentence

the

child

walks-on

the

ice.

The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.

If the bo is omitted in Example 10.110, “ ”, the meaning changes:

Example 10.112.

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

.i

zu'a

le

verba

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

man

bites

the

dog.

[Left]

the

child

[something]

walks-on

the

ice.

The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.

Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, because zu'a has absorbed the sumti le verba.

Do not confuse either Example 10.110, “ ” or Example 10.112, “ ” with the following:

Example 10.113.

le

nanmu

cu

batci

le

gerku

.i

zu'aku

le

verba

cu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

man

bites

the

dog.

[Left]

the

child

walks-on

the

ice.

The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.

In Example 10.113, “ ”, the origin point is the speaker, as is usual with zu'aku. Example 10.110, “ ” makes the origin point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.

Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe.

The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus gi. Another gi is used to separate the sentences:

Example 10.114.

pugi

mi

klama

le

zarci

gi

mi

klama

le

zdani

[past]

I

go-to

the

market

[,]

I

go-to

the

house.

Before I go to the market, I go to the house.

A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationship between sumti:

Example 10.115.

mi

klama

pugi

le

zarci

gi

le

zdani

I

go-to

[past]

the

market

[,]

the

house.

Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense-like relationship between nouns, Example 10.115, “ ” cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either into Example 10.114, “ ” or else into “I go to the house before the market”, which is ambiguous – is the market going?

Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a “bridi-tail” is explained fully in the section called “Compound bridi”; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.) Example 10.116, “ ” is equivalent in meaning to Example 10.114, “ ” and Example 10.115, “ ”:

Example 10.116.

mi

pugi

klama

le

zarci

gi

klama

le

zdani

I

[past]

go-to

the

market

[,]

go-to

the

house.

I, before going to the market, go to the house.

In both Example 10.115, “ ” and Example 10.116, “ ”, the underlying sentences mi klama le zarci and mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.

Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):

subordinate:

X TENSE le nu Y

afterthought coordinate:

Y .i+TENSE+bo X

forethought coordinate:

TENSE+gi X gi Y

Tensed logical connectives

The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system, Example 10.117, “ ” through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.117.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

.ije

la

teris.

satre

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.

Example 10.118.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

gi'e

satre

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.

Example 10.119.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

.e

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.

Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connective “and”? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later strokes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo bo, thus:

Example 10.120.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

.ijebabo

la

teris.

satre

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.

Example 10.121.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

gi'ebabo

satre

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.

Example 10.122.

la

teris.

satre

le

mlatu

.ebabo

le

ractu

Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.

Example 10.120, “ ” through 17.6 are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to Example 10.117, “ ” through Example 10.119, “ ” respectively. The bo is required for the same reason as in Example 10.110, “ ”: to prevent the ba from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following sumti (or, in Example 10.121, “ ”, from being attached to the following selbri).

In addition to the bo construction of Example 10.120, “ ” through Example 10.122, “ ”, there is also a form of tensed logical connective with ke…ke'e ( tu'e…tu'u for sentences). The logical connective system makes Example 10.123, “ ” through Example 10.125, “ ” equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.123.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.ije

tu'e

mi

bevri

le

gerku

.ija

mi

bevri

le

mlatu

tu'u

I

carry

the

sack.

And

(I

carry

the

dog.

And/or

I

carry

the

cat).

I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I carry both.

Example 10.124.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

gi'eke

bevri

le

gerku

gi'a

bevri

le

mlatu

I

carry

the

sack

and

(carry

the

dog

and/or

carry

the

cat).

I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both.

Example 10.125.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.eke

le

gerku

.a

le

mlatu

I

carry

the

sack

and

(the

dog

or

the

cat).

I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.

Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variety of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all cases, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat or the dog or both.

To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and then the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form Example 10.126, “ ” through Example 10.128, “ ”:

Example 10.126.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.ije

ba

tu'e

mi

bevri

le

gerku

.ijacabo

mi

bevri

le

mlatu

tu'u

I

carry

the

sack.

And

[future]

(I

carry

the

dog.

And/or

[present]

I

carry

the

cat.)

I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carry the cat or I will carry both at once.

Example 10.127.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

gi'ebake

bevri

le

gerku

gi'acabo

bevri

le

mlatu

I

carry

the

sack

and

[future]

(carry

the

dog

and/or

[present]

carry

the

cat).

I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both at once.

Example 10.128.

mi

bevri

le

dakli

.ebake

le

gerku

.acabo

le

mlatu

I

carry

the

sack

and

[future]

(the

cat

and/or

[present]

the

dog).

I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.

Example 10.126, “ ” through Example 10.128, “ ” are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless Example 10.123, “ ” through Example 10.125, “ ” respectively.

Tense negation

Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:

Example 10.129.

mi

punai

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

[not]

go-to

the

market.

I didn't go to the market.

As a contradictory negation, Example 10.129, “ ” implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumti tcita, -nai negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:

Example 10.130.

mi

klama

le

zarci

canai

le

nu

do

klama

le

zdani

I

go-to

the

market

[present]

[not]

the

event-of

you

go-to

the

house.

It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you went to the house.

Example 10.131.

le

nanmu

batci

le

gerku

ne'inai

le

kumfa

The

man

bites

the

dog

[within]

[not]

the

room.

The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.

Example 10.132.

mi

morsi

ca'onai

le

nu

mi

jmive

I

am-dead

[continuitive

-

negated]

the

event-of

I

live.

It is false that I am dead during my life.

It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense constructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negation, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation analogues of Example 10.129, “ ” to Example 10.131, “ ”:

Example 10.133.

mi

na'e

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

[non-]

[past]

go-to

the

market.

I go to the market other than in the past.

Example 10.134.

le

nanmu

batci

le

gerku

to'e

ne'i

le

kumfa

The

man

bites

the

dog

[opposite-of]

[within]

the

room.

The man bites the dog outside the room.

Example 10.135.

mi

klama

le

zarci

na'e

ca

le

nu

do

klama

le

zdani

I

go-to

the

market

[non-]

[present]

the

event-of

you

go-to

the

house.

I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you went to the house.

Example 10.136.

mi

morsi

na'e

ca'o

le

nu

mi

jmive

I

am-dead

[non-]

[continuitive]

the

event-of

I

live.

I am dead other than during my life.

Unlike -nai contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:

Example 10.137.

le

verba

na'e

ri'u

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[non-]

[right]

walks-on

the

ice

The child walks on the ice other than to my right.

The use of -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in the section called “Interval properties: TAhE and roi”; this use is also a scalar negation.

Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ca'a

CAhA

actually is

ka'e

CAhA

is innately capable of

nu'o

CAhA

can but has not

pu'i

CAhA

can and has

Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For example:

Example 10.138.

ro

datka

cu

flulimna

All

ducks

are-float-swimmers.

All ducks swim by floating.

is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to Example 10.138, “ ”,

Example 10.139.

ro

datka

ca

flulimna

All

ducks

[present]

are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are now swimming by floating.

the resulting Example 10.139, “ ” might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of “All ducks are now swimming”, we must append a marker from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:

Example 10.140.

ro

datka

ca

ca'a

flulimna

All

ducks

[present]

[actual]

are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.

A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before ki, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky.

Example 10.140, “ ” is false in both Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck that is not swimming now.

Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming – it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability:

Example 10.141.

ro

datka

ka'e

flulimna

All

ducks

[capable]

are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are innately capable of swimming.

Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:

Example 10.142.

la

djan.

ka'e

viska

John

[capable]

sees.

John

is

innately

capable

of

seeing.

John can see.

might be true about a human being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand,

Example 10.143.

le

cukta

ka'e

viska

The

book

[capable]

sees.

The book can see.

is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is not part of the innate nature of a book.

Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expressed using nu'o, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential:

Example 10.144.

ro

cifydatka

nu'o

flulimna

All

infant-ducks

[can

but

has

not]

are-float-swimmers.

All

infant

ducks

have

an

undemonstrated

potential

for

swimming

by

floating.

Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.

Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then pu'i is appropriate:

Example 10.145.

la

frank.

pu'i

viska

Frank

[can

and

has]

sees.

Frank

has

demonstrated

a

potential

for

seeing.

Frank can see and has seen.

Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for ca'a, nu'o, and pu'i incorporate ca into their meaning, and are really correct for ca ca'a, ca nu'o, and ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other tenses than the present:

Example 10.146.

mi

pu

ca'a

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

[actual]

go-to

the

store.

I actually went to the store.

Example 10.147.

la

frank.

ba

nu'o

klama

le

zdani

Frank

[future]

[can

but

has

not]

goes-to

the

store.

Frank

could

have,

but

will

not

have,

gone

to

the

store

(at some understood moment in the future).

As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying

Example 10.148.

ta

jelca

That

burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.

with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different English sentences “That is on fire” and “That is inflammable.” The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:

Example 10.149.

ta

ca

ca'a

jelca

That

[present]

[actual]

burns.

That is on fire.

and

Example 10.150.

ta

ka'e

jelca

That

[capable]

burns.

That

is

capable

of

burning.

That is inflammable.

When no indication is given, as in the simple observative

Example 10.151.

jelca

It burns!

the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning “Fire!”

Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.

The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:

Example 10.152.

mi

pu

je

ba

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

and

[future]

go-to

the

market.

I went and will go to the market.

means the same as:

Example 10.153.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

.ije

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

go-to

the

market.

And

I

[future]

go-to

the

market.

I went to the market, and I will go to the market.

Tense connection and tense negation are combined in:

Example 10.154.

mi

punai

je

canai

je

ba

klama

le

zarci

I

[past]

[not]

and

[present]

[not]

and

[future]

go-to

the

market.

I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.

Example 10.154, “ ” is far more specific than

Example 10.155.

mi

ba

klama

le

zarci

I

[future]

go-to

the

market.

which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about my past or present. ba does not imply punai or canai; to compel that interpretation, either a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.

Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.156.

mi

mo'izu'anai

je

mo'iri'u

cadzu

I

[motion]

[left-not]

and

[motion]

[right]

walk.

I walk not leftward but rightward.

Example 10.157.

mi

mo'izu'a

naje

mo'iri'u

cadzu

I

[motion]

[left]

not-and

[motion]

[right]

walk.

I walk not leftward but rightward.

There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default.

The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, but by their end-points ( bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English “from ... to”):

Example 10.158.

mi

puza

bi'o

bazu

vasxu

I

[past]

[medium]

from

...

to

[future]

[long]

breathe.

I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.

(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)

One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in the section called “Sub-events”. Other uses will probably be identified in future.

Sub-events

Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:

Example 10.159.

mi

reroi

pi'u

xaroi

cecla

le

seldanti

I

[twice]

[cross-product]

[six

times]

shoot

the

projectile-launcher.

On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.

It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the reroi and the xaroi directly together. However, the non-logical connective pi'u expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (hence the name “product”: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.

In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and event contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logical connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type:

Example 10.160.

la

djordj.

ca'o

co'a

ciska

George

[continuitive]

[initiative]

writes.

George continues to start to write.

Example 10.161.

mi

reroi

ca'o

xaroi

darxi

le

damri

I

[twice]

[continuitive]

[six

times]

hit

the

drum.

On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.

Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai

JAI

tense conversion

fai

FA

indefinite place

Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with one of the others:

Example 10.162.

mi

cu

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

the

market.

Example 10.163.

le

zarci

cu

se

klama

mi

The

market

is-gone-to

by-me.

It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:

Example 10.164.

le

ratcu

cu

citka

le

cirla

vi

le

panka

The

rat

eats

the

cheese

[short

distance]

the

park.

The rat eats the cheese in the park.

Example 10.165.

le

panka

cu

jai

vi

citka

le

cirla

fai

le

ratcu

The

park

is-the-place-of

eating

the

cheese

by-the

rat.

The park is where the rat eats the cheese.

In Example 10.165, “ ”, the construction JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with fai, the indefinite member of selma'o FA.

(The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc. places of a bridi explicitly:

Example 10.166.

fa

mi

cu

klama

fe

le

zarci

means the same as

Example 10.167.

fe

le

zarci

cu

klama

fa

mi

as well as the simple

Example 10.168.

mi

cu

klama

le

zarci

in which the place structure is determined by position.)

Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in descriptions with LE selma'o:

Example 10.169.

mi

viska

le

jai

vi

citka

be

le

cirla

I

saw

the

place-of

eating

the

cheese.

Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no fai appears.

Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:

Example 10.170.

mi

djuno

fi

le

jai

ca

morsi

be

fai

la

djan.

I

know

about

the

[present]

is-dead

of-the-one-called

“  John”

.

I

know

the

time

of

John's

death.

I know when John died.

Tenses versus modals

Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.

The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi

Example 10.171.

mi

nelci

do

mu'i

le

nu

do

nelci

mi

I

like

you

with-motivation

the

event-of

you

like

me.

I like you because you like me.

places the le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu mukti (which underlies the modal mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi

Example 10.172.

mi

nelci

do

ba

le

nu

do

nelci

mi

I

like

you

after

the

event-of

you

like

me.

I like you after you like me.

places the le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu balvi (which underlies the tense ba), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of Example 10.171, “ ” and Example 10.172, “ ”, employing the brivla mukti and balvi explicitly, would be:

Example 10.173.

le

nu

do

nelci

mi

cu

mukti

le

nu

mi

nelci

do

The

event-of

you

like

me

motivates

the

event-of

I

like

you.

Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.

and

Example 10.174.

le

nu

mi

nelci

do

cu

balvi

le

nu

do

nelci

mi

The

event-of

I

like

you

is

after

the

event

of

you

like

me.

My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.

(Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference in what is claimed; Example 10.173, “ ” and Example 10.174, “ ” claim only the causal and temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the events themselves.)

As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of Example 10.171, “ ” and Example 10.172, “ ” are, respectively:

Example 10.175.

mi

nelci

do

.imu'ibo

do

nelci

mi

I

like

you.

[That

is]

Because

you

like

me.

Example 10.176.

do

nelci

mi

.ibabo

mi

nelci

do

You like me. Afterward, I like you.

In Example 10.175, “ ”, the order of the two bridi mi nelci do and do nelci mi is the same as in Example 10.171, “ ”. In Example 10.176, “ ”, however, the order is reversed: the origin point do nelci mi physically appears before the future-time event mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of mukti or balvi.

In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of Example 10.175, “ ” and Example 10.176, “ ” are

Example 10.177.

mu'igi

do

nelci

mi

gi

mi

nelci

do

Because you like me, I like you.

and

Example 10.178.

bagi

do

nelci

mi

gi

mi

nelci

do

After you like me, I like you.

respectively.

The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sentences) all have the same meaning:

X .i BAI bo Y

BAI gi Y gi X

X BAI le nu Y

whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same meaning:

X .i TENSE bo Y

TENSE gi X gi Y

Y TENSE le nu X

neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentence schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representing the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the tensed sentences, no such simple rule exists.

Tense questions: cu'e

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu'e

CUhE

tense question

There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main English tense question words are “When?” and “Where?”. These may be paraphrased respectively as “At what time?” and “At what place?” In these forms, their Lojban equivalents simply involve a tense plus ma, the Lojban sumti question:

Example 10.179.

do

klama

le

zdani

ca

ma

You

go-to

the

house

[present]

[what

sumti?].

You

go

to

the

house

at

what

time?

When do you go to the house?

Example 10.180.

le

verba

vi

ma

pu

cadzu

le

bisli

The

child

[short

space]

[what

sumti?]

[past]

walks-on

the

ice.

The

child

at/near

what

place

walked

on

the

ice?

Where did the child walk on the ice?

There is also a non-specific tense and modal question, cu'e, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used wherever a tense or modal construct can be used.

Example 10.181.

le

nanmu

cu'e

batci

le

gerku

The

man

[what

tense?]

bites

the

dog.

When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?

Possible answers to Example 10.181, “ ” might be:

Example 10.182.

va

[medium

space].

Some ways from here.

Example 10.183.

puzu

[past]

[long

time].

A long time ago.

Example 10.184.

vi

le

lunra

[short

space]

The

moon.

On the moon.

Example 10.185.

pu'o

[inchoative]

He hasn't yet done so.

or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see the section called “Modal tags: BAI”):

Example 10.186.

seka'a

le

briju

With-destination

the

office.

The only way to combine cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:

Example 10.187.

do

puzi

je

cu'e

sombo

le

gurni

You

[past]

[short]

and

[when?]

sow

the

grain?

You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?

Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a question word:

Example 10.188.

la

.artr.

pu

je'i

ba

nolraitru

Arthur

[past]

[which?]

[future]

is-a-king

Was Arthur a king or will he be?

Answers to Example 10.188, “ ” would be logical connectives such as je, meaning “both”, naje meaning “the latter”, or jenai meaning “the former”.

Explicit magnitudes

It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitudes that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban construction called a “termset” is employed. (Termsets are explained further in the section called “Termset logical connection” and the section called “Grouping of quantifiers”.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:

Example 10.189.

la

frank.

sanli

zu'a

nu'i

la

djordj.

la'u

lo

mitre

be

li

mu

[nu'u]

Frank

stands

[left]

[start

termset]

George

[quantity]

a

thing-measuring-in-meters

the-number

5

[end

termset].

Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.

Here the termset extends from the nu'i to the implicit nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms la djordj., which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti lo mitre be li mu, which the cmavo la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning “with quantity”; see the section called “Modal tags: BAI”) marks as a quantity. Both terms are governed by the tag zu'a

It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise version of Example 10.189, “ ” is:

Example 10.190.

la

frank.

sanli

zu'a

nu'i

la'u

lo

mitre

be

li

mu

Frank

stands

[left]

[termset]

[quantity]

a

thing-measuring-in-meters

the-number

5.

Frank stands five meters to the left.

Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)

Example 10.191.

.a'o

do

pu

seju

ba

roroi

ca'o

fe'e

su'oroi

jimpe

fi

le

lojbo

temci

selsku

ciste

Summary of tense selma'o

PU

temporal direction

pu

past

ca

present

ba

future

ZI

temporal distance

zi

short

za

medium

zu

long

ZEhA

temporal interval

ze'i

short

ze'a

medium

ze'u

long

ze'e

infinite

ROI

objective quantified tense flag

noroi

never

paroi

once

[N]roi

[N] times

roroi

always

pare'u

the first time

rere'u

the second time

[N]re'u

the [N]th time

TAhE

subjective quantified tense

di'i

regularly

na'o

typically

ru'i

continuously

ta'e

habitually

ZAhO

event contours

see the section called “Event contours: ZAhO and re'u”

FAhA

spatial direction

see the section called “List of spatial directions and direction-like relations”

VA

spatial distance

vi

short

va

medium

vu

long

VEhA

spatial interval

ve'i

short

ve'a

medium

ve'u

long

ve'e

infinite

VIhA

spatial dimensionality

vi'i

line

vi'a

plane

vi'u

space

vi'e

space-time

FEhE

spatial interval modifier flag

fe'enoroi

nowhere

fe'eroroi

everywhere

fe'eba'o

beyond

etc.

MOhI

spatial movement flag

mo'i

motion

see the section called “List of spatial directions and direction-like relations”

KI

set or reset sticky tense

tense+  ki

set

ki alone

reset

CUhE

tense question, reference point

cu'e

asks for a tense or aspect

nau

use speaker's reference point

JAI

tense conversion

jaica

the time of

jaivi

the place of

etc.

List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used without mo'i to express a direction, and then when used with mo'i to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.

ca'u

crane

in front (of)

forward

ti'a

trixe

behind

backward

zu'a

zunle

on the left (of)

leftward

ga'u

gapru

above

upward(ly)

ni'a

cnita

below

downward(ly)

ne'i

nenri

within

into

ru'u

sruri

surrounding

orbiting

pa'o

pagre

transfixing

passing through

ne'a

next to

moving while next to

te'e

bordering

moving along the border (of)

re'o

adjacent (to)

along

fa'a

farna

towards

arriving at

to'o

away from

departing from

zo'i

inward (from)

approaching

ze'o

outward (from)

receding from

zo'a

tangential (to)

passing (by)

be'a

berti

north (of)

northward(ly)

ne'u

snanu

south (of)

southward(ly)

du'a

stuna

east (of)

eastward(ly)

vu'a

west (of)

westward(ly)

Special note on fa'a, to'o, zo'i, and ze'o:

zo'i and ze'o refer to direction towards or away from the speaker's location, or whatever the origin is.

fa'a and to'o refer to direction towards or away from some other point.

Chapter 11. Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction

The syntax of abstraction

The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as “abstraction” is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until the section called “Event abstraction”.

An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are known as “abstractors”. The bridi is closed by the elidable terminator kei, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi

Example 11.1.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

the

store

into an abstraction using nu, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into

Example 11.2.

nu

mi

klama

le

zarci

[kei]

an-event-of

my

going-to

the

store

The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding kei improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if kei had been elided.

(Technically, kei is never necessary, because the elidable terminator vau that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however, kei is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)

The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in Example 11.2, “ ”, or used in tanru:

Example 11.3.

la

djan.

cu

nu

sonci

kei

djica

John

is-an-(event-of

being-a-soldier)

type-of

desirer.

John wants to be a soldier.

Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by le (or any other member of selma'o LE):

Example 11.4.

la

djan.

cu

djica

le

nu

sonci

[kei]

John

desires

the

event-of

being-a-soldier.

We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction either at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its cu; in either of these circumstances, kei can normally be elided.

The place structure of an abstraction selbri depends on the particular abstractor, and will be explained individually in the following sections.

Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical form used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of Example 11.2, “ ” we see “my going-to the store” rather than “I go-to the store”; likewise, in the glosses of Example 11.3, “ ” and Example 11.4, “ ” we see “being-a-soldier” rather than “is-a-soldier”. This procedure reflects the desire for more understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban form. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of an abstraction selbri.

Event abstraction

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

nu

NU

event abstractor

The examples in the section called “The syntax of abstraction” made use of nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the le description built on a nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:

Example 11.5.

le

klama

the comer, that which comes

Example 11.6.

le

se

klama

the destination

Example 11.7.

le

te

klama

the origin

Example 11.8.

le

ve

klama

the route

Example 11.9.

le

xe

klama

the means of transportation

Example 11.10.

le

nu

klama

the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means

Example 11.5, “ ” through Example 11.9, “ ” are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri klama. Example 11.10, “ ” describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.

In Lojban, the term “event” is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:

Example 11.11.

le

nu

mi

vasxu

the

event-of

my

breathing

is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal circumstances). On the other hand,

Example 11.12.

le

nu

la

djan.

cinba

la

djein.

the

event-of

John

kissing

Jane

is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances).

We can see from Example 11.10, “ ” through Example 11.12, “ ” that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:

Example 11.13.

mi

nelci

le

nu

limna

I

like

the

event-of

swimming.

I like swimming.

is elliptical, and most probably means:

Example 11.14.

mi

nelci

le

nu

mi

limna

I

like

the

event-of

I

swim.

In the proper context, of course, Example 11.13, “ ” could refer to the event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent, “I like swimming”, can't be interpreted as “I like Frank's swimming”; this is a fundamental distinction between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatever the context indicates that it should mean.

Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of Example 11.14, “ ”, the appearance of le se nelci ( “that which is liked”) is in effect an abstraction:

Example 11.15.

le

se

nelci

cu

cafne

The

liked-thing

is-frequent.

The thing which I like happens often.

which in this context means

My swimming happens often.

Event descriptions with le nu are commonly used to fill the “under conditions...” places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:

Example 11.16.

la

lojban.

cu

frili

mi

le

nu

mi

tadni

[kei]

Lojban

is-easy

for-me

under-conditions-the

event-of

I

study

Lojban is easy for me when I study.

(The “when” of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)

The place structure of a nu abstraction selbri is simply:

x1 is an event of (the bridi)

Types of event abstractions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mu'e

NU

point-event abstractor

pu'u

NU

process abstractor

zu'o

NU

activity abstractor

za'i

NU

state abstractor

Event abstractions with nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.

An event considered as a point in time is called a “point-event”, or sometimes an “achievement”. (This latter word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor mu'e means “point-event-of”:

Example 11.17.

le

mu'e

la

djan.

catra

la

djim.

cu

zekri

The

point-event-of

(John

kills

Jim)

is-a-crime.

John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.

An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a “process”. The abstractor pu'u means “process-of”:

Example 11.18.

ca'o

le

pu'u

le

latmo

balje'a

cu

porpi

kei

so'i

je'atru

cu

selcatra

[continuitive]

the

process-of(

the

Latin

great-state

breaking-up

)

many

state-rulers

were-killed

During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed.

An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an “activity”. The abstractor zu'o means “activity-of”:

Example 11.19.

mi

tatpi

ri'a

le

zu'o

mi

plipe

I

am-tired

because-of

the

activity-of

(I

jump).

I am tired because I jump.

An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a “state”. The abstractor za'i means “state-of”:

Example 11.20.

le

za'i

mi

jmive

cu

ckape

do

The

state-of

(I

am-alive)

is-dangerous-to

you.

My being alive is dangerous to you.

The abstractors in Example 11.17, “ ” through Example 11.20, “ ” could all have been replaced by nu, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:

- the “state of running” begins when the runner starts and ends when the runner stops;

- the “activity of running” consists of the cycle “lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...” (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition of the cycle);

- the “process of running” puts emphasis on the initial sprint, the steady speed, and the final slowdown;

- the “achievement of running” is most alien to English, but sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like “Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens” (the original marathon).

Further information on types of events can be found in the section called “Abstractor connection”.

The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:

mu'e x1 is a point event of (the bridi) pu'u: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2 za'i: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true zu'o: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2

Property abstractions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ka

NU

property abstractor

ce'u

KOhA

abstraction focus

The things described by le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately “abstract”. They are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is “the property of being blue”, or “the property of being a go-er”? They are what logicians call “intensions”. If John has a heart, then “the property of having a heart” is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,

Example 11.21.

la

djan.

cu

se

risna

zo'e

John

has-as-heart

something-unspecified.

John has a heart.

has the same truth conditions as

Example 11.22.

la

djan.

cu

ckaji

le

ka

se

risna

[zo'e]

[kei]

John

has-the-property

the

property-of

having-as-heart

something.

John has the property of having a heart.

(The English word “have” frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to “have” properties, but this is not the same sense of “have” as in “I have money”, which is possession.)

Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted to fill places in brivla place structures:

Example 11.23.

do

cnino

mi

le

ka

xunre

[kei]

You

are-new

to-me

in-the-quality-of-the

property-of

being-red.

You are new to me in redness.

(The English suffix “-ness” often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix “-ity”.)

We can also move the property description to the x1 place of Example 11.23, “ ”, producing:

Example 11.24.

le

ka

do

xunre

[kei]

cu

cnino

mi

The

property-of

your

being-red

is-new

to

me.

Your redness is new to me.

It would be suitable to use Example 11.23, “ ” and Example 11.24, “ ” to someone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.

There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is “understood” as being specified externally. Thus:

Example 11.25.

ka

mi

prami

[zo'e]

[kei]

a-property-of

me

loving

something-unspecified

is quite different from

Example 11.26.

ka

[zo'e]

prami

mi

[kei]

a-property-of

something-unspecified

loving

me

In particular, sentences like Example 11.27, “ ” and Example 11.28, “ ” are quite different in meaning:

Example 11.27.

la

djan.

cu

zmadu

la

djordj.

le

ka

mi

prami

John

exceeds

George

in-the

property-of

(I

love

X)

I love John more than I love George.

Example 11.28.

la

djan.

cu

zmadu

la

djordj.

le

ka

prami

mi

John

exceeds

George

in

the

property

of

(X

loves

me).

John loves me more than George loves me.

The “X” used in the glosses of Example 11.27, “ ” through Example 11.28, “ ” as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in the section called “Event abstraction”. Instead, the cmavo ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form “X” will be used in literal translations.)

Therefore, an explicit equivalent of Example 11.27, “ ”, with no ellipsis, is:

Example 11.29.

la

djan.

cu

zmadu

la

djordj.

le

ka

mi

prami

ce'u

John

exceeds

George

in-the

property-of

(I

love

X).

and of Example 11.28, “ ” is:

Example 11.30.

la

djan.

cu

zmadu

la

djordj.

le

ka

ce'u

prami

mi

John

exceeds

George

in-the

property-of

(X

loves

me).

This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:

Example 11.31.

le

ka

[zo'e]

dunda

le

xirma

[zo'e]

[kei]

the

property-of

giving

the

horse

into

Example 11.32.

le

ka

ce'u

dunda

le

xirma

[zo'e]

[kei]

the

property-of

(X

is-a-giver

of-the

horse

to

someone-unspecified)

the property of being a giver of the horse

which is the most natural interpretation of Example 11.31, “ ”, versus

Example 11.33.

le

ka

[zo'e]

dunda

le

xirma

ce'u

[kei]

the

property-of

(someone-unspecified

is-a-giver

of-the

horse

to

X)

the property of being one to whom the horse is given

which is also a possible interpretation.

It is also possible to have more than one ce'u in a ka abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions “package up” a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri bridi, whose place structure is:

bridi x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3

The place structure of ka abstraction selbri is simply:

ka x1 is a property of (the bridi)

Amount abstractions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ni

NU

amount abstraction

Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:

Example 11.34.

le

ni

le

pixra

cu

blanu

[kei]

the

amount-of

(the

picture

being-blue)

the amount of blueness in the picture

because “blueness” could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,

Example 11.35.

le

ni

la

djein.

cu

mamta

[kei]

the

amount-of

(Jane

being-a-mother)

the

amount

of

Jane's

mother-ness

(?)

the

amount

of

mother-ness

in

Jane

(?)

makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.

Semantically, a sumti with le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo mo'e:

Example 11.36.

li

pa

vu'u

mo'e

le

ni

le

pixra

cu

blanu

[kei]

the-number

1

minus

the-operand

the

amount-of

(the

picture

being-blue)

1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture

Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban.

There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of ce'u just like property abstractors. Thus,

Example 11.37.

le

pixra

cu

cenba

le

ka

ce'u

blanu

[kei]

The

picture

varies

in-the

property-of

(X

is

blue).

The

picture

varies

in

being

blue.

The picture varies in blueness.

is not the same as

Example 11.38.

le

pixra

cu

cenba

le

ni

ce'u

blanu

[kei]

The

picture

varies

in-the

amount-of

(X

is

blue).

The

picture

varies

in

how

blue

it

is.

The picture varies in blueness.

Example 11.37, “ ” conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas Example 11.38, “ ” conveys that its quantity changes over time.

Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of ni abstraction selbri is:

ni x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2

Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like le ni ... kei be. See Example 11.62, “ ” for the use of this construction.

Truth-value abstraction: jei

The “blueness of the picture” discussed in the section called “Amount abstractions” refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using jei, which is closely related semantically to ni. In the simplest cases, le jei produces not a number but a truth value:

Example 11.39.

le

jei

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

vo

[kei]

the

truth-value-of

the-number

2

+

2

=

the-number

4

the truth of 2 + 2 being 4

is equivalent to “truth”, and

Example 11.40.

le

jei

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

mu

[kei]

the

truth-value-of

the-number

2

+

2

=

the-number

5

the truth of 2 + 2 being 5

is equivalent to “falsehood”.

However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:

Example 11.41.

mi

ba

jdice

le

jei

la

djordj.

cu

zekri

gasnu

[kei]

I

[future]

decide

the

truth-value

of

(George

being-a-(crime

doer)).

I will decide whether George is a criminal.

Example 11.41, “ ” does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result, jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of ni:

jei x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2

Abstractions using jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.

Predication/sentence abstraction

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du'u

NU

predication abstraction

There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call these the “propositional attitudes”, and they include (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Consider the English sentence:

Example 11.42.

I know that Frank is a fool.

How's that in Lojban? Let us try:

Example 11.43.

mi

djuno

le

nu

la

frank.

cu

bebna

[kei]

I know the event of Frank being a fool.

Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like; Example 11.43, “ ” comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact, Example 11.43, “ ” is an instance of improperly marked “sumti raising”, a concept discussed further in the section called “Lojban sumti raising”).

Try again:

Example 11.44.

mi

djuno

le

jei

la

frank.

cu

bebna

[kei]

I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.

Closer. Example 11.44, “ ” says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as Example 11.42, “ ” does. To catch that nuance, we must say:

Example 11.45.

mi

djuno

le

du'u

la

frank.

cu

bebna

[kei]

I know the predication that Frank is a fool.

Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion “Frank is a fool” is not a property of le du'u abstraction, but of djuno; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result, djuno like jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.) Example 11.46, “ ” has no such implied assertion:

Example 11.46.

mi

kucli

le

du'u

la

frank.

cu

bebna

[kei]

I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.

and here du'u could probably be replaced by jei without much change in meaning:

Example 11.47.

mi

kucli

le

jei

la

frank.

cu

bebna

[kei]

I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.

As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity, du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:

du'u x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2

and le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:

Example 11.48.

la

djan.

cusku

le

se

du'u

la

djordj.

klama

le

zarci

[kei]

John

expresses

the

sentence-expressing-that

George

goes-to

the

store

John says that George goes to the store.

Example 11.48, “ ” differs from

Example 11.49.

la

djan

cusku

lu

la

djordj.

klama

le

zarci

li'u

John

expresses,

quote,

George

goes

to

the

store,

unquote.

John says   “George goes to the store”.

because Example 11.49, “ ” claims that John actually said the quoted words, whereas Example 11.48, “ ” claims only that he said some words or other which were to the same purpose.

le se du'u is much the same as lu'e le du'u, a symbol for the predication, but se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See the section called “sumti qualifiers” for a discussion of lu'e.)

Indirect questions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

kau

UI

indirect question marker

There is an alternative type of sentence involving du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like

Example 11.50.

I know that John went to the store.

we can also say things like

Example 11.51.

I know who went to the store.

This form is called an “indirect question” in English because the embedded English sentence is a question: “Who went to the store?” A person who says Example 11.51, “ ” is claiming to know the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who went to the store.

To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a le du'u abstraction, but rather than using a question word like “who” ( ma in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of Example 11.51, “ ” is therefore:

Example 11.52.

mi

djuno

le

du'u

makau

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

know

the

predication-of

X

[indirect

question]

[past]

going

to

the

store.

In Example 11.52, “ ”, we have chosen to use ma as the word marked by kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well: zo'e or da or even la djan.. Using la djan. would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:

Example 11.53.

mi

djuno

le

du'u

la

djan.

kau

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

know

the

predication-of/fact-that

John

[indirect

question]

[past]

going

to

the

store.

I know who went to the store, namely John.

I know that it was John who went to the store.

Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as ma, zo'e, or da does not suggest any particular value.

Why does Lojban require the kau marker, rather than using ma as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because ma always signals a direct question, and so

Example 11.54.

mi

djuno

le

du'u

ma

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

know

the

predication-of

[what

sumti?]

[past]

goes-to

the

store

means

Example 11.55.

Who is it that I know goes to the store?

It is actually not necessary to use le du'u and kau at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:

Example 11.56.

mi

djuno

fi

le

pu

klama

be

le

zarci

I

know

about

the

[past]

goer

to-the

store.

I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).

because the x3 place of djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to kau:

Example 11.57.

mi

ba

zgana

le

du'u

la

djan.

jikau

la

djordj.

cu

zvati

le

panka

I

[future]

observe

the

predication-of/fact-that

John

[connective

indirect

question]

George

is-at

the

park.

I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.

In addition, Example 11.56, “ ” is only a loose paraphrase of Example 11.52, “ ”, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.

Minor abstraction types

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

li'i

NU

experience abstractor

si'o

NU

concept abstractor

su'u

NU

general abstractor

There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little used so far. The abstractor li'i expresses experience:

Example 11.58.

mi

morji

le

li'i

mi

verba

I

remember

the

experience-of

(my

being-a-child)

The abstractor si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:

Example 11.59.

mi

nelci

le

si'o

la

lojban.

cu

mulno

I

enjoy

the

concept-of

Lojban

being-complete.

Finally, the abstractor su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:

Example 11.60.

ko

zgana

le

su'u

le

ci

smacu

cu

bajra

you

[imperative]

observe

the

abstract-nature-of

the

three

mice

running

See how the three mice run!

All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of li'i is:

li'i x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2

Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of si'o is:

si'o x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2

Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction su'u is representing, so its place structure is:

su'u x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2

The x2 place of su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,

Example 11.61.

le

nu

mi

klama

the

event-of

my

going

can be paraphrased as

Example 11.62.

le

su'u

mi

klama

kei

be

lo

fasnu

the

abstract-nature-of

(my

going)

of-type

an

event

and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:

Example 11.63.

le

su'u

la

.iecuas.

kuctai

selcatra

kei

be

lo

sa'ordzifa'a

ke

nalmatma'e

sutyterjvi

the

abstract-nature-of

(Jesus

is-an-intersect-shape

type-of-killed-one)

of-type

a

slope-low-direction

type-of

non-motor-vehicle

speed-competition

The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race

Note the importance of using kei after su'u when the x2 of su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the be lo ends up inside the abstraction bridi.

Lojban sumti raising

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'a

LAhE

an abstraction involving

jai

JAI

abstraction conversion

It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract description is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we can say:

Example 11.64.

I try to open the door.

which in Lojban is:

Example 11.65.

mi

troci

le

nu

[mi]

gasnu

le

nu

le

vorme

cu

karbi'o

I

try

the

event-of

(I

am-agent-in

the

event-of

(the

door

open-becomes)).

which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:

Example 11.66.

I try the door.

where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is tu'a, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of Example 11.66, “ ” is:

Example 11.67.

mi

troci

tu'a

le

vorme

I

try

some-action-to-do-with

the

door.

The term “sumti-raising”, as in the title of this section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is “raised” to the main bridi level. This transformation from Example 11.65, “ ” to Example 11.67, “ ” loses information: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was.

Using tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:

Example 11.68.

tu'a

le

vorme

lu'u

ki'a

something-to-do-with

the

door

[terminator]

[confusion!]

which indicates that tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The terminator for tu'a is lu'u, and is used in Example 11.68, “ ” to make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti might be:

Example 11.69.

tu'a

la

djan.

cu

cafne

something-to-do-with

John

frequently-occurs

This must mean that something which John does, or which happens to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to figure out what. Note that without the tu'a, Example 11.69, “ ” would mean that John considered as an event frequently occurs – in other words, that John has some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in English, but the x1 place of cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that djan. is the name of a person, and not the name of some event.)

Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in the section called “Modal conversion: JAI” and the section called “Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI”; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes

Example 11.70.

tu'a

mi

rinka

le

nu

do

morsi

something-to-do-with

me

causes

the

event-of

you

are-dead

My action causes your death.

into

Example 11.71.

mi

jai

rinka

le

nu

do

morsi

I

am-associated-with

causing

the

event-of

your

death.

I cause your death.

In English, the subject of “cause” can either be the actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of rinka is always an event. Example 11.70, “ ” and Example 11.71, “ ” look equally convenient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions, Example 11.71, “ ” can be altered to:

Example 11.72.

le

jai

rinka

be

le

nu

do

morsi

that-which-is

associated-with

causing

(the

event-of

your

death)

the one who caused your death

because jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description – not so for tu'a.

The weakness of jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of jai explained in the section called “Modal conversion: JAI”:

Example 11.73.

le

jai

gau

rinka

be

le

nu

do

morsi

that-which-is

agent-in

causing

(the

event-of

your

death)

Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

This section is a logical continuation of the section called “Types of event abstractions”.

There exists a relationship between the four types of events explained in the section called “Types of event abstractions” and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in the section called “Event contours: ZAhO and re'u”, and only summarized here.

The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into several groups:

- The cmavo pu'o, ca'o, and ba'o represent spans of time: before an event begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively.

- The cmavo co'a, de'a, di'a, and co'u represent points of time: the start of an event, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event after a stop, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have breaks in them, in which case de'a and di'a do not apply.

- The cmavo mo'u and za'o correspond to co'u and ba'o respectively, in the case of those events which have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actual ending point: mo'u refers to the natural ending point, and za'o to the time between the natural ending point and the actual ending point (the “excessive” or “superfective” part of the event).

- The cmavo co'i represents an entire event considered as a point-event or achievement.

All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and abstracted with pu'u. Only processes have enough internal structure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.

For events seen as states and abstracted with za'i, the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o, ca'o, and ba'o; the starting and ending points co'a and co'u, and the achievement contour co'i. States do not have natural endings distinct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped and resumed.)

For events seen as activities and abstracted with zu'o, the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o, ca'o, and ba'o, and the achievement contour co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat.

For events seen as point-events and abstracted with mu'e, the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o and ba'o but not ca'o (a point-event has no duration), and the achievement contour co'i.

Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be treated as such. The points in time may be seen as mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.

Abstractor connection

An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Example 11.74, “ ” and Example 11.75, “ ” are equivalent in meaning:

Example 11.74.

le

ka

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

.ije

le

ni

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

The

quality-of

Frank's

writing

is

bad,

and

the

quantity

of

Frank's

writing

is

bad.

Example 11.75.

le

ka

je

ni

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.

This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.

Table of abstractors

The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.

nu

event of

fasnu

nun

x1 is an event of (the bridi)

ka

property of

ckaji

kam

x1 is a property of (the bridi)

ni

amount of

klani

nil

x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2

jei

truth-value of

jetnu

jez

x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2

li'i

experience of

lifri

liz

x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2

si'o

idea of

sidbo

siz

x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2

du'u

predication of

-----

dum

x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2

su'u

abstraction of

sucta

sus

x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)

za'i

state of

zasti

zam

x1 is a state of (the bridi)

zu'o

activity of

zukte

zum

x1 is an activity of (the bridi)

pu'u

process of

pruce

pup

x1 is a process of (the bridi)

mu'e

point-event of

mulno

mub

x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)

Chapter 12. Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures

Why have lujvo?

The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu, made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, foods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten million or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken together. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures and function as selbri.

There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lujvo are condensed forms of tanru:

Example 12.1.

ti

fagri

festi

That

is-fire

waste.

contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in:

Example 12.2.

ti

fagyfesti

That

is-fire-waste.

That

is-ashes.

Although the lujvo fagyfesti is derived from the tanru fagri festi, it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In particular, fagyfesti has a distinct place structure of its own, not the same as that of festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place structure as festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places of fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of be…bei…be'o (described in the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”) to incorporate sumti into the middle of the lujvo.

So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru.

There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place structure – one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by similar consideration.

If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as bo, ke, ke'e, or je, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as se or nu, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.

The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are described in the section called “The lujvo-making algorithm”.

The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by – but is not the same as – the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the seltau, and the right (modified) part the tertau, following the usage of Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri. For brevity, we will speak of the seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting “modifier” for seltau and “modified” for tertau may help.)

The place structure of a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a result, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the tertau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the things referred to by the tertau.

The purpose of a tanru is to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning of the seltau. For example, in the Iliad, the poet talks about “the wine-dark sea”, in which “wine” is a seltau relative to “dark”, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to “sea”. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or color. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in which the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of the time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or color will be rejected as irrelevant.

As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru klama zdani, or “goer-house”. The gismu zdani has two places:

Example 12.3.

x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2

(but in this chapter we will use simply “house”, for brevity), and the gismu klama has five:

Example 12.4.

x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5

The tanru klama zdani will also have two places, namely those of zdani. Since a klama zdani is a type of zdani, we can assume that all goer-houses – whatever they may be – are also houses.

But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru: gerku zdani, literally “dog house”. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a gerku zdani is a house that has something to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left unstated. Thus, the meaning of lo gerku zdani can include all of the following: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is essential is that the place structure of zdani continues to apply.

For something (call it z1) to qualify as a gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a house, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call that z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (called g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of gerku zdani, as opposed to just zdani, there's got to be some relationship (called r) between some place of zdani and some place of gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there's a relationship between some place of zdani and any place of gerku, then that relationship can be compounded with the relationship between the places of gerku- namely, gerku itself – to reach any of the other gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1: “the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do with the occupant of the house z1”.

Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a gerku zdani. We go through the five variables. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this writing, so it counts as a zdani. Let's take a dog – say, Spot (g1). Spot has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White House counts as a gerku zdani if there is any relationship (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a different relationship.)

The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as “The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White House)” or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take another dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say that the White House cannot fit into the first place of gerku zdani.

As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the definition of gerku zdani: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, can be expressed – thus:

Example 12.5.

la

blabi

zdani

cu

gerku

be

fa

la

spot.

bei

la

sankt.

berNARD.

be'o

zdani

la

bil.

klinton.

The

White

House

is-a-dog

(namely

Spot

of-breed

Saint

Bernard)

type-of-house-for

Bill

Clinton.

Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White House, Example 12.5, “ ” is arguably true. If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru gerku zdani, then the meaning of gerku zdani changes. So if we understand gerku zdani as having the same meaning as the English word “doghouse”, the White House would no longer be a gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).

The meaning of lujvo

This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say “doghouse”! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there. Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tanru – the one left deliberately vague – is the precise relation between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru.

A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure of the lujvo itself.

Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujvo and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more specific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one will be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r.

The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship “dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house” is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a single short word; the relationship “dog lives in house” is not. From all the various interpretations of gerku zdani, the person creating gerzda should pick the most useful value of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and the most obvious one is usually the closest one.

In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that the predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like zdani in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express relations; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together le zdani and le gerku, the most obvious relation to pick is the very relation named by the tertau, zdani: the relation between a home and its dweller. As a result, the object which fills the first place of gerku (the dog) also fills the second place of zdani (the house-dweller).

The seltau-tertau relationship in the veljvo is expressed by the seltau or tertau predicate itself. Therefore, at least one of the seltau places is going to be equivalent to a tertau place. This place is thus redundant, and can be dropped from the place structure of the lujvo. As a corollary, the precise relationship between the veljvo components can be implicitly determined by finding one or more places to overlap in this way.

So what is the place structure of gerzda? We're left with three places, since the dweller, the se zdani, turned out to be identical to the dog, the gerku. We can proceed as follows:

(The notation introduced casually in the section called “The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour” will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the “x”, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of zdani, and g2 is the second place of gerku.)

The place structure of zdani is given as Example 12.3, “ ”, but is repeated here using the new notation:

Example 12.6.

z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2

The place structure of gerku is:

Example 12.7.

g1 is a dog of breed g2

But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure for gerzda now becomes:

Example 12.8.

z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2

which can also be written

Example 12.9.

z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2

or more comprehensively

Example 12.10.

z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2

Despite the apparently conclusive nature of Example 12.10, “ ”, our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.

Selecting places

The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of values for it.

It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapter.

The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reader, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encountered in order to work out what a se jbopli or a te klagau is. But this would mean that, rather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional wherever possible.

The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are formulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulated may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo of the lujvo. If that is the case – that is to say, if the lujvo places are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places – then it will be very difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that will be further discussed in the section called “Anomalous lujvo”.

However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is useful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the veljvo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should look like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin with, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are relevant or not relevant to expressing that idea.

Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a “symmetrical lujvo”. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo balsoi: it is intended to mean “both great and a soldier”- that is, “great soldier”, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo, banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structures are:

Example 12.11.

banli b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3

sonci s1 is a soldier of army s2

In this case the s1 place of sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of banli. Therefore the place structure of balsoi need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of balsoi is at most

Example 12.12.

b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3

Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo tinju'i, “to listen” ( “to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention”). The place structures of the gismu tirna and jundi are:

Example 12.13.

tirna t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3

jundi j1 pays attention to j2

and the place structure of the lujvo is:

Example 12.14.

j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3

Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attention) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).

A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau ( gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be “asymmetrical”. (There is a deliberate parallel here with the terms “asymmetrical tanru” and “symmetrical tanru” used in Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri.)

In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujvo. Consider gerzda, discussed in the section called “The meaning of lujvo”, where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert zdani to se zdani (or selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of selzda is

Example 12.15.

s1 is housed by nest s2

and so the three-part lujvo gerselzda would have the place structure

Example 12.16.

s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2

However, although gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate “doghouse”; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary; gerzda is simpler than gerselzda.

From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.

The lujvo karcykla, for example, is based on karce klama, or “car goer”. The place structure of karce is:

Example 12.17.

karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3

A asymmetrical interpretation of karcykla that is strictly analogous to the place structure of gerzda, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure

Example 12.18.

kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5

But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the kl5 place, leading to

Example 12.19.

kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.

instead.

Dependent places

In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place ( “St. Bernard”, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.

For zdani, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.

The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in Example 12.10, “ ”, leaving the place structure:

Example 12.20.

z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1

Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence

Example 12.21.

la

mon.

rePOS.

gerzda

la

spat.

Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.

really means

Example 12.22.

la

mon.

rePOS.

zdani

la

spat.

noi

gerku

Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.

since that is the interpretation we have given gerzda. But that in turn means

Example 12.23.

la

mon.

rePOS.

zdani

la

spat

noi

ke'a

gerku

zo'e

Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.

Specifically,

Example 12.24.

la

mon.

rePOS.

zdani

la

spat.

noi

ke'a

gerku

la

sankt.

berNARD.

Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.

and in that case, it makes little sense to say

Example 12.25.

la

mon.

rePOS.

gerzda

la

spat.

noi

ke'a

gerku

la

sankt.

berNARD.

ku'o

la

sankt.

berNARD.

Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard, of breed St. Bernard.

employing the over-ample place structure of Example 12.10, “ ”. The dog breed is redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse.

As a further example, take cakcinki, the lujvo for “beetle”, based on the tanru calku cinki, or “shell-insect”. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.26.

calku: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3

cinki: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2

This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is

Example 12.27.

ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2

with not a single place of calku surviving independently!

(Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just why cakcinki means “beetle” (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)

What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belongs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of cakcinki could be eliminated on the same reasoning that allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of gerzda above. However, it is a rule that dependent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from the tertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structures of lujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a place is necessary in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as well.

In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is a sign that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures imply different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn the wrong concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is obvious when someone tries to shoehorn a klama tertau into a litru or cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resulting modified place structure is that of litru or cliva.

Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed further in the section called “Implicit-abstraction lujvo”.

Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the seltau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the lujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the construction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools need auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and so on: therefore, the place structure of kuldi'u (from ckule dinju, and meaning “school building”) needs to be

Example 12.28.

d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4

even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of ckule, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept “school building”, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.

Ordering lujvo places.

So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.

If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo jdaselsku, meaning “prayer”. In the sentence

Example 12.29.

di'e

jdaselsku

la

dong.

This-utterance

is-a-prayer

somehow-related-to-Dong.

we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning

Example 12.30.

This is a prayer by Dong

or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in

Example 12.31.

This is a prayer to Dong

We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each lujvo ( the section called “Anomalous lujvo” discusses when this is actually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo makes the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need consistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be found across gismu place structures (see the section called “Notes on gismu place structures”), and are even more necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take advantage of any available regularities.

We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like balsoi (from the section called “Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo”) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For balsoi, the surviving places of banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:

Example 12.32.

b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3

just what appears in Example 12.11, “ ”. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.

The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema

Example 12.33.

b1

balsoi

s2

b2

b3

b1

is-a-great-soldier

of-army-s2

in-property-b2

by-standard-b3

and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema

Example 12.34.

b1

sonci

s2

gi'e

banli

b2

b3

b1

is-a-soldier

of-army-s2

and

is-great

in-property-b2

by-standard-b3

where gi'e is the Lojban word for “and” when placed between two partial bridi, as explained in the section called “Compound bridi”.

Asymmetrical lujvo like gerzda, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider dalmikce, meaning “veterinarian”: its veljvo is danlu mikce, or “animal doctor”. The place structures for those gismu are:

Example 12.35.

danlu: d1 is an animal of species d2

mikce: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4

and the lujvo place structure is:

Example 12.36.

m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4

Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.

lujvo with more than two parts.

The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is bavlamdei, “tomorrow”: it is composed of the rafsi for “future”, “adjacent”, and “day”. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo like this?

The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify them as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of bavlamdei as having two components: bavla'i, “next”, and djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.

In this case, bavla'i is given the place structure

Example 12.37.

b1=l1 is next after b2=l2

making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with djedi, which has the place structure:

Example 12.38.

duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3

While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:

Example 12.39.

d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3

Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo: cladakyxa'i, meaning “long-sword”, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.40.

clani: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3

dakfu: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3

xarci: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3

Since cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on cladakfu xarci, and cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:

Example 12.41.

xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.

If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a “sword”, rather than just a “knife”, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.

Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.

Consider as an example the lujvo ti'ifla, from the veljvo stidi flalu, and meaning “bill, proposed law”. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.42.

stidi: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3

flalu: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4

by lawgiver f5

This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely f1. However, if we understand ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo selti'ifla, then we get the first places of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of selti'i is:

Example 12.43.

selti'i: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3

Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:

Example 12.44.

f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3

or, relabeling the places,

Example 12.45.

f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3

where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.

Abbreviated lujvo like ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like ti'ifla are given the place structure they would have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau.

Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity.

Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus, posydji describes a type of djica, gerzda describes a type of zdani, and so on. What is certain is that gerzda does not describe a se zdani- it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog.

Now consider how we would translate the word “blue-eyed”. Let's tentatively translate this word as blakanla (from blanu kanla, meaning “blue eye”). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say

Example 12.46.

la

djak.

cu

blakanla

Jack

is-a-blue-eye

because Jack is not an eye, kanla, but someone with an eye, se kanla. At best we can say

Example 12.47.

la

djak.

cu

se

blakanla

Jack

is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes

But look now at the place structure of blakanla: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:

Example 12.48.

bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2

We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so se would almost always be required.

What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix “-eyed” does not mean “eye”, but someone with an eye, which is selkanla.

Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a se that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case, blaselkanla.

Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually ke and ke'e, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with ke and ke'e missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.

For example, in bakrecpa'o, meaning “beefsteak”, the veljvo is

Example 12.49.

[ke]

bakni

rectu

[ke'e]

panlo

(

bovine

meat

)

slice

because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that veljvo and

Example 12.50.

bakni

ke

rectu

panlo

[ke'e]

bovine

(

meat

slice

)

On the other hand, the lujvo zernerkla, meaning “to sneak in”, almost certainly was formed from the veljvo

Example 12.51.

zekri

ke

nenri

klama

[ke'e]

crime

(

inside

go

)

to go within, criminally

because the alternative,

Example 12.52.

[ke]

zekri

nenri

[ke'e]

klama

(crime

inside)

go

doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside – an interpretation almost identical with Example 12.51, “ ” anyway?)

There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example, xaskemcakcurnu means “oceanic shellfish”, and has the veljvo

Example 12.53.

xamsi

ke

calku

curnu

ocean

type-of

(shell

worm)

( “worm” in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but xasycakcurnu has the veljvo

Example 12.54.

[ke]

xamsi

calku

[ke'e]

curnu

(ocean

shell)

type-of

worm

and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.

Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with sel- (from se), nal- (from na'e) or tol- (from to'e): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the following brivla or ke…ke'e group. For that reason, if we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting se, na'e or to'e before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert ke, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.

It is all right to replace the phrase se klama with selkla, and the places of selkla are exactly those of se klama. But consider the related lujvo dzukla, meaning “to walk to somewhere”. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo cadzu klama as follows:

Example 12.55.

cadzu: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3

klama: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5

dzukla: c1=k1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=c3 on surface c2

We can swap the k1 and k2 places using se dzukla, but we cannot directly make se dzukla into seldzukla, which would represent the veljvo selcadzu klama and plausibly mean something like “to go to a walking surface”. Instead, we would need selkemdzukla, with an explicit rafsi for ke. Similarly, nalbrablo (from na'e barda bloti) means “non-big boat”, whereas na'e brablo means “other than a big boat”.

If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance, gekmau means “happier than”, while selgekmau means “making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se gleki' than”. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we can say it is se selgekmau.

But we can also say it is selselgekmau. Two se cmavo in a row cancel each other ( se se gleki means the same as just gleki), so there would be no good reason to have selsel in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can feel free to interpret selsel- as selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations terter-, velvel- and xelxel- work in the same way.

Other SE combinations like selter-, although they might conceivably mean se te, more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as se ke te, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that se te provides. (See the section called “Conversion: SE”.)

Abstract lujvo

The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example, klama:

Example 12.56.

k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.

The selbri nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between nu and kei, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo nunkla ( nun- is the rafsi for nu), needs to have six places:

Example 12.57.

nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.

Here the first place of nunklama is the first and only place of nu, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on nu, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction.

For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of nilkla, the lujvo derived from ni klama, is the imposing:

Example 12.58.

ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.

It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example, nunsoidji, from the veljvo

Example 12.59.

nu

sonci

kei

djica

event-of

being-a-soldier

desirer

has the place structure

Example 12.60.

d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3

where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in Example 12.60, “ ”, the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.

The lujvo nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo soidji, a “soldier desirer”, whose place structure is just

Example 12.61.

d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3

A nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a soidji might be a camp-follower.

One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit kei in tanru: nunkalri gasnu means much the same as nu kalri kei gasnu, but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in -hood are represented with nun- lujvo, and other words ending in “-ness” or “-dom” are often representable with kam- lujvo ( kam- is the rafsi for ka); kambla is “blueness”.

Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-scope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in the section called “Eliding SE rafsi from seltau”.

There is also a rafsi for the cmavo jai, namely jax, which allows sentences like

Example 12.62.

mi

jai

rinka

le

nu

do

morsi

I

am-associated-with

causing

the

event-of

your

death.

I cause your death.

explained in the section called “Lojban sumti raising”, to be rendered with lujvo:

Example 12.63.

mi

jaxri'a

le

nu

do

morsi

I

am-part-of-the-cause-of

the

event-of

your

dying.

In making a lujvo that contains jax- for a selbri that contains jai, the rule is to leave the fai place as a fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of fai is explained in the section called “Modal conversion: JAI” and the section called “Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI”.)

Implicit-abstraction lujvo

Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.

A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shortenings. Eliding nu, however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called “implicit-abstraction lujvo”.

Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo nunctikezgau, meaning “to feed”. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of nunctikezgau is nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structures are:

Example 12.64.

nu: n1 is an event

citka: c1 eats c2

gasnu: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2

In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in the section called “lujvo with more than two parts.”, we will first create an intermediate lujvo, nuncti, whose veljvo is nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in the section called “Abstract lujvo”, nuncti has the place structure

Example 12.65.

n1 is the event of c1 eating c2

Now we can transform the veljvo of nunctikezgau into nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is brought about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place structure of

Example 12.66.

g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2

But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly – it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of nunctikezgau is:

Example 12.67.

g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2

There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with balsoi in the section called “Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo”, the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of gasnu is defined.

Therefore, if we assume that nu is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a se gasnu, then the rafsi nun and kez in nunctikezgau are only telling us what we would already have guessed – that the seltau of a gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and use instead the shorter lujvo ctigau, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation ( “someone who both does and eats”; “an eating doer”), we can still deduce that the seltau refers to an event.

(You can't “do an eater”/ gasnu lo citka, with the meaning of do as “bring about an event”; so the seltau must refer to an event, nu citka. The English slang meanings of “do someone”, namely “socialize with someone” and “have sex with someone”, are not relevant to gasnu.)

So we can simply use ctigau with the same place structure as nunctikezgau:

Example 12.68.

agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2

g1 feeds c2 to c1

This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).

To give another example: the gismu basti, whose place structure is

Example 12.69.

b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3

can form the lujvo basygau, with the place structure:

Example 12.70.

g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3

where both basti and basygau are translated “replace” in English, but represent different relations: basti may be used with no mention of any agent doing the replacing.

In addition, gasnu-based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu litki, meaning “liquid”, with the place structure

Example 12.71.

l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3

can give likygau, meaning “to liquefy”:

Example 12.72.

g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.

While likygau correctly represents “causes to be a liquid”, a different lujvo based on galfi (meaning “modify”) may be more appropriate for “causes to become a liquid”. On the other hand, fetsygau is potentially confusing, because it could mean “agent in the event of something becoming female” (the implicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply “female agent” (the parallel interpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misunderstood.

Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on rinka, with its place structure

Example 12.73.

event r1 causes event r2 to occur

are closely related to those based on gasnu. However, rinka is less generally useful than gasnu, because its r1 place is another event rather than a person: lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure of likyri'a, a lujvo analogous to likygau, is

Example 12.74.

event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3

and would be useful in translating sentences like “The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice.”

Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and increasing the expressive power of the language.

Anomalous lujvo

Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is jdaselsku, meaning “prayer”, which was mentioned in the section called “Ordering lujvo places.”. The gismu places are:

Example 12.75.

lijda: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs l3

cusku: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4

and selsku, the tertau of jdaselsku, has the place structure

Example 12.76.

s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4

Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given in the section called “Ordering lujvo places.” or the section called “Implicit-abstraction lujvo”; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the place structure:

Example 12.77.

s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1

The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 place (the religion) and so is omitted.

We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with se seljdasku, where seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place structure:

Example 12.78.

c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1

which, according to the rule expressed in the section called “Eliding SE rafsi from seltau”, can be further expressed as selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the ugly selsel- prefix just to get the rules right: jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.

However, there is a further problem with jdaselsku, not resolvable by using seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gismu lijda and cusku can fully express the relationship implicit in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical.

As a result, both seljdasku and jdaselsku belong to the second class of anomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires.

Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the tanru lists in the section called “Some types of asymmetrical tanru”, is lange'u, meaning “sheepdog”. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sheep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no overlap in the places of lanme and gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a terlanme jitro gerku, the lujvo from which is terlantroge'u with place structure:

Example 12.79.

g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2

based on the gismu place structures

Example 12.80.

lanme: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3

gerku: g1 is a dog of breed g2

jitro: j1 controls j2 in activity j3

Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between lantro (sheep-controller) and gerku, but lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo lange'u is both shorter than terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lujvo, for which lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation.

Another example is xanmi'e, “to command by hand, to beckon”. The component place structures are:

Example 12.81.

xance: xa1 is the hand of xa2

minde: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen

The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for there to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the one who commands). But interpreting xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided sel- in the seltau, as if from se xance minde, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just “one who commands and has a hand”, but “to command using the hand”. The concept of “using” suggests the gismu pilno, with place structure

Example 12.82.

p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3

Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)

Example 12.83.

[ke]

xance

pilno

[ke'e]

minde

(hand

user)

type-of

commander

Example 12.84.

[ke]

minde

xance

[ke'e]

pilno

(commander

hand)

type-of

user

or even

Example 12.85.

minde

ke

xance

pilno

[ke'e]

commander

type-of

(hand

user)

which lead to the three different lujvo xanplimi'e, mi'erxanpli, and minkemxanpli respectively.

Does this make xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of xanmi'e, the gismu pilno, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivation for xancypliminde or one of the other possibilities that is analogous to the analysis of terlantroge'u above, even if he or she decides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the possibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously – an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.

Comparatives and superlatives

English has the concepts of “comparative adjectives” and “superlative adjectives” which can be formed from other adjectives, either by adding the suffixes “-er” and “-est” or by using the words “more” and “most”, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau zmadu, mleca, zenba, jdika, and traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed.

We will begin with lujvo based on zmadu and mleca, whose place structures are:

Example 12.86.

zmadu: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity z4

mleca: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity m4

For example, the concept “young” is expressed by the gismu citno, with place structure

Example 12.87.

citno: c1 is young

The comparative concept “younger” can be expressed by the lujvo citmau (based on the veljvo citno zmadu, meaning “young more-than”).

Example 12.88.

mi

citmau

do

lo

nanca

be

li

xa

I

am-younger-than

you

by-years

the-number

six.

I am six years younger than you.

The place structure for citmau is

Example 12.89.

z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4

Similarly, in Lojban you can say:

Example 12.90.

do

citme'a

mi

lo

nanca

be

li

xa

You

are-less-young-than

me

by-years

the-number

six.

You are six years less young than me.

In English, “more” comparatives are easier to make and use than “less” comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equally easy.

Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in -mau and -me'a are in fact used much more frequently than zmadu and mleca themselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for such lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo. But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which has to do with what is being compared.

For example, does nelcymau mean “X likes Y more than X likes Z”, or “X likes Y more than Z likes Y”? Does klamau mean: “X goes to Y more than to Z”, “X goes to Y more than Z does”, “X goes to Y from Z more than from W”, or what?

We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place structures:

Example 12.91.

nelcymau: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4

selnelcymau: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4

klamau: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via k4 by means of k5

selklamau: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5

terklamau: z1, more than z2, is an origin point from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5

(See Chapter 11, Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction for the way in which this problem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.)

The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and the other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresses by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place, klamau has it as its sixth place. In any sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with vemau (for zmadu) or veme'a (for mleca) to help make the speaker's intention clear.

It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not presuppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than someone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogenarian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year-old has a greater ni citno than the 90-year-old. Similarly, a 5-year-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered “old” by most standards.

There are some comparative concepts which are in which the se zmadu is difficult to specify. Typically, these involve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, where stating a z2 place explicitly would be problematic.

In such cases, it is best not to use zmadu and leave the comparison hanging, but to use instead the gismu zenba, meaning “increase” (and jdika, meaning “decrease”, in place of mleca). The gismu zenba was included in the language precisely in order to capture those notions of increase which zmadu can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in with a value anyway. So we can translate “I'm stronger now” not as

Example 12.92.

mi

ca

tsamau

I

now

am-stronger.

which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as

Example 12.93.

mi

ca

tsaze'a

I increase in strength.

Finally, lujvo with a tertau of traji are used to build superlatives. The place structure of traji is

Example 12.94.

t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4

Consider the gismu xamgu, whose place structure is:

Example 12.95.

xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3

The comparative form is xagmau, corresponding to English “better”, with a place structure (by the rules given above) of

Example 12.96.

z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4

We would expect the place structure of xagrai, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:

Example 12.97.

xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.

The t2 place in traji, normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of traji (whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be “the most”.

But the set against which the t1 place of traji is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of traji fully parallel to that of zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of traji-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:

Example 12.98.

la

djudis.

cu

citrai

lo'i

lobypli

Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.

Example 12.99.

la

.ainctain.

cu

balrai

lo'i

skegunka

Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.

Notes on gismu place structures

Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ordering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and which are therefore discussed here.

The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications of each are roughly as follows:

- Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has, the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in the section called “Selecting places”, a brivla with fewer place structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, because they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space.

- Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a concept can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need to make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it.

- Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease places: it is a pressure tending to provide the “right number” of places. If something is part of the essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the other hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then this pressure will tend to remove the place.

- Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or decrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantically related to it are likely to have the place also.

Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discussion of the pressures operating on them:

Example 12.100.

xekri: xe1 is black

Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu, xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as ci'u ( “in system”; see the section called “Modal tags: BAI”) or by making a lujvo.

Example 12.101.

jbena: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4

The gismu jbena contains places for time and location, which few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done is supplied by a tense tag (see Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System). However, providing these places makes le te jbena a simple term for “birthday” and le ve jbena for “birthplace”, so these places were provided despite their lack of metaphysical necessity.

Example 12.102.

rinka: event r1 is the cause of event r2

The place structure of rinka does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.

Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as gasnu and zukte which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see the section called “Implicit-abstraction lujvo”.

Example 12.103.

cinfo c1 is a lion of species/breed c2

The c2 place of cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like cinki (insect), and are provided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.

Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place structure of klama, for example, that lo klama (the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus more important, than lo se klama (the destination), which is in turn more important than lo xe klama (the means of transport).

Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed. For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place. Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the destination is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as “under conditions” and “by standard”, which often go unfilled, are moved to near the end of the place structure.

Chapter 13. Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators

What are attitudinal indicators?

This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words

Example 13.1.

John is coming.

can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's feeling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with various sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the “Oooh!”, “Arrgh!”, “Ugh!”, and “Yecch!” in the title. These are part of the English language; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't find any of these words in a dictionary.

In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known as “attitudinal indicators”, or just “attitudinals”. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.

The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentioned following Example 13.1, “ ”:

Example 13.2.

.ui

la

djan

klama

[Whee!]

John

is

coming!

Example 13.3.

.uu

la

djan

klama

[Alas!]

John

is

coming.

Example 13.4.

.a'o

la

djan

klama

[Hopefully]

John

is

coming.

Example 13.5.

.ue

la

djan

klama

[Wow!]

John

is

coming!

Example 13.6.

.ianai

la

djan

klama

[Nonsense!]

John

is

coming.

The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs ( .ai, .au, .ei, and .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings ( .ia, .ie, .ii, .io, .iu, .ua, .ue, .ui, .uo, and .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a period before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginning with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators described in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI.

Attitudinals can also be compound cmavo, of the types explained in Sections 4-8; Example 13.6, “ ” illustrates one such possibility, the compound attitudinal .ianai. In attitudinals, -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of the simple attitudinal without the -nai. Thus, as you might suppose, .ia expresses belief, since .ianai expresses disbelief.

In addition to the attitudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together in this chapter.

Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respect to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indicators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. Indicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they apply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in the section called “The uses of indicators”.

Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fourth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omitted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with -cu'i. The cmavo cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more fully in the section called “Attitudes as scales”.

One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing your feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource of the written word. So the gloss for .ui should not really be “happiness” but some sound or tone that expresses happiness. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or obvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emotions Lojban speakers can readily express.

Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific gismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, thus: [gismu].

Pure emotion indicators

Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, not of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no truth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that they modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking about; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinking about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thinking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist.

Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The “pure emotion indicators” express the way the speaker is feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators comprise the attitudinals which begin with u or o and many of those beginning with i.

The cmavo beginning with u are simple emotions, which represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be.

.ua

discovery

confusion

.u'a

gain

loss

.ue

surprise

no surprise

expectation

.u'e

wonder

commonplace

.ui

happiness

unhappiness

.u'i

amusement

weariness

.uo

completion

incompleteness

.u'o

courage

timidity

cowardice

.uu

pity

cruelty

.u'u

repentance

lack of regret

innocence

Here are some typical uses of the u attitudinals:

Example 13.7.

.ua

mi

facki

fi

le

mi

mapku

[Eureka!]

I

found

my

hat!

[emphasizes

the

discovery

of

the

hat]

Example 13.8.

.u'a

mi

facki

fi

le

mi

mapku

[Gain!]

I

found

my

hat!

[emphasizes

the

obtaining

of

the

hat]

Example 13.9.

.ui

mi

facki

fi

le

mi

mapku

[Yay!]

I

found

my

hat!

[emphasizes

the

feeling

of

happiness]

Example 13.10.

.uo

mi

facki

fi

le

mi

mapku

[At

last!]

I

found

my

hat!

[emphasizes

that

the

finding

is

complete]

Example 13.11.

.uu

do

cortu

[Pity!]

You

feel-pain.

[expresses

speaker's

sympathy]

Example 13.12.

.u'u

do

cortu

[Repentance!]

You

feel-pain.

[expresses

that

speaker

feels

guilty]

In Example 13.10, “ ”, note that the attitudinal .uo is translated by an English non-attitudinal phrase: “At last!” It is common for the English equivalents of Lojban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less normal grammar, but actually expressions of emotion.

In particular, both .uu and .u'u can be translated into English as “I'm sorry”; the difference between these two attitudes frequently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, leading to responses like “Why are you sorry? It's not your fault!”

It is important to realize that .uu, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation “Pity!” is just as likely to be ironically intended, but this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally) as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps worse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than misunderstood statements.

The following examples display the effects of nai and cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal:

Example 13.13.

.ue

la

djan.

klama

[Surprise!]

John

comes.

Example 13.14.

.uecu'i

la

djan.

klama

[Ho

hum.]

John

comes.

Example 13.15.

.uenai

la

djan.

klama

[Expected!]

John

comes.

In Example 13.15, “ ”, John's coming has been anticipated by the speaker. In Example 13.13, “ ” and Example 13.14, “ ”, no such anticipation has been made, but in Example 13.14, “ ” the lack-of-anticipation goes no further – in Example 13.13, “ ”, it amounts to actual surprise.

It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words beginning with o or i from those beginning with u, but in general they represent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions.

.o'a

pride

modesty

shame

.o'e

closeness

detachment

distance

.oi

complaint/pain

doing OK

pleasure

.o'i

caution

boldness

rashness

.o'o

patience

mere tolerance

anger

.o'u

relaxation

composure

stress

Here are some examples:

Example 13.16.

.oi

la

djan.

klama

[Complaint!]

John

is

coming.

Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming. The word .oi is derived from the Yiddish word “oy” of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish origin.

Example 13.17.

.o'onai

la

djan.

klama

[Anger!]

John

is

coming!

Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming.

Example 13.18.

.o'i

la

djan.

klama

[Beware!]

John

is

coming.

Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival.

Example 13.19.

.o'ecu'i

la

djan.

klama

[Detachment!]

John

is

coming.

Example 13.20.

.o'u

la

djan.

klama

[Phew!]

John

is

coming.

In Example 13.19, “ ” and Example 13.20, “ ”, John's arrival is no problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the situation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some kind.

The pure emotion indicators beginning with i are those which could not be fitted into the u or o groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a mixed lot. .ia, i'a, .ie, and i'e do not appear here, as they belong in the section called “Propositional attitude indicators” instead.

.ii

fear

nervousness

security

.i'i

togetherness

privacy

.io

respect

disrespect

.i'o

appreciation

envy

.iu

love

no love lost

hatred

.i'u

familiarity

mystery

Here are some examples:

Example 13.21.

.ii

smacu

[Fear!]

[Observative:]

a-mouse

Eek! A mouse!

Example 13.22.

la

djan.

.iu

klama

John

[love!]

is

coming.

Example 13.23.

la

djan.

.ionai

klama

John

[disrespect!]

is

coming.

Example 13.21, “ ” shows an attitude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like Example 13.21, “ ” a lot.

Example 13.22, “ ” and Example 13.23, “ ” use attitudinals that follow la djan. rather than being at the beginning of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Compare:

Example 13.24.

la

djan.

klama

.iu

John

is-coming

[love!]

where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.

Example 13.23, “ ” is a compact way of swearing at John: you could translate it as “That good-for-nothing John is coming.”

Propositional attitude indicators

As mentioned at the beginning of the section called “Pure emotion indicators”, attitudinals may be divided into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, and a contrasting group which may be called the “propositional attitude indicators”. These indicators establish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, distinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitude towards “what the world would be like if ...”, or more directly stating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality.

In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like “I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it”. The emotion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically independent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like “I intend to go to the market”, where the main claim is logically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually going to the market, but merely that I intend to.

There is no sharp distinction between attitudinals beginning with a and those beginning with e; however, the original intent (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was to make the members of the a-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a potential world, while the members of the e-series were more ambivalent or complex about the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship between the a-series and the e-series is similar to that between the u-series and the o-series, respectively. A few propositional attitude indicators overflowed into the i-series as well.

In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky: u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude indicator meaning “I regret that ...”, and a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion meaning “I'm awake/aware”. The division of the attitudinals into pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly by way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the “logical language” aspect.

Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by initial letter, starting with those beginning with a:

.a'a

attentive

inattentive

avoiding

.a'e

alertness

exhaustion

.ai

intent

indecision

refusal

.a'i

effort

no real effort

repose

.a'o

hope

despair

.au

desire

indifference

reluctance

.a'u

interest

no interest

repulsion

Some examples (of a parental kind):

Example 13.25.

.a'a

do

zgana

le

veltivni

[attentive]

you

observe

the

television-receiver.

I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.

Example 13.26.

.a'enai

do

ranji

bacru

[exhaustion]

you

continuously

utter.

I'm worn out by your continuous talking.

Example 13.27.

.ai

mi

benji

do

le

ckana

[intent]

I

transfer

you

to-the

bed.

I'm putting you to bed.

Example 13.28.

.a'i

mi

ba

gasnu

le

nu

do

cikna

binxo

[effort]

I

[future]

am-the-actor-in

the

event-of

you

awake-ly

become.

It'll be hard for me to wake you up.

Example 13.29.

.a'o

mi

kanryze'a

ca

le

bavlamdei

[hope]

I

am-health-increased

at-time

the

future-adjacent-day.

I hope I feel better tomorrow!

Example 13.30.

.au

mi

sipna

[desire]

I

sleep.

I want to sleep.

Example 13.31.

.a'ucu'i

do

pante

[no

interest]

you

complain

I have no interest in your complaints.

(In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including .oicai, but probably also .iucai.)

Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar.

Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with e, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginning with a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with o do to those beginning with u- they are more complex or difficult:

.e'a

permission

prohibition

.e'e

competence

incompetence

.ei

obligation

freedom

.e'i

constraint

independence

resistance to constraint

.e'o

request

negative request

.e'u

suggestion

no suggestion

warning

More examples (after a good night's sleep):

Example 13.32.

.e'a

do

sazri

le

karce

[permission]

You

drive

the

car.

Sure, you can drive the car.

Example 13.33.

.e'e

mi

lifri

tu'a

do

[competence]

I

experience

something-related-to

you

I feel up to dealing with you.

Example 13.34.

.ei

mi

tisygau

le

karce

ctilyvau

[obligation]

I

fill

the

car-type-of

petroleum-container.

I should fill the car's gas tank.

Example 13.35.

.e'o

ko

ko

kurji

[request]

You-imperative

of-you-imperative

take-care.

Please take care of yourself!

Example 13.36.

.e'u

do

klama

le

panka

[suggestion]

You

go

to-the

park.

I suggest going to the park.

Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with i, which are the overflow from the other sets:

.ia

belief

skepticism

disbelief

.i'a

acceptance

blame

.ie

agreement

disagreement

.i'e

approval

non-approval

disapproval

Still more examples (much, much later):

Example 13.37.

.ianai

do

pu

pensi

le

nu

tcica

mi

[disbelief]

You

[past]

think

the

event-of

deceiving

me.

I can't believe you thought you could fool me.

Example 13.38.

do

.i'anai

na

xruti

do

le

zdani

You

[blame]

did-not

return

you

to-the

house

I blame you for not coming home.

Example 13.39.

.ie

mi

na

cusku

lu'e

le

tcika

be

le

nu

xruti

[agreement]

I

did-not

express

a-symbol-for

the

time-of-day

of

the

event-of

(you

return)

It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.

Example 13.40.

.i'enai

do

.i'e

zukte

[disapproval]

you

[approval]

act

I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.

Example 13.40, “ ” illustrates the use of a propositional attitude indicator, i'e, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely the listener) is approved of.

To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of Example 13.32, “ ” which actually claimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be:

Example 13.41.

do

sazri

le

karce

.i

.e'a

You

drive

the

car.

[Permission].

You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.

Attitudes as scales

In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run from some extreme value (which we'll call “positive”) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call “negative”). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale: “positive”, neutral, and “negative”. The terms “positive” and “negative” are put into quotation marks because they are loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the “positive” words, namely .ii (fear) and .oi (pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly thought of as less “virtuous” in most cases than their negative counterparts. But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful emotions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, while their counterparts are less commonly expressed.

(Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we give the monosyllable nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were “random” orientation, which would have unknown biases and be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which scale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be biased in favor of American perceptions of “usefulness”. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might as well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.)

In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions defined, three “positive” ones (shown below on the left), three “negative” ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The following chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cmavo. All of these cmavo, except nai, are in selma'o CAI.

cai

carmi

sai

tsali

ru'e

ruble

cu'i

cumki

nairu'e

naisai

naicai

A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, and then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in because the “negative” emotions take the extra syllable nai to indicate their negative position on the axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express.

Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don't want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or cai is used to indicate especially high intensity. Less often, ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal question pei (see the section called “Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours”) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.

The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:

Example 13.42.

.ei

I ought to (a non-specific obligation)

Example 13.43.

.eicai

I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)

Example 13.44.

.eisai

I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not formal requirement)

Example 13.45.

.eiru'e

I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed with permission and desire)

Example 13.46.

.eicu'i

No matter (no particular obligation)

Example 13.47.

.einai

I need not (a non-obligation)

You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using cu'i by itself.

The space of emotions

Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct single point, which is our attitude.

Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a time – usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when they do recognize them.

The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion. We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in the section called “Emotional categories” that multiply the set of scales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, which might be expressed by cu'i, but could also be expressed by using both the “positive” and “negative” scale emotions at once. One expression of “fortitude” might be .ii.iinai- fear coupled with security.

Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to us is also revealing – of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the “vector sum” naturally expresses the result. This is vital to their nature as attitudinals – if you had to stop and think about them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.

People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical – saying “I'm awed” is not the same as saying “Wow!!!”. The Lojban system is intended to give the effects of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simply feel in Lojban.

A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.

Emotional categories

The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment.

The most significant “common feature” we identified was that the emotional words on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of which was assigned its own cmavo:

ro'a

social

asocial

antisocial

ro'e

mental

mindless

ro'i

emotional

denying emotion

ro'o

physical

denying physical

ro'u

sexual

sexual abstinence

re'e

spiritual

secular

sacrilegious

Using these, we were able to assign o'u to mark a scale of what we might call “generalized comfort”. When you are comfortable, relaxed, satisfied, you express comfort with o'u, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this scale into six separate ones, should you wish.

For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label “stress” in English are expressed in Lojban with .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be expressed with .o'unairo'o, which makes a nice groan if you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort, o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort, o'unaire'e, might be felt by a church-goer who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building.

Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categorize it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotions within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physical comfort or vice versa.

Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them ( .eiro'u, for example – look it up).

You can use scale markers and nai on these six category words, and you can also use category words without specifying the emotion. Thus, “I'm trying to concentrate” could be expressed simply as ro'e, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-specific way, ro'anai will express it.

There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down your body in sequence.

ro'a

hands above head

social

ro'e

hands on head

intellectual

ro'i

hands on heart

emotional

ro'o

hands on belly

physical

ro'u

hands on groin

sexual

re'e

hands moving around

spiritual

The implicit metaphors “heart” for emotional and “belly” for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they work fine for English-speakers.

Attitudinal modifiers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ga'i

[galtu]

hauteur

rank

equal rank

meekness

lack of rank

le'o

aggressive

passive

defensive

vu'e

[vrude]

virtue (  zabna)

sin (  mabla)

se'i

[sevzi]

self-orientation

other-orientation

ri'e

[zifre]

release

restraint

control

fu'i

[frili]

with help

easily

without help

with opposition

with difficulty

be'u

lack/need

presence/satisfaction

satiation

se'a

[sevzi]

self-sufficiency

dependency

It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in the section called “Pure emotion indicators” and the section called “Propositional attitude indicators”, and see what emotional pictures you can build:

The cmavo ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate condescension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being below (for ga'i) or above (for ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, as with doi ga'inai, which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social superior.

Example 13.48.

ko

ga'inai

nenri

klama

le

mi

zdani

You-imperative

[low-rank!]

enter-type-of

come-to

my

house.

I would be honored if you would enter my residence.

Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with ga'icu'i and ga'inai:

Example 13.49.

ko

ga'icu'i

nenri

klama

le

mi

zdani

You-imperative

[equal-rank!]

enter-type-of

come-to

my

house.

Come on in to my place.

Example 13.50.

ko

ga'i

nenri

klama

le

mi

zdani

You-imperative

[high-rank!]

enter-type-of

come-to

my

house.

You! Get inside!

Since ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to mi, unless the speaker is using mi to refer to a group (as in English “we”), or a past or future version of himself with a different rank.

It is also possible to attach ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to:

Example 13.51.

ga'i

le

xarju

pu

citka

[High-rank!]

the

pig

[past]

eats

The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).

When used without being attached to any bridi, ga'i expresses the speaker's superiority to things in general, which may represent an absolute social rank: ga'icai is an appropriate opening word for an emperor's address from the throne.

The cmavo le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their coach using ro'ole'o. le'o is also useful in threats as an alternative to o'onai, which expresses anger.

The cmavo vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. An excess of almost any emotion is usually somewhat “sinful” in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the other hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings – what we call righteous indignation might be o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lack of guilt: .u'unai.

The cmavo se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with .au):

Example 13.52.

.ause'i

[desire]

[self]

I want it!

Example 13.53.

.ause'inai

[desire]

[other]

I want you to have it!

In both cases, the English “it” is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi. Example 13.52, “ ” and Example 13.53, “ ” are pure expressions of attitude. Analogously, .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas .uuse'inai is pity for someone else.

The modifier ri'e indicates emotional release versus emotional control. “I will not let him know how angry I am”, you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter:

Example 13.54.

.o'onai

ri'enai

[anger]

[control]

On the other hand, ri'e can be used by itself to signal an emotional outburst.

The cmavo fu'i may express a reason for feeling the way we do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between the mental discomfort mentioned in the section called “Emotional categories” when it is felt on an easy test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you could use .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the assistance in your comfort.

The cmavo be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the emotion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, something you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more or less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo mo'a, rau, and du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in the section called “Indefinite numbers”). For example,

Example 13.55.

.uiro'obe'unai

[Yay!]

[physical]

[Enough!]

might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.

Like all modifiers, be'u can be used alone:

Example 13.56.

le

cukta

be'u

cu

zvati

ma

The

book

[Needed!]

is

at-location

[what

sumti?]

Where's

the

book?

–

I

need

it!

Lastly, the modifier se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.

Example 13.57.

.e'ese'a

[I

can!]

[self-sufficient!]

I can do it all by myself!

is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other hand,

Example 13.58.

.e'ese'anai

[I

can!]

[dependent]

I can do it if you help me.

from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the e'e in Example 13.54, “ ” and Example 13.55, “ ”, leading to:

Example 13.59.

.e'enaise'a

[I

can't!]

[self-sufficient]

I can't do it if you insist on   “helping” me!

and

Example 13.60.

.e'enaise'anai

[I

can't!]

[dependent]

I can't do it by myself!

Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.

Compound indicators

The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning.

Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an “unspecified emotion” word, ge'e, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous but distinct emotional expression.)

For example, .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspecified level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a weak level. A rough English equivalent of .ie ge'eru'e might be “I agree, but ...” where the “but” is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always expressed in English by English attitudinals.)

A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expressible. For example, .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling midway between pain ( .oi) and pleasure ( .oinai) which is intensely sexual ( ro'u) in nature.

The cmavo nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language: it always negates exactly one word – the preceding one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs, nai is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its nai negator, the nai will end up negating the last word of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example,

Example 13.61.

mi

.e

.ui

nai

do

I

and

[Yay!]

[Not!]

you

means “I and (unfortunately) you”, whereas

Example 13.62.

mi

.e

nai

.ui

do

I

and

[Not!]

[Yay!]

you

means “I but (fortunately) not you”. Attitudinal nai expresses a “scalar negation”, a concept explained in the section called “Scalar Negation”; since every attitudinal word implies exactly one scale, the effect of nai on each should be obvious.

Thus, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it obviously would affect meaning.

attitudinal

nai

intensity-word

nai

modifier

nai

intensity-word

nai

(possiblyrepeated)

ge'e, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2nd or greater position, either ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal.

The uses of indicators

The behavior of indicators in the “outside grammar” is nearly as simple as their internal structure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalinguistic erasers si, sa, and su and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The details of such interactions are discussed in the section called “List of cmavo interactions”.

A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicator may, except in those few situations (as in zo quotation, explained in the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”) where compound cmavo may not be used.

At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers.

If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discussed in the section called “Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO”, for explicitly marking the range of words to which an indicator applies.

More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specialized cmavo, are given in Chapter 19, Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts. It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.

For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For example, in

Example 13.63.

mi

pu

tavla

do

.o'onai

.oi

I

[past]

talk-to

you

[Grrr!]

[Oy!]

can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in which case it means “Damn, I snapped at you”; or as expressing both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means “I told you, you pest!”

Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there – as the rules have it – or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.

Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.

Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pei

attitude question

dai

empathy

bu'o

start emotion

continue emotion

end emotion

You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sentence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate.

The word pei is therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English “How are you?” coupled with “How do you feel?” (which has a slightly different range of usage).

When asked in the context of discourse, pei acts like other Lojban question words – it requests the respondent to “fill in the blank”, in this case with an appropriate attitudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression. As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irrelevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the questioner. (A ge'e, however, is always in order – you are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as .i'inai, which is privacy as the reverse of conviviality.)

Most often, however, the asker will use pei as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result, pei is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:

Example 13.64.

.iepei

[agreement]

[question]

Do you agree?

Example 13.65.

.iare'epei

[belief]

[spiritual]

[question]

Are you a Believer?

Example 13.66.

.aipei

[intention]

[question]

Are you going to do it?

Example 13.66, “ ” might appear at the end of a command, to which the response

Example 13.67.

.aicai

[intention]

[maximal]

corresponds to “Aye! Aye!” (hence the choice of cmavo).

Example 13.68.

.e'apei

[permission]

[question]

Please, Mommy! Can I??

Additionally, when pei is used at the beginning of an indicator construct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain):

Example 13.69.

pei.o'u

[question]

[comfort]

Are you comfortable?

Example 13.70.

pei.o'ucu'i

[question]

[comfort]

[neutral]

Are you no longer in pain?

Example 13.71.

pei.o'usai

[question]

[comfort]

[strong]

Are you again healthy?

Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator dai, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to someone else – exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else's emotion as if it were your own:

Example 13.72.

.oiro'odai

[Pain!]

[physical]

[empathy]

Ouch, that must have hurt!

It is even possible to “empathize” with a non-living object:

Example 13.73.

le

bloti

.iidai

.uu

pu

klama

le

xasloi

The

ship

[fear!]

[empathy]

[pity!]

[past]

goes-to

the

ocean-floor.

Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.

suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it.

Both pei and dai represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitudinals reflect the speaker's attitude.

Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore, .ui .ui .ui is not the same as .uicai, but simply means that we are continuing to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, continuing to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal contour cmavo bu'o.

When attached to an attitudinal, bu'o means that you are starting to have that attitude, bu'ocu'i that you are continuing to have it, and bu'onai that you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:

Example 13.74.

.o'onai

bu'o

[Anger!]

[start

emotion]

I'm getting angry!

Example 13.75.

.iu

bu'onai

.uinai

[Love!]

[end

emotion]

[unhappiness!]

I don't love you any more; I'm sad.

Note the difference in effect between Example 13.75, “ ” and:

Example 13.76.

mi

ca

ba'o

prami

do

ja'e

le

nu

mi

badri

I

[present]

[cessitive]

love

you

with-result

the

event-of

(I

am-sad).

I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.

which is a straightforward bridi claim. Example 13.76, “ ” states that you have (or have had) certain emotions; Example 13.75, “ ” expresses those emotions directly.

Evidentials

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ja'o

[jalge]

I conclude

ca'e

I define

ba'a

[balvi]

I expect

I experience

I remember

su'a

[sucta]

I generalize

I particularize

ti'e

[tirna]

I hear (hearsay)

ka'u

[kulnu]

I know by cultural means

se'o

[senva]

I know by internal experience

za'a

[zgana]

I observe

pe'i

[pensi]

I opine

ru'a

[sruma]

I postulate

ju'a

[jufra]

I state

Now we proceed from the attitudinal indicators and their relatives to the other, semantically unrelated, categories of indicators. The indicators known as “evidentials” show how the speaker came to say the utterance; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of evidentials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages. Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language Láadan, designed by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. Láadan's set of indicators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator system.

It is important to realize, however, that evidentials are not some odd system used by some strange people who live at the other end of nowhere: although their English equivalents aren't single words, English-speakers have vivid notions of what constitutes evidence, and of the different kinds of evidence.

Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o UI, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them are not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scales.

A bridi with an evidential in it becomes “indisputable”, in the sense that the speaker is saying “how it is with him or her”, which is beyond argument. Claims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly subject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive, or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discourse that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than discourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogues or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices.

Evidentials are most often placed at the beginning of sentences, and are often attached to the i that separates sentences in connected discourse. It is in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect the claim made by the main bridi.

A bridi marked by ja'o is a conclusion by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of ja'o are “thus” and “therefore”.

A bridi marked by ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In addition to definitions of words, ca'e is also appropriate in what are called performatives, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English example is “I now pronounce you husband and wife”, where the very act of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be:

Example 13.77.

ca'e

le

re

do

cu

simxu

speni

[I

define!]

The

two

of-you

are-mutual

spouses.

The three scale positions of ba'a, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus ba'a means that the statement represents a future event as anticipated by the speaker; ba'acu'i, a present event as experienced by the speaker; ba'anai, a past event as remembered by the speaker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to future.

Example 13.78.

ba'acu'i

le

tuple

be

mi

cu

se

cortu

[I

experience!]

The

leg

of

me

is-the-locus-of-pain.

My leg hurts.

A bridi marked by su'a is a generalization by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between su'a and ja'o is that ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not necessarily rigorous), whereas su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous).

The opposite point of the scale, su'anai, indicates abduction, or drawing specific conclusions from general premises or patterns.

This cmavo can also function as a discursive (see the section called “Discursives”), in which case su'a means “abstractly” or “in general”, and su'anai means “concretely” or “in particular”.

A bridi marked by ti'e is relayed information from some source other than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally good example of ti'e, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.

Example 13.79.

ti'e

la

.uengas

cu

zergau

[I

hear!]

Wenga

is-a-criminal-doer.

I hear that Wenga is a crook.

A bridi marked by ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your own cultural context – although “objectivity” in the sense of actual correspondence with the facts is certainly not required.

On the other hand, se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speaker as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line between ka'u and se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent.

A bridi marked by za'a is based on perception or direct observation by the speaker. This use of “observe” is not connected with the Lojban “observative”, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclusion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view.

Example 13.80.

za'a

do

tatpi

[I

observe!]

You

are-tired.

I see you are tired.

A bridi marked by pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form pe'ipei is common, meaning “Is this your opinion?”. (Strictly, this should be peipe'i, in accordance with the distinction explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference between the two orders.)

Example 13.81.

pe'i

la

kartagos.

.ei

se

daspo

[I

opine!]

Carthage

[obligation]

is-destroyed.

In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.

A bridi marked by ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of e'u.

Example 13.82.

ru'a

doi

livinston.

Dr.

Livingstone,

I

presume?

(A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)

Finally, the evidential ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but in question form it can be useful: ju'apei means “What is the basis for your statement?” and serves as an evidential, as distinct from emotional, question.

Discursives

The term “discursive” is used for those members of selma'o UI that provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utterance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that “I also came”, we would have to say “I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional instance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence”, which is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are words or phrases like “however”, “summarizing”, “in conclusion”, and “for example”.

Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that reference the sentence or text they are found in.

Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the i that separates sentences in running discourse, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems necessary or useful.

The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, roughly organized by function. First, the “consecutive discourse” group:

ku'i

[karbi]

however/but/in contrast

ji'a

[jmina]

additionally

si'a

[simsa]

similarly

mi'u

[mintu]

ditto

po'o

the only relevant case

These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecutive discourse. The first, ku'i, makes an exception to the previous argument. The second, ji'a, adds weight to the previous argument. The third, si'a, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerating an additional example. The fourth, mi'u, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”), which is a non-discursive version of “ditto” that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous bridi.

Lastly, po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of “only”, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:

Example 13.83.

mi

po'o

darxi

le

mi

tamne

fo

le

nazbi

I

[only]

hit

my

cousin

at-locus

the

nose.

Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.

Example 13.84.

mi

darxi

po'o

le

mi

tamne

fo

le

nazbi

I

hit

[only]

my

cousin

at-locus

the

nose.

I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).

Example 13.85.

mi

darxi

le

mi

tamne

po'o

fo

le

nazbi

I

hit

my

cousin

[only]

at-locus

the

nose.

I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).

Example 13.86.

mi

darxi

le

mi

tamne

fo

le

nazbi

po'o

I

hit

my

cousin

at-locus

the

nose

[only].

I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).

Note that “only” can go before or after what it modifies in English, but po'o, as an indicator, always comes afterward.

Next, the “commentary on words” group:

va'i

[valsi]

in other words

in the same words

ta'u

[tanru]

expanding a tanru

making a tanru

The discursives va'i and ta'u operate at the level of words, rather than discourse proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternative English expression for va'i is “rephrasing”; for va'inai, “repeating”. Also compare va'i with ke'u, discussed below.

The cmavo ta'u is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The discursive ta'u marks the transition from the use of a brief but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive ta'unai marks a transition in the reverse direction.

Next, the “commentary on discourse” group:

li'a

[klina]

clearly

obviously

obscurely

ba'u

[banli]

exaggeration

accuracy

understatement

zo'o

humorously

dully

seriously

sa'e

[satci]

precisely speaking

loosely speaking

to'u

[tordu]

in brief

in detail

do'a

[dunda]

generously

parsimoniously

sa'u

[sampu]

simply

elaborating

pa'e

[pajni]

justice

prejudice

je'u

[jetnu]

truly

falsely

This group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of the discourse, so as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that listeners often fail to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or miss an exaggeration, or try to read more into a statement than the speaker intends to put there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the necessary cue, but the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse is often simply clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo may seem fussy to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that zo'o, for example, is the equivalent of smiling while you speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like “What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny.”

A few additional English equivalents: for sa'enai, “roughly speaking” or “approximately speaking”; for sa'unai, “furthermore”; for to'u, “in short” or “skipping details”; for do'a, “broadly construed”; for do'anai (as you might expect), “narrowly construed”.

The cmavo pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is being fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in favor of one party.

The scale of je'u and je'unai is a little different from the others in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth – or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal it from us. So under what circumstances would je'unai be used, or je'u be useful? For one thing, je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that is a truth of logic, like “All cats are cats.” Its counterpart je'unai then serves to mark a logical contradiction. In addition, je'unai can be used to express one kind of sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of irony can be marked with zo'o (humor) or .ianai (disbelief).

When used as a discursive, su'a (see the section called “Evidentials”) belongs to this group.

Next, the “knowledge” group:

ju'o

[djuno]

certainly

uncertain

certainly not

la'a

[lakne]

probably

improbably

These two discursives describe the speaker's state of knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the propositional attitudes of the section called “Propositional attitude indicators”, as they create a hypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our bridi with ju'o; but it may be false all the same.

Next, the “discourse management” group:

ta'o

[tanjo]

by the way

returning to point

ra'u

[ralju]

chiefly

equally

incidentally

mu'a

[mupli]

for example

omitting examples

end examples

zu'u

on the one hand

on the other hand

ke'u

[krefu]

repeating

continuing

da'i

supposing

in fact

This final group is used to perform what may be called “managing the discourse”: providing reference points to help the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next.

Other English equivalents of ta'onai are “anyway”, “anyhow”, “in any case”, “in any event”, “as I was saying”, and “continuing”.

The scale of ra'u has to do with the importance of the point being, or about to be, expressed: ra'u is the most important point, ra'ucu'i is a point of equal importance, and ra'unai is a lesser point. Other English equivalents of ra'u are “above all” and “primarily”.

The cmavo ke'u is very similar to va'i, although ke'unai and va'inai are quite different. Both ke'u and va'i indicate that the same idea is going to be expressed using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using ke'u emphasizes that the content is the same; using va'i emphasizes that the words are different. Therefore, ke'unai shows that the content is new (and therefore the words are also); va'inai shows that the words are the same (and therefore so is the content). One English equivalent of ke'unai is “furthermore”.

The discursive da'i marks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-world viewpoint ( “Supposing that”, “By hypothesis”), whereas da'inai insists on the real-world point of view ( “In fact”, “In truth”, “According to the facts”). A common use of da'i is to distinguish between:

Example 13.87.

ganai

da'i

do

viska

le

mi

citno

mensi

gi

ju'o

do

djuno

le

du'u

ri

pazvau

If

you

[hypothetical]

see

my

young

sister,

then

[certain]

you

know

that

she

is-pregnant.

If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.

and:

Example 13.88.

ganai

da'inai

do

viska

le

mi

citno

mensi

gi

ju'o

do

djuno

le

du'u

ri

pazvau

If

you

[factual]

see

my

young

sister,

then

[certainty]

you

know

that

she

is-pregnant.

If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.

It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese always leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence

Example 13.89.

ru

is the equivalent of either Example 13.87, “ ” or Example 13.88, “ ”.)

Miscellaneous indicators

Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitudinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following miscellaneous indicators:

ki'a

metalinguistic confusion

na'i

metalinguistic negator

jo'a

metalinguistic affirmer

li'o

omitted text (quoted material)

sa'a

material inserted by editor/narrator

xu

true-false question

pau

question premarker

rhetorical question

pe'a

figurative language

literal language

bi'u

new information

old information

ge'e

non-specific indicator

The cmavo ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellaneous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of the uses of English “which” corresponds to ki'a:

Example 13.90.

mi

nelci

le

ctuca

.i

le

ki'a

ctuca

I like the teacher

Which teacher?

Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the sumti le ctuca, and so echoes back the sumti with the confusion marker.

The metalinguistic negation cmavo na'i and its opposite jo'a are explained in full in Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation. In general, na'i indicates that there is something wrong with a piece of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or something else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to the marked word or construct.

Similarly, jo'a marks something which looks wrong but is in fact correct. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reasons: na'inai means the same as jo'a, but would be too confusing as an affirmation; jo'anai means the same as na'i, but is too long to serve as a convenient metalinguistic negator.

The next two cmavo are used to assist in quoting texts written or spoken by others. It is often the case that we wish to quote only part of a text, or to supply additional material either by way of commentary or to make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo li'o serves the former function. It indicates that words were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation must be grammatical, however, as li'o does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot, for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the missing tail of a description sumti: le li'o in isolation is not grammatical.

The cmavo sa'a indicates in a quotation that the marked word or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial, narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a li'o should appear in the form li'osa'a, since the li'o was not part of the original quotation. In practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic expressions, such as sei (of selma'o SEI) or to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where confusion might result.

In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more instances of sa'a, they can be changed to sa'asa'a.

The cmavo xu marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail in the section called “Truth questions”. In general, xu may be translated “Is it true that ... ?” and questions whether the attached bridi is true. When xu is attached to a specific word or construct, it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct.

Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word.

Although pau is grammatical in any location (like all indicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bridi. Its scalar opposite, paunai, signals that a bridi is not really a question despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical question: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of the section called “Evidentials”.

The cmavo pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:

Example 13.91.

mi

viska

le

blanu

pe'a

zdani

I

see

the

blue

[figurative]

house.

I see the   “blue” house.

Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some other sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference: blanu in Example 13.91, “ ” could mean “sad” (as in English) or something completely different.

The negated form, pe'anai, indicates that what has been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition is to be ignored.

Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI, pe'a has a rafsi, namely pev. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a place structure like:

x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4

whereas pevrisnyjelca, explicitly marked as figurative, might have the place structure:

x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2

which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either risna or jelca.

The uses of bi'u and bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of the English articles “the” and “a/an”. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with “I saw a man who ...”. Later in the story, the same man will be referred to with the phrase “the man”. Lojban does not use its articles in the same way: both “a man” and “the man” would be translated le nanmu, since the speaker has in mind a specific man. However, the first use might be marked le bi'u nanmu, to indicate that this is a new man, not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged le bi'unai nanmu.

Most of the time, the distinction between bi'u and bi'unai need not be made, as the listener can infer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still later in the story, le bi'u nanmu would clearly show that this man was different from the previous one.

Finally, the indicator ge'e has been discussed in the section called “Compound indicators” and the section called “Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours”. It is used to express an attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing any attitude.

Another use for ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's feeling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o CAI: .iige'e means roughly “I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not.”

kau

indirect question

This cmavo is explained in detail in the section called “Indirect questions”. It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question:

Example 13.92.

mi

djuno

le

du'u

dakau

klama

le

zarci

I

know

the

statement-that

somebody

[indirect

?]

goes

to-the

store.

I know who goes to the store.

Vocative scales

“Vocatives” are words used to address someone directly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators – in fact, discursives – but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be “negated” with nai to get the opposite part of the scale.

Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant nai too often vital to interpretation of a protocol signal, as explained later in this section.

The grammar of vocatives is explained in the section called “The syntax of vocative phrases”; but in brief, a vocative may be followed by a name (without la), a description (without le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable terminator, do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.

Using any vocative except mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the meaning of the pro-sumti do, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the listener, or at any rate the desired listener – even if the desired listener isn't listening! We will use the terms “speaker” and “listener” for clarity, although in written Lojban the appropriate terms would be “writer” and “reader”.

In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of the listener.

The cmavo doi is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the cmavo of selma'o COI, explained below, doi can precede a name directly without an intervening pause. It is not considered a scale, and doinai is not grammatical. In general, doi needs no translation in English (we just use names by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we sometimes say “Oh X”, which is equivalent to doi). One may attach an attitudinal to doi to express various English vocatives. For example, doi .io means “Sir/Madam!”, whereas doi .ionai means “You there!”.

All members of selma'o COI require a pause when used immediately before a name, in order to prevent the name from absorbing the COI word. This is unlike selma'o DOI and LA, which do not require pauses because the syllables of these cmavo are not permitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. When calling out to someone, this is fairly natural, anyway. “Hey! John!” is thus a better translation of ju'i .djan. than “Hey John!”. No pause is needed if the vocative reference is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal, ju'i lobypli.

(Alternatively, doi can be inserted between the COI cmavo and the name, making a pause unnecessary: coi doi djan.)

coi

greetings

“Hello, X”; “Greetings, X”; indicates a greeting to the listener.

co'o

partings

“Good-bye, X”; indicates parting from immediate company by either the speaker or the listener. coico'o means “greeting in passing”.

ju'i

[jundi]

attention

at ease

ignore me/us

“Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X”; indicates an important communication that the listener should listen to.

nu'e

[nupre]

promise

release promise

non-promise

“I promise, X”; indicates a promise to the listener. In some contexts, nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other formal declaration.

ta'a

[tavla]

interruption

“I interrupt, X”, “I desire the floor, X”; a vocative expression to (possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate response to an interruption might be re'i (or re'inai to ignore the interruption).

pe'u

[cpedu]

request

“Please, X”; indicates a request to the listener. It is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of e'o with a specific recipient being addressed. On the other hand, e'o may be used when there is no specific listener, but merely a “sense of petition floating in the air”, as it were.

ki'e

[ckire]

appreciation

gratitude

disappreciation

ingratitude

“Thank you, X”; indicates appreciation or gratitude toward the listener. The usual response is je'e, but fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanation of fi'i.

fi'i

[friti]

welcome

offering

unwelcome

inhospitality

“At your service, X”; “Make yourself at home, X”; offers hospitality (possibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that fi'i is not the equivalent of American English “You're welcome” as a mechanical response to “Thank you”; that is je'e, as noted below.

be'e

[benji]

request to send

“Request to send to X”; indicates that the speaker wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is “Hello? Can I speak to X?”.

re'i

[bredi]

ready to receive

not ready

“Ready to receive, X”; indicates that the speaker is attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead of mi'e to respond when called to the telephone. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated “Hold on!” or “Just a minute”.

mu'o

[mulno]

completion of utterance

more to follow

“Over, X”; indicates that the speaker has completed the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially, “I'm not done talking!”

je'e

[jimpe]

successful receipt

unsuccessful receipt

“Roger, X!”, “I understand”; acknowledges the successful receipt of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to receive correctly, and is usually followed by ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of je'e and je'enai are the grunt typically written “uh-huh” and “What?/Excuse me?”. je'e is also used to mean “You're welcome” when that is a response to “Thank you”.

vi'o

will comply

will not comply

“Wilco, X”, “I understand and will comply”. Similar to je'e but signals an intention (similar to .ai) to comply with the other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying “OK” in Lojban, in the usual sense of “Agreed!”, although .ie carries some of the same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received but that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is “No way!”.

ke'o

[krefu]

please repeat

no repeat needed

“What did you say, X?”; a request for repetition or clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative equivalent of ki'a, and is related to je'enai. The negative form may be rendered “Okay, already; I get the point!”

fe'o

[fanmo]

end of communication

not done

“Over and out, X”; indicates completion of statement(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been identified (as in memos). The negative form means “Wait, hold it, we're not done!” and differs from mu'onai in that it means more exchanges are to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete.

mi'e

[cmavo: mi]

self-identification

non-identification

“And I am X”; a generalized self-vocative. Although grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI, mi'e is quite different semantically. In particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or description) follows mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone.

This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI: fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing at the end of a letter; re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in delayed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as the mi'e comes last, the following name is that of the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear.

The negative form denies an identity which someone else has attributed to you; mi'enai .djan. means that you are saying you are not John.

Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations which are drawn from radio use: “roger”, “wilco”, “over and out”. This form of translation does not mean that Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in specific domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Lojban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener may not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protocol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include computer communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the protocol question ta'apei would mean “Will the speaker yield?”

A sample dialogue

The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sentence.

Example 13.93.

la

rik.

.e

la

.alis.

nerkla

le

kafybarja

Rick

and

Alice

in-go

to-the

coffee-bar.

Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.

Example 13.94.

.i

sei

la

rik.

cusku

se'u

ta'a

ro

zvati

be

ti

mi

baza

speni

ti

.iu

[Comment]

Rick

says,

[end-comment]

[Interrupt]

all

at

this-place,

I

[future]

[medium]

am-spouse-to

this-one

[love].

Rick said,   “Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting married to my love here.”

Example 13.95.

.i

sei

la

djordj.

cusku

se'u

.a'o

ko

gleki

doi

ma

[Comment]

George

says,

[end-comment]

[Hope]

[You-imperative]

are-happy,

O

[who?].

George said,   “I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?”

Example 13.96.

.i

sei

la

pam.

cusku

se'u

pe'u

.alis.

xu

mi

ba

terfriti

le

nunspenybi'o

[Comment]

Pam

says,

[end-comment]

[Please]

Alice,

[Is

it

true?]

I

[future]

receive-offer-of

the

event-of-spouse-becoming?

Pam said,   “Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?”

Example 13.97.

.i

sei

la

mark.

cusku

se'u

coi

baza

speni

a'o

le

re

do

lifri

le

ka

gleki

[Comment]

Mark

says,

[end-comment]

[Greetings]

[future]

[medium]

spouse(s),

[Hope]

the

two

of-you

experience

the-property-of

being-happy

Mark said,   “Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy.”

Example 13.98.

.i

sei

la

rik.

cusku

se'u

mi'e

.rik.

doi

terpreti

[Comment]

Rick

says,

[end-comment]

[I

am]

Rick,

O

questioners.

Rick said,   “My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.”

Example 13.99.

.i

sei

la

.alis.

cusku

se'u

nu'e

.pam.

.o'ero'i

do

ba

zvati

[Comment]

Alice

says,

[end-comment]

[Promise-to]

Pam,

[closeness]

[emotional]

you

[future]

are-at.

Alice said,   “I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.”

Example 13.100.

.i

sei

la

fred.

cusku

se'u

.uinaicairo'i

mi

ji'a

prami

la

.alis.

fe'o

.rik.

[Comment]

Fred

says,

[end-comment]

[Happy]

[not]

[emphatic]

[emotional]

I

[additionally]

love

Alice.

[Over

and

out

to]

Rick.

“I love Alice too,” said Fred miserably. “Have a nice life, Rick.”

Example 13.101.

.i

la

fred.

cliva

Fred

leaves.

And he left.

Example 13.102.

.i

sei

la

rik.

cusku

se'u

fi'i

ro

zvati

ko

pinxe

pa

ckafi

fi'o

pleji

mi

[Comment]

Rick

says,

[end-comment]

[Welcome-to]

all

at-place,

[You-imperative]

drink

one

coffee

with-payer

me.

Rick said, raising his voice,   “A cup of coffee for the house, on me.”

Example 13.103.

.i

sei

la

pam.

cusku

se'u

be'e

selfu

[Comment]

Pam

says,

[end-comment]

[Request

to

speak

to]

server.

Pam said,   “Waiter!”

Example 13.104.

.i

sei

le

selfu

cu

cusku

se'u

re'i

[end-comment]

[Comment]

The

server

says,

[Ready

to

receive].

The waiter replied,   “May I help you?”

Example 13.105.

.i

sei

la

pam.

cusku

se'u

.e'o

ko

selfu

le

traji

xamgu

ckafi

le

baza

speni

fi'o

pleji

mi

[Comment]

Pam

says,

[end-comment]

[Petition]

[You-imperative]

serve

the

(superlatively

good)

coffee

to-the

[future]

[medium]

spouse

with-payer

me.

Pam said,   “One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.”

Example 13.106.

.i

sei

le

selfu

cu

cusku

se'u

vi'o

[Comment]

The

server

says,

[end-comment]

[Will

comply].

“Gotcha”, said the waiter.

Example 13.107.

.i

sei

la

rik.

cusku

se'u

ki'e

.pam.

[Comment]

Rick

says,

[end-comment]

[Thanks

O]

Pam.

“Thanks, Pam”, said Rick.

Example 13.108.

.i

sei

la

pam.

cusku

se'u

je'e

[Comment]

Pam

says,

[end-comment]

[Acknowledge].

“Sure”, said Pam.

Example 13.109.

.i

sei

la

djan.

cusku

se'u

.y.

mi

.y.

mutce

spopa

.y.

le

nu

le

speni

si

.y.

ba

speni

.y.

.y.

su

.yyyyyy.

mu'o

[Comment]

John

says,

[end-comment]

[Uh]

I

[uh]

very

[nonexistent

gismu]

[uh]

the

event-of

the

spouse

[erase]

[uh]

[future]

spouse

[uh]

[uh]

[erase

all]

[uh]

[over]

John said,   “I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, forget it. Er, later.”

Example 13.110.

.i

sei

la

djordj.

cusku

se'u

ke'o

.djan.

zo'o

[Comment]

George

says,

[end-comment]

[Repeat

O]

John

[humor].

“How's that again, John?” said George.

Example 13.111.

.i

sei

la

pam.

cusku

se'u

ju'i

.djordj.

.e'unai

le

kabri

bazi

farlu

[Comment]

Pam

says,

[end-comment]

[Attention]

George,

[Warning]

the

cup

[future]

[short]

falls

“George, watch out!” said Pam. “The cup's falling!”

Example 13.112.

.i

le

kabri

cu

je'a

farlu

The

cup

indeed

falls.

The cup fell.

Example 13.113.

.i

sei

la

djan.

cusku

se'u

e'o

doi

djordj.

zo'o

rapygau

[Comment]

John

says,

[end-comment]

[Petition]

O

George

[humor]

repeat-cause.

John said,   “Try that again, George!”

Example 13.114.

.i

sei

la

djordj.

cusku

se'u

co'o

ro

zvati

pe

secau

la

djan.

ga'i

[Comment]

George

says,

[end-comment]

[Partings]

all

at-place

without

John

[superiority]

“Goodbye to all of you,” said George sneeringly, “except John.”

Example 13.115.

.i

la

djordj.

cliva

George

leaves.

George left.

Tentative conclusion

The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.

We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo sei, explained in the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI”, to create metalinguistic comments that act like indicators.

We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expression for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings?

There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universally – mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious level. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.

Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of attitudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are built on some fairly nebulous root emotions – words that cannot be defined with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into a true system of emotions.

There are several theories as to the nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more about ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recording emotions.

The full list of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks the language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias – if a culture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than others, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them.

Perhaps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emotions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may be the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools in existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf effect will occur and will be recognized.

It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in the realm of emotional communication “at our mother's knee”. Such children will have a Lojban system that has stronger reinforcement than any typical culture system. The second generation of such children, then, could be said to be the start of a true Lojbanic culture.

We shouldn't need to wait that long to detect significant effects. Emotion is so basic to our lives that even a small change or improvement in emotional communication would have immediately noticeable effects. Perhaps it will be the case that the most important contribution of our “logical language” will be in the non-logical realm of emotion!

Chapter 14. If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System

Logical connection and truth tables

Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means “logical language”. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a “sentence” (sometimes called a “statement” or “proposition”), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a small set of “truth functions”, which combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,

Example 14.1.

John is a man or James is a woman.

is true if “John is a man” is true, or if “James is a woman” is true. If we know whether John is a man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether “John is a man or James is a woman” is true, provided we know the meaning of “or”. Here “John is a man” and “James is a woman” are the component sentences.

We will use the phrase “negating a sentence” to mean changing its truth value. An English sentence may always be negated by prefixing “It is false that ...”, or more idiomatically by inserting “not” at the right point, generally before the verb. “James is not a woman” is the negation of “James is a woman”, and vice versa. Recent slang can also negate a sentence by following it with the exclamation “Not!”

Words like “or” are called “logical connectives”, and Lojban has many of them, as befits a logical language. This chapter is mostly concerned with explaining the forms and uses of the Lojban logical connectives. There are a number of other logical connectives in English such as “and”, “and/or”, “if”, “only if”, “whether or not”, and others; however, not every use of these English words corresponds to a logical connective. This point will be made clear in particular cases as needed. The other English meanings are supported by different Lojban connective constructs.

The Lojban connectives form a system (as the title of this chapter suggests), regular and predictable, whereas natural-language connectives are rather less systematic and therefore less predictable.

There exist 16 possible different truth functions. A truth table is a graphical device for specifying a truth function, making it clear what the value of the truth function is for every possible value of the component sentences. Here is a truth table for “or”:

first

second

result

True

True

True

True

False

True

False

True

True

False

False

False

This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and the second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function is also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth values except the one where both the first and the second sentences are false, in which case the truth value of the result is also false.

Suppose that “John is a man” is true (and “John is not a man” is false), and that “James is a woman” is false (and “James is not a woman” is true). Then the truth table tells us that

“John is a man, or James is not a woman” (true true ) is true

“John is a man, or James is a woman” (true , false) is true

“John is not a man, or James is not a woman” (false, true ) is true

“John is not a man, or James is a woman” (false, false) is false

Note that the kind of “or” used in this example can also be expressed (in formal English) with “and/or”. There is a different truth table for the kind of “or” that means “either ... or ... but not both”.

To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format henceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will always be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentences. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result column, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third column of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the “or” truth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functions, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function is, in fact, true ( “first” refers to the first sentence, and “second” to the second sentence):

TTTT

(always true)

TTTF

first is true and/or second is true.

TTFT

first is true if second is true.

TTFF

first is true whether or not second is true.

TFTT

first is true only if second is true.

TFTF

whether or not first is true, second is true.

TFFT

first is true if and only if second is true.

TFFF

first is true and second is true

FTTT

first and second are not both true.

FTTF

first or second is true, but not both.

FTFT

whether or not first is true, second is false.

FTFF

first is true, but second is false.

FFTT

first is false whether or not second is true.

FFTF

first is false, but second is true.

FFFT

neither first nor second is true.

FFFF

(always false)

Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.

The Four basic vowels

Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, and assigns them the four vowels A, E, O, and U. These letters do not represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:

A

TTTF

or, and/or

E

TFFF

and

O

TFFT

if and only if

U

TTFF

whether or not

More precisely:

A is true if either or both sentences are true

E is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise

O is true if the sentences are both true or both false

U is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence

With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and the ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, we can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, which are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to create each of the 14 remaining truth functions:

TTTF

A

TTFT

A   with second sentence negated

TTFF

U

TFTT

A   with first sentence negated

TFTF

U   with sentences exchanged

TFFT

O

TFFF

E

FTTT

A   with both sentences negated

FTTF

O   with either first or second negated (not both)

FTFT

U   with sentences exchanged and then second negated

FTFF

E   with second sentence negated

FFTT

U   with first sentence negated

FFTF

E   with first sentence negated

FFFT

E   with both sentences negated

Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with U. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.

The six types of logical connectives

In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.

Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.2.

Mary went to the window and ...

where the last word could be followed by “the door”, a noun phrase, or by “saw the horses”, a sentence with subject omitted, or by “John went to the door”, a full sentence, or by one of a variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate such grammatical looseness.

Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo.

Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function A is a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with A, which is a truth function, or a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for E in selma'o GIhA is gi'e, and the cmavo for U in selma'o GA is gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo easier to learn.

Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in the section called “Logical connection and truth tables”. Therefore, compound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo se, na, or nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar.

For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final “-A” of the selma'o name to “-ek”; the reasons for using “-ek” are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Project. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those based on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventional to use “eks” as the plural of “ek”.) When the term “logical connective” is used in this chapter, it refers to one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo.

Why does the title of this section refer to “six types” when there are only five selma'o? A jek may be preceded by i, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences. The compound produced by i followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks.

There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.

Logical connection of bridi

Now we are ready to express Example 14.1, “ ” in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:

Example 14.3.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ija

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

or

James

is-a-woman.

Here we have two separate Lojban bridi, la djan. nanmu and la djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connected by .ija, the ijek for the truth function A. The i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say:

Example 14.4.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ije

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

and

James

is-a-woman.

Example 14.5.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ijo

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

if-and-only-if

James

is-a-woman.

Example 14.6.

la

djan.

nanmu

.iju

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

whether-or-not

James

is-a-woman.

To obtain the other truth tables listed in the section called “The Four basic vowels”, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.

To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix na to the JA cmavo but after the i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.

So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires O with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:

Example 14.7.

la

djan.

nanmu

.inajo

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-not-a-man

if-and-only-if

James

is-a-woman.

Example 14.8.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ijonai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is

a

man

if-and-only-if

James

is-not-a-woman

The meaning of both Example 14.7, “ ” and Example 14.8, “ ” is the same as that of:

Example 14.9.

John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.

Here is another example:

Example 14.10.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ijanai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

or

James

is-not-a-woman.

John is a man if James is a woman.

How's that again? Are those two English sentences in Example 14.10, “ ” really equivalent? In English, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed “A if B”, but the “if” does not quite have its English sense. Example 14.10, “ ” is true so long as John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of “if-then” is technically known as a “material conditional”.

Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in the section called “Logical connection and truth tables”), the English sentence “John is a man if James is a woman” seems to be neither true nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to treat this “if” as TTFT, which on investigation means that Example 14.10, “ ” is true. Example 14.11, “ ”, however, is equally true:

Example 14.11.

la

djan.

ninmu

.ijanai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John is a woman if James is a woman.

This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows: “If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it.” All uses of English “if” must be considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold.

Example 14.12, “ ”, which uses the TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as “only if” works naturally only when the right-hand bridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. The last gloss of Example 14.12, “ ” illustrates the use of “if ... then” as a more natural substitute for “only if”.

Example 14.12.

la

djan.

nanmu

.inaja

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-not-a-man

or

James

is-a-woman.

John is a man only if James is a woman.

If John is a man, then James is a woman.

The following example illustrates the use of se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”.

Example 14.13.

la

djan.

nanmu

.iseju

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.

If both na and se are present, which is legal but never necessary, na would come before se.

The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:

.i [na] [se] JA [nai]

where the cmavo in brackets are optional.

Forethought bridi connection

Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as “afterthought” and “forethought”. the section called “Logical connection of bridi” discussed what is called “afterthought bridi logical connection”. The word “afterthought” is used because the connective cmavo and the second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a statement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been completed. Thus,

Example 14.14.

la

djan.

nanmu

is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make

Example 14.15.

la

djan.

nanmu

.ija

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John is a man or James is a woman (or both)

provides additional information without requiring any change in the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of ways.

In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks:

Example 14.16.

ga

la

djan.

nanmu

gi

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).

ga is the cmavo which represents the A truth function in selma'o GA. The word gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any content of its own. The English translation of ga…gi is “either ... or”, but in the English form the truth function is specified both by the word “either” and by the word “or”: not so in Lojban.

Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not have any i in them. The forethought construct binds up the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned.

Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:

Example 14.17.

ge

la

djan.

nanmu

gi

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.

Example 14.18.

gu

la

djan.

nanmu

gi

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.

It is worth emphasizing that Example 14.18, “ ” does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The gu which indicates that la djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected.

Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expressed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as “if ... then ...”:

Example 14.19.

ganai

la

djan.

nanmu

gi

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

Either

John

is

not

a

man,

or

James

is

a

woman.

If John is a man, then James is a woman.

Note the placement of the nai in Example 14.19, “ ”. When added to afterthought selma'o such as JA, a following nai negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following nai negates the first bridi instead.

Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of Example 14.19, “ ”? Possibly because it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought.

It must be reiterated here that not every use of English “if ... then” is properly translated by .inaja or ganai…gi; anything with implications of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in the section called “Tenses, modals, and logical connection”. Causal sentences like “If you feed the pig, then it will grow” are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using rinka as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:

Example 14.20.

le

nu

do

cidja

dunda

fi

le

xarju

cu

rinka

le

nu

ri

ba

banro

The

event-of

(you

food-give

to

the

pig)

causes

the

event-of

(it

will

grow).

Causality is discussed in far more detail in the section called “Modal sentence connection: the causals”.

Example 14.21, “ ” and Example 14.22, “ ” illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:

Example 14.21.

gonai

la

djan.

nanmu

gi

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-not-a-man

if-and-only-if

James

is-a-woman.

Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.

How can the second bridi be negated? By adding -nai to the gi.

Example 14.22.

go

la

djan.

nanmu

ginai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

if-and-only-if

James

is-not-a-woman.

Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.

A compound cmavo based on gi is called a gik; the only giks are gi itself and ginai.

Further examples:

Example 14.23.

ge

la

djan.

nanmu

ginai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-a-man

and

James

is-not-a-woman.

Example 14.24.

ganai

la

djan.

nanmu

ginai

la

djeimyz.

ninmu

John

is-not-a-man

or

James

is-not-a-woman.

The syntax of geks is:

[se] GA [nai]

and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought connection) is:

gi [nai]

sumti connection

Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:

Example 14.25.

la

djan.

klama

le

zarci

.ije

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.

Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban does not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:

Example 14.26.

la

djan

.e

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John

and

Alice

go-to

the

market.

Example 14.26, “ ” means exactly the same thing as Example 14.25, “ ”: one may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see the section called “Logical connection within tanru”), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.

The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in Example 14.26, “ ”, the meaning would be changed:

Example 14.27.

la

djan.

.ije

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John

[is/does

something].

And

Alices

goes-to

the

market.

leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.

Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct English equivalent:

Example 14.28.

la

djan.

.o

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John

if-and-only-if

Alice

goes-to

the

market.

John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.

The second line of Example 14.27, “ ” is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojban.

What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.

Example 14.29.

ga

la

djan.

gi

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

Either

John

or

Alice

(or

both)

goes-to

the

market.

Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When na or se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:

Example 14.30.

la

djan.

na.a

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John

only

if

Alice

goes-to

the

market.

John goes to the market only if Alice does.

Note the period in na.a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the na and a would tend to run together.

More than two propositions

So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.

Of the four primitive truth functions A, E, O, and U, all but O have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,

Example 14.31.

mi

dotco

.ije

mi

ricfu

.ije

mi

nanmu

I

am-German.

And

I

am-rich.

And

I

am-a-man.

means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise,

Example 14.32.

mi

dotco

.ija

mi

ricfu

.ija

mi

nanmu

I

am-German.

Or

I

am-rich.

Or

I

am-a-man.

means that one or more of the component sentences is true.

O, however, is different. Working out the truth table for

Example 14.33.

mi

dotco

.ijo

mi

ricfu

.ijo

mi

nanmu

I

am-German.

If-and-only-if

I

am-rich.

If-and-only-if

I

am-a-man.

shows that Example 14.33, “ ” does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:

Of the three properties – German-ness, wealth, and manhood – I possess either exactly one or else all three.

Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid O with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.

In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the “all or none” interpretation intended (but not achieved) by Example 14.33, “ ” without repeating one of the bridi. See Example 14.48, “ ”.

There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:

Example 14.34.

mi

nelci

la

djan.

.ije

mi

nelci

la

martas.

.ija

mi

nelci

la

meris.

I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.

Does this mean:

Example 14.35.

I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.

Or is the correct translation:

Example 14.36.

Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.

Example 14.36, “ ” is the correct translation of Example 14.34, “ ”. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:

Example 14.37.

ga

ge

mi

nelci

la

djan.

gi

mi

nelci

la

martas.

gi

mi

nelci

la

meris.

Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary.

is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.34, “ ”, whereas

Example 14.38.

ge

mi

nelci

la

djan.

gi

ga

mi

nelci

la

martas.

gi

mi

nelci

la

meris.

Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).

is not equivalent to Example 14.34, “ ”, but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of Example 14.35, “ ”.

Grouping of afterthought connectives

There are several ways in Lojban to render Example 14.35, “ ” using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In particular, if bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with bo are interpreted before connections not so marked. Example 14.39, “ ” is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.38, “ ”:

Example 14.39.

mi

nelci

la

djan.

.ije

mi

nelci

la

martas.

.ijabo

mi

nelci

la

meris.

I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.

The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the Lojban marks far more clearly: the “I like Martha” and “I like Mary” sentences are joined by .ija first, before the result is joined to “I like John” by .ije.

Eks can have bo attached in exactly the same way, so that Example 14.40, “ ” is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.39, “ ”:

Example 14.40.

mi

nelci

la

djan.

.e

la

martas.

.abo

la

meris.

Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with bo, for every use of forethought connectives clearly indicates the intended pattern of grouping.

What happens if bo is used on both connectives, giving them the same high precedence, as in Example 14.41, “ ”?

Example 14.41.

mi

nelci

la

djan.

.ebo

la

martas.

.abo

la

meris.

Does this wind up meaning the same as Example 14.34, “ ” and Example 14.36, “ ”? Not at all. A second rule relating to bo is that where several bo-marked connectives are used in succession, the normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a result, Example 14.41, “ ” in fact means the same as Example 14.39, “ ” and Example 14.40, “ ”. This rule may be occasionally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in writing intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives marked with bo should be avoided.

The use of bo, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of Example 14.37, “ ” and Example 14.38, “ ”, parentheses were used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets of them actually. tu'e and tu'u are used with ijeks, and ke and ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discussed later. ( ke and ke'e are also used in other roles in the language, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.42.

I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.

where the semantics tells us that the instances of “and” are meant to have higher precedence than that of “if”. If we wish to express Example 14.42, “ ” in afterthought, we can say:

Example 14.43.

mi

cinba

do

.ije[bo]

do

cinba

mi

.ijanai

mi

prami

do

.ijebo

do

prami

mi

I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.

marking two of the ijeks with bo for high precedence. (The first bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)

But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:

Example 14.44.

tu'e

mi

cinba

do

.ije

do

cinba

mi

tu'u

.ijanai

tu'e

mi

prami

do

.ije

do

prami

mi

[tu'u]

(

I

kiss

you

and

you

kiss

me

)

if

(

I

love

you

and

you

love

me

).

where the tu'e…tu'u pairs set off the structure. The cmavo tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second occurrence in Example 14.44, “ ” is bracketed, because all terminators may be elided at the end of a text.

In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parentheses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought material may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these two advantages apply to bo grouping. In general, afterthought constructions trade generality for simplicity.

Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of tu'e…tu'u parentheses may actually be left off altogether, producing:

Example 14.45.

mi

cinba

do

.ije

do

cinba

mi

.ijanai

tu'e

mi

prami

do

.ije

do

prami

mi

[tu'u]

I

kiss

you

and

you

kiss

me

if

(

I

love

you

and

you

love

me

).

What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider

Example 14.46.

I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.

Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to Example 14.44, “ ”, would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with ke, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing Example 14.47, “ ”, which is instead parallel to Example 14.45, “ ”:

Example 14.47.

mi

dzukla

le

zarci

.e

le

zdani

.a

ke

le

ckule

.e

le

briju

[ke'e]

I

walk-to

the

market

and

the

house

or

(

the

school

and

the

office

).

If sumti were allowed to begin with ke, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logical connective. This rule does not apply to tu'e grouping of bridi, as Example 14.44, “ ” shows.

Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of Example 14.33, “ ”: “I am German, rich, and a man – or else none of these.” The following paraphrase has the correct meaning:

Example 14.48.

[tu'e]

mi

dotco

.ijo

mi

ricfu

[tu'u]

.ije

tu'e

mi

dotco

.ijo

mi

nanmu

[tu'u]

(

I

am-German

if-and-only-if

I

am-rich

)

and

(I

am-German

if-and-only-if

I

am-a-man

).

The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.

Compound bridi

So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.

Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called “compound bridi”. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.

The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:

Example 14.49.

mi

klama

le

zarci

.ije

mi

nelci

la

djan.

I go to the market, and I like John.

is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:

Example 14.50.

mi

klama

le

zarci

gi'e

nelci

la

djan.

I

go-to

the

market

and

like

John.

As Example 14.50, “ ” indicates, giheks are used in afterthought to create compound bridi; gi'e is the gihek corresponding to “and”. The actual phrases klama le zarci and nelci la djan. that the gihek connects are known as “bridi-tails”, because they represent (in this use) the “tail end” of a bridi, including the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri:

Example 14.51.

mi

ricfu

gi'e

klama

le

zarci

I

am-rich

and

go-to

the

market.

In Example 14.51, “ ”, the first bridi-tail is ricfu, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is klama le zarci, a selbri with one following sumti.

Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:

Example 14.52.

mi

dunda

le

cukta

do

.ije

mi

lebna

lo

rupnu

do

I

give

the

book

to-you,

and

I

take

some

currency-units

from-you.

In Example 14.52, “ ”, the first and last sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are different. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to Example 14.50, “ ” can be achieved:

Example 14.53.

fi

do

fa

mi

dunda

le

cukta

gi'e

lebna

lo

rupnu

to/from

you

I

give

the

book

and

take

some

currency-units.

where the fi does not have an exact English translation because it merely places do in the third place of both lebna and dunda. However, a form that preserves natural sumti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of Example 14.52, “ ” therefore is:

Example 14.54.

mi

dunda

le

cukta

gi'e

lebna

lo

rupnu

vau

do

I

(give

the

book)

and

(take

some

currency-units)

to/from

you.

The vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable vau, but only in connection with compound bridi is it ever necessary to express this vau. Thus:

Example 14.55.

mi

klama

le

zarci

[vau]

I

go-to

the

market.

has a single elided vau, and Example 14.50, “ ” is equivalent to:

Example 14.56.

mi

klama

le

zarci

[vau]

gi'e

nelci

la

djan.

[vau]

[vau]

where the double vau at the end of Example 14.56, “ ” terminates both the right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.

A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete sentences, the Lojban observative:

Example 14.57.

klama

le

zarci

gi'e

dzukla

le

briju

A

goer

to-the

market

and

a

walker

to-the

office.

Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying Example 14.57, “ ”, this compound bridi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of an explicit x1 (other than zo'e, which is equivalent to omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.

A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of the following example:

Example 14.58.

klama

la

nu,IORK.

la

finyks.

gi'e

klama

la

nu,IORK.

la

rom.

A

goer

to-New

York

from-Phoenix

and

a

goer

to-New

York

from-Rome.

If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting da, meaning roughly “something”, into the x1 place cures the problem:

Example 14.59.

da

klama

la

nu,IORK.

la

finyks.

gi'e

klama

la

nu,IORK.

la

rom.

Something

is-a-goer

to-New

York

from-Phoenix

and

is-a-goer

to-New

York

from-Rome.

The syntax of giheks is:

[na] [se] GIhA [nai]

which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.

Multiple compound bridi

Giheks can be combined with bo in the same way as eks:

Example 14.60.

mi

nelci

la

djan.

gi'e

nelci

la

martas.

gi'abo

nelci

la

meris.

I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).

is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.39, “ ” and Example 14.40, “ ”. Likewise, ke…ke'e grouping can be used after giheks:

Example 14.61.

mi

dzukla

le

zarci

gi'e

dzukla

le

zdani

gi'a

ke

dzukla

le

ckule

gi'e

dzukla

le

briju

[ke'e]

I

walk-to

the

market

and

walk-to

the

house,

or

walk-to

the

school

and

walk-to

the

office.

is the gihek version of Example 14.47, “ ”. The same rule about using ke…ke'e bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in Example 14.61, “ ” cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.

Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:

Example 14.62.

mi

dejni

lo

rupnu

la

djan.

.inaja

mi

dunda

le

cukta

la

djan.

.ijabo

mi

lebna

le

cukta

la

djan.

[If]

I

owe

some

currency-units

to

John,

then

I

give

the

book

to

John

or

I

take

the

book

from

John.

is equivalent in meaning to:

Example 14.63.

mi

dejni

lo

rupnu

nagi'a

dunda

gi'abo

lebna

vau

le

cukta

vau

la

djan.

[If]

I

owe

some

currency-units

then

(give

or

take)

a

book

to/from

John.

The literal English translation in Example 14.63, “ ” is almost unintelligible, but the Lojban is perfectly grammatical. mi fills the x1 place of all three selbri; lo rupnu is the x2 of dejni, whereas le cukta is a tail-term shared between dunda and lebna; la djan. is a tail-term shared by dejni and by dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater clarity is probably achieved by moving la djan. to the beginning of the sentence, as in Example 14.53, “ ”:

Example 14.64.

fi

la

djan.

fa

mi

dejni

lo

rupnu

nagi'a

dunda

gi'abo

lebna

vau

le

cukta

To/from

John,

[if]

I

owe

some

currency-units

then

[I]

give

or

take

the

book.

Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. For example:

Example 14.65.

mi

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi

nelci

la

djan.

I both go to the market and like John.

is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.50, “ ”.

Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:

Example 14.66.

mi

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi'e

dzukla

le

zdani

gi

nelci

la

djan.

I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.

The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole by prefixing na:

Example 14.67.

mi

na

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi

dzukla

le

zdani

[False!]

I

both

go

to

the

market

and

walk

to

the

house.

Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of Example 14.54, “ ” is:

Example 14.68.

mi

ge

dunda

le

cukta

gi

lebna

lo

rupnu

vau

do

I

both

(

give

the

book

)

and

(

take

some

currency-units

)

to/from

you.

Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of Example 14.57, “ ”:

Example 14.69.

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi

dzukla

le

briju

Both

a

goer

to-the

market

and

a

walker

to-the

office.

Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both shared and unshared terms before their selbri:

Example 14.70.

mi

gonai

le

zarci

cu

klama

gi

le

bisli

cu

dansu

I

either-but-not-both

to-the

office

go

or

on-the

ice

dance.

I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).

Termset logical connection

So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:

Example 14.71.

I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.

The Lojban version of Example 14.71, “ ” requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A “term” is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag such as pu or bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of pe'e and a jek as a “pehejek”, I suppose.)

Example 14.72.

mi

klama

le

zarci

ce'e

le

briju

pe'e

je

le

zdani

ce'e

le

ckule

I

go

to-the

market

[plus]

from-the

office

[joint]

and

to-the

house

[plus]

from-the

school.

The literal translation uses “[plus]” to indicate the termset connective, and “[joint]” to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:

Example 14.73.

mi

klama

le

zarci

le

briju

.ije

mi

klama

le

zdani

le

ckule

I

go

to-the

market

from-the

office,

and

I

go

to-the

house

from-the

school.

which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 places only.

What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one bridi and the x3 place of another:

Example 14.74.

mi

pe'e

ja

do

ce'e

le

zarci

cu

klama

le

briju

I

[joint]

or

you

to-the

market

[plus]

go

to/from-the

office.

can be clearly understood by expansion to:

Example 14.75.

mi

klama

le

briju

.ija

do

le

zarci

cu

klama

le

briju

I

go

to-the

office,

or

you

to-the

market

go

from-the

office.

So le briju is your origin but my destination, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of klama simultaneously! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri, klama, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition, mi in Example 14.74, “ ” is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails:

Example 14.76.

mi

klama

le

zarci

gi'e

dzukla

vau

le

briju

I

(

go

to-the

market

and

walk

)

to/from-the

office.

means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the office; le briju is the x3 place of klama and the x2 place of dzukla.

Forethought termsets also exist, and use nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the nu'i, and an extra nu'u just before the gik:

Example 14.77.

mi

klama

nu'i

ge

le

zarci

le

briju

nu'u

gi

le

zdani

le

ckule

[nu'u]

I

go

[start

termset]

both

to-the

market

from-the

office

[joint]

and

to-the

house

from-the

school

[end

termset].

Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one nu'i is used.

The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical connectives are explained in the section called “Other modal connections”, the section called “Explicit magnitudes”, and the section called “Grouping of quantifiers”.

Logical connection within tanru

As noted at the beginning of the section called “Compound bridi”, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru blanu zdani, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of blanu bolci, Lojbanists can say blanu je bolci, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in the section called “Termset logical connection” also, but there they were always prefixed by pe'e; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:

Example 14.78.

ti

blanu

zdani

This

is-a-blue

type-of

house.

Example 14.79.

ti

blanu

je

zdani

This

is-blue

and

a-house.

But of course Example 14.78, “ ” and Example 14.79, “ ” are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that Example 14.78, “ ” might just as well mean

Example 14.80.

This is a house for blue inhabitants.

and Example 14.79, “ ” certainly is not equivalent in meaning to Example 14.80, “ ”.

A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in general. Why? Because although Example 14.79, “ ” happens to mean the same as

Example 14.81.

ti

blanu

gi'e

zdani

and therefore as

Example 14.82.

ti

blanu

.ije

ti

zdani

the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue houses, then

Example 14.83.

la

.alis.

cu

blanu

je

zdani

prenu

Alice

is-a

(

blue

and

house

)

type-of-person.

would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:

Example 14.84.

la

.alis.

cu

blanu

prenu

.ije

la

.alis.

cu

zdani

prenu

Alice

is-a

blue

person,

and

Alice

is-a

house

person.

is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say “Alice is a blue person”. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make such logical manipulations impossible.

It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection. bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:

Example 14.85.

la

teris.

cu

ricfu

je

nakni

jabo

fetsi

Terry is rich and ( male or female ).

The components of tanru may be grouped with ke both before and after a logical connective:

Example 14.86.

la

.teris.

cu

[ke]

ricfu

ja

pindi

[ke'e]

je

ke

nakni

ja

fetsi

[ke'e]

Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).

where the first ke…ke'e pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of ke'e may be elided.

The syntax of jeks is:

[na] [se] JA [nai]

parallel to eks and giheks.

Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:

[se] GUhA [nai]

Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:

Example 14.87.

la

.alis.

gu'e

ricfu

gi

fetsi

Alice is both rich and female.

Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:

Example 14.88.

la

.alis.

gu'e

blanu

gi

zdani

prenu

Alice

is-a-(both

blue

and

a-house)

type-of-person.

is the forethought version of Example 14.83, “ ”.

A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In correctly reducing

Example 14.89.

mi

viska

pa

nanmu

.ije

mi

viska

pa

ninmu

I see a man, and I see a woman.

to

Example 14.90.

mi

viska

pa

nanmu

.e

pa

ninmu

I see a man and a woman.

there is a great temptation to reduce further to:

Example 14.91.

mi

viska

pa

nanmu

je

ninmu

I see a man and woman.

But Example 14.91, “ ” means that you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A nanmu je ninmu is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a nanmu and a ninmu.

Truth questions and connective questions

So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.

The simplest kind of question is of the type “Is it true that ...” where some statement follows. This type is called a “truth question”, and can be represented in English by Example 14.92, “ ”:

Example 14.92.

Is it true that Fido is a dog?

Is Fido a dog?

Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be formed by prefixing “Is is true that” to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject. “Is Fido a dog?” is the truth question corresponding to “Fido is a dog”. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement:

Example 14.93.

xu

la

faidon.

gerku

Is-it-true-that

Fido

is-a-dog?

Example 14.92, “ ” and Example 14.93, “ ” are equivalent in meaning.

A truth question can be answered “yes” or “no”, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying “yes” in Lojban is go'i and of saying “no” is nago'i. (The reasons for this rule are explained in the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”.) In answer to Example 14.93, “ ”, the possible answers are:

Example 14.94.

go'i

Fido is a dog.

and

Example 14.95.

nago'i

Fido is not a dog.

Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider

Example 14.96.

Is Fido a dog or a cat?

Superficially, Example 14.96, “ ” seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:

Example 14.97.

Fido is a dog or a cat.

By translating Example 14.97, “ ” into Lojban and prefixing xu to signal a truth question, we get:

Example 14.98.

xu

la

faidon.

gerku

gi'onai

mlatu

Is-it-true-that

Fido

is-a-dog

or

is-a-cat

(but

not

both)?

Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate answer would be go'i; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would be nago'i.

But that is not what an English-speaker who utters Example 14.96, “ ” is asking! The true significance of Example 14.96, “ ” is that the speaker desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presupposed that only one is true).

Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table:

ge'i

GA

forethought connective question

gi'i

GIhA

bridi-tail connective question

gu'i

GUhA

tanru forethought connective question

je'i

JA

tanru connective question

ji

A

sumti connective question

(This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of the cmavo ending in “-i” which is not used for a truth function, but gi and i were not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)

One correct translation of Example 14.96, “ ” employs a question gihek:

Example 14.99.

la

.alis

gerku

gi'i

mlatu

Alice

is-a-dog

[truth

function?]

is-a-cat?

Here are some plausible answers:

Example 14.100.

nagi'e

Alice is not a dog and is a cat.

Example 14.101.

gi'enai

Alice is a dog and is not a cat.

Example 14.102.

nagi'enai

Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.

Example 14.103.

nagi'o

gi'onai

Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).

Example 14.103, “ ” is correct but uncooperative.

As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.

The answer gi'e, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:

Example 14.104.

do

djica

tu'a

loi

ckafi

ji

loi

tcati

You

desire

something-about

a-mass-of

coffee

[truth

function?]

a-mass-of

tea?

Do you want coffee or tea?

the answer e, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.

The forethought questions ge'i and gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although Example 14.105, “ ” is the forethought version of Example 14.104, “ ”:

Example 14.105.

do

djica

tu'a

ge'i

loi

ckafi

gi

loi

tcati

You

desire

something-about

[truth

function?]

a-mass-of

coffee

[or]

a-mass-of

tea?

the answer must be in afterthought form.

There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence

Example 14.106.

ni^3 zou^3 hai^2shi pao^3

means “Do you walk or run?”, and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:

Example 14.107.

do

cadzu

gi'i

bajra

You

walk

[or?]

run?

However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.

Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the convention that a truth question is true if the answer is “yes” and false if the answer is no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti ko, which means “you” but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:

Example 14.108.

ganai

ti

ckafi

gi

ko

bevri

loi

tcati

mi

.ije

ganai

ti

tcati

gi

ko

bevri

loi

ckafi

mi

If

this

is-coffee

then

[you!]

bring

a-mass-of

tea

to-me,

and

if

this

is-tea

then

[you!]

bring

a-mass-of

coffee

to-me.

If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.

In logical terms, however, “but” is the same as “and”; the difference is that the sentence after a “but” is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in the section called “Discursives”, to the logical .ije.)

Non-logical connectives

Way back in the section called “Logical connection and truth tables”, the point was made that not every use of English “and”, “if ... then”, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the “and” of:

Example 14.109.

John and Alice carried the piano.

Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:

Example 14.110.

John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.

which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a “mass”. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:

Example 14.111.

la

djan.

joi

la

.alis.

cu

bevri

le

pipno

John

massed-with

Alice

carry

the

piano.

Example 14.111, “ ” covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in the section called “Individuals and masses”.

Grammatically, joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:

Example 14.112.

le

nanmu

ku

joi

le

ninmu

[ku]

cu

klama

le

zarci

The

man

massed-with

the

woman

go-to

the

market.

The cmavo ku is the elidable terminator for le, which can almost always be elided, but not in this case. If the first ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru component is to follow; since the second le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously.

Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.

In tanru, joi has the connotation “mixed with”, as in the following example:

Example 14.113.

ti

blanu

joi

xunre

bolci

This

is-a-(blue

mixed-with

red)

ball.

This is a blue and red ball.

Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue something has to be to count as “wholly blue” is an unsettled question, though. A blanu zdani may be so even though not every part of it is blue.)

There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those definitions are shown in the following table:

A   joi B

the mass with components A and B

A   ce B

the set with elements A and B

A   ce'o B

the sequence with elements A and B in order

A se  ce'o B

the sequence with elements B and A in order

A   jo'u B

A and B considered jointly

A   fa'u B

A and B respectively

A se  fa'u B

B and A respectively

A   jo'e B

the union of sets A and B

A   ku'a B

the intersection of sets A and B

A   pi'u B

the cross product of sets A and B

A se  pi'u B

the cross product of sets B and A

The cmavo se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:

Example 14.114.

mi

cuxna

la

.alis.

la

frank.

ce

la

.alis.

ce

la

djeimyz.

I

choose

Alice

from

Frank

and-member

Alice

and-member

James.

I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.

The x3 place of cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!

In Example 14.114, “ ” we specify that set by listing the members with ce joining them.

Example 14.115.

ti

liste

mi

ce'o

do

ce'o

la

djan.

This

is-a-list-of

me

and-sequence

you

and-sequence

John.

This is a list of you, me, and John.

The x2 place of liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that lo liste means a physical object such as a grocery list: a purely abstract list is lo porsi, a sequence.) Here the three sumti connected by ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together in a set or a mass.

So joi, ce, and ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a sequence respectively. The cmavo jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals – but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brothers is:

Example 14.116.

la

djeimyz.

bruna

la

djordj.

James

is-the-brother-of

George.

possibly adding a discursive element meaning “and vice versa”. However, “James and George are brothers” cannot be correctly translated as:

Example 14.117.

la

djeimyz.

.e

la

djordj.

bruna

James

and

George

is-a-brother.

since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the e is changed to jo'u, however, the meaning of Example 14.116, “ ” is preserved:

Example 14.118.

la

djeimyz.

jo'u

la

djordj.

cu

remei

bruna

James

in-common-with

George

are-a-twosome

type-of-brothers.

The tanru remei bruna is not strictly necessary in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of remei is a mass with two components, leading to:

Example 14.119.

la

djeimyz.

joi

la

djordj.

cu

bruna

remei

James

massed-with

George

are-a-brother

type-of-twosome.

where joi is used to create the necessary mass.

Likewise, fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where order matters. Typically, there will be another fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi:

Example 14.120.

la

djeimyz.

fa'u

la

djordj.

prami

la

meris.

fa'u

la

martas.

James

jointly-in-order-with

George

loves

Mary

jointly-in-order-with

Martha.

James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.

Here the information carried by the English adverb “respectively”, namely that James loves Mary and George loves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of fa'u. If both uses of fa'u were to be changed to e, we would get:

Example 14.121.

la

djeimyz.

.e

la

djordj.

prami

la

meris.

.e

la

martas.

James and George love Mary and Martha.

which can be transformed to four bridi:

Example 14.122.

la

djeimyz.

prami

la

meris.

.ije

la

djordj.

prami

la

meris.

.ije

la

djeimyz.

prami

la

martas.

.ije

la

djordj.

prami

la

martas.

James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.

which represents quite a different state of affairs from Example 14.120, “ ”. The meaning of Example 14.120, “ ” can also be conveyed by a termset:

Example 14.123.

la

djeimyz.

ce'e

la

meris.

pe'e

.e

la

djordj.

ce'e

la

martas.

prami

James

[plus]

Mary

[joint]

and

George

[plus]

Martha

loves.

at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only described rather than enumerated:

Example 14.124.

la

djeimyz.

fa'u

la

djordj.

prami

re

mensi

James

and-respectively

George

love

two

sisters.

which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.

More about non-logical connectives

The final three JOI cmavo, jo'e, ku'a, and pi'u, are probably only useful when talking explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called “union”, “intersection”, and “cross product” (also known as “Cartesian product”). The union of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross product of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single element from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following examples will help:

Example 14.125.

lo'i

ricfu

ku

jo'e

lo'i

dotco

cu

barda

The-set-of

rich-things

union

the-set-of

German-things

is

large.

Example 14.126.

lo'i

ricfu

ku

ku'a

lo'i

dotco

cu

cmalu

The

set-of

rich-things

intersection

the-set-of

German-things

is

small.

There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes Example 14.125, “ ” and Example 14.126, “ ” equivalent respectively to:

Example 14.127.

lo'i

ricfu

ja

dotco

cu

barda

The-set-of

rich-or-German-things

is

large.

and

Example 14.128.

lo'i

ricfu

je

dotco

cu

cmalu

The-set-of

rich-and-German-things

is

small.

The following example uses se remei, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:

Example 14.129.

la

djeimyz.

ce[bo]

la

djordj.

pi'u

la

meris.

cebo

la

martas.

cu

prami

se

remei

James

and-set

George

cross-product

Mary

and-set

Martha

are-lover

type-of-pairs.

means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to Example 14.121, “ ”; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.

Joiks may be combined with bo or with ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:

Example 14.130.

mi

joibo

do

ce

la

djan.

joibo

la

djein.

cu

gunma

se

remei

(I

massed-with

you)

and

(John

massed-with

Jane)

are-a-mass

type-of-two-set

asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.

Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of casnu is:

casnu the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2

so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:

Example 14.131.

mi

ce'e

bau

la

lojban.

pe'e

joi

do

ce'e

bau

la

gliban.

nu'u

casnu

(

I

[plus]

in-language

Lojban

massed-with

you

[plus]

in-language

English

)

discuss.

Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in Example 14.131, “ ” cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of Example 14.131, “ ” is:

Example 14.132.

nu'i

joigi

mi

bau

la

lojban

gi

do

bau

la

gliban.

nu'u

casnu

Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:

Example 14.133.

la

djan.

fa'u

la

frank.

cusku

nu'i

bau

la

lojban.

nu'u

fa'u

bai

tu'a

la

djordj.

[nu'u]

John

respectively-with

Frank

express

[start

termset]

in-language

Lojban

[joint]

respectively-with

under-compulsion-by

George.

John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.

Example 14.133, “ ” associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.

Joiks may be prefixed with i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik .ice'o indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):

Example 14.134.

mi

ba

gasnu

la'edi'e

.i

tu'e

kanji

lo

ni

cteki

.ice'o

lumci

le

karce

.ice'o

dzukansa

le

gerku

tu'u

I

[future]

do

the-referent-of-the-following:

(

Compute

the

quantity

of

taxes.

And-then

wash

the

car.

And-then

walkingly-accompany

the

dog.

)

List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.

Example 14.134, “ ” represents a list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of tu'e and tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in the section called “Grouping of afterthought connectives”, because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word di'e, which means “the following utterance”, refers to.

Similarly, .ijoi is used to connect sentences that represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of “Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned” would join the events “Fran hit her head” and “Fran fell out of the boat” with .ijoi.

The following nai, if present, does not negate either of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:

Example 14.135.

mi

jo'unai

do

cu

remei

I

in-common-with

[not!]

you

are-a-twosome

The result of mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not a mass, therefore jo'u is not applicable; joi would be the correct connective.

There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:

Example 14.136.

do

djica

tu'a

loi

ckafi

ji

loi

tcati

You

desire

something-about

a-mass-of

coffee

[what

connective?]

a-mass-of

tea?

Do you want coffee or tea?

Example 14.137.

joi

Mixed-mass-and.

Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).

Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)

Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in the section called “Non-logical connectives” and the section called “More about non-logical connectives”, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks: bi'i, bi'o, and mi'i, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo bi'i is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas bi'o or sebi'o are used when order matters.

An example of bi'i in sumti connection:

Example 14.138.

mi

ca

sanli

la

drezdn.

bi'i

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand-on-surface

Dresden

[interval]

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.

In Example 14.138, “ ”, it is all the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresden, so bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt. falls into the x2 place of sanli, which is the surface I stand on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.)

Example 14.139.

mi

cadzu

ca

la

pacac.

bi'o

la

recac.

I

walk

simultaneous-with

First-hour

[ordered-interval]

Second-hour.

I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.

In Example 14.139, “ ”, on the other hand, it is essential that la pacac. comes before la recac.; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.

Example 14.139, “ ” is equivalent to:

Example 14.140.

mi

cadzu

ca

la

recac.

sebi'o

la

pacac.

I

walk

simultaneous-with

Second-hour

[reverse]

[ordered]

First-hour.

English cannot readily express sebi'o, but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.

The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely mi'i, expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:

Example 14.141.

le

jbama

pu

daspo

la

.uacintyn.

mi'i

lo

minli

be

li

muno

The

bomb

[past]

destroys

Washington

[center]

what-is

measured-in-miles

by

50.

The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.

Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose distance, or radius, is fifty miles.

In Example 14.138, “ ”, is it possible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo ga'o and ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of the endpoints: ga'o means that the endpoint is included, ke'i that it is excluded:

Example 14.142.

mi

ca

sanli

la

drezdn.

ga'o

bi'i

ga'o

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand

Dresden

[inclusive]

[interval]

[inclusive]

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.

Example 14.143.

mi

ca

sanli

la

drezdn.

ga'o

bi'i

ke'i

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand

Dresden

[inclusive]

[interval]

[exclusive]

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive).

Example 14.144.

mi

ca

sanli

la

drezdn.

ke'i

bi'i

ga'o

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand

Dresden

[exclusive]

[interval]

[inclusive]

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).

Example 14.145.

mi

ca

sanli

la

drezdn.

ke'i

bi'i

ke'i

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand

Dresden

[exclusive]

[interval]

[exclusive]

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.

As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO.

(Etymologically, ga'o is derived from ganlo, which means “closed”, and ke'i from kalri, which means “open”. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.)

BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses.

Negated intervals, marked with a -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):

Example 14.146.

do

dicra

.e'a

mi

ca

la

daucac.

bi'onai

la

gaicac.

You

disturb

(allowed)

me

at

10

not-from

...

to

12

You can contact me except from 10 to 12.

The complete syntax of joiks is:

- [se] JOI [nai]

- [se] BIhI [nai]

- GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO

Notice that the colloquial English translations of bi'i and bi'o have forethought form: “between ... and” for bi'i, and “from ... to” for bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixing gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a “joigik”; the syntax of joigiks is any of:

- [se] JOI [nai] GI

- [se] BIhI [nai] GI

- GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI

Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.

Example 14.111, “ ” in forethought becomes:

Example 14.147.

joigi

la

djan.

gi

la

.alis.

bevri

le

pipno

[Together]

John

and

Alice

carry

the

piano.

The first gi is part of the joigik; the second gi is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.

Example 14.143, “ ” can be expressed in forethought as:

Example 14.148.

mi

ca

sanli

ke'i

bi'i

ga'o

gi

la

drezdn.

gi

la

frankfurt.

I

[present]

stand

[exclusive]

between

[inclusive]

Dresden

and

Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).

In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as “2 + 2”. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban. The basic components of mekso are operands, like “2”, and operators, like “+”. Both of these may be either logically or non-logically connected.

Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components. (However, jeks and joiks with bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.

In addition, eks with bo and with ke…ke'e are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and ke…ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators.

Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connective scheme of things. These examples are drawn from the section called “Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso”, and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.

Example 14.149, “ ” exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:

Example 14.149.

vei

ci

.a

vo

[ve'o]

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

(

Three

or

four

)

people

go-to

the

market.

Example 14.150, “ ” is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:

Example 14.150.

vei

ga

ci

gi

vo

[ve'o]

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

(

Either

3

or

4

)

people

go-to

the

market.

Note that the mekso in Example 14.149, “ ” and Example 14.150, “ ” are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in vei and ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark, ve'o, is an elidable terminator.

Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:

Example 14.151.

li

re

su'i

je

pi'i

re

du

li

vo

The-number

2

plus

and

times

2

equals

the-number

4.

2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.

The forethought form of Example 14.151, “ ” is:

Example 14.152.

li

re

ge

su'i

gi

pi'i

re

du

li

vo

The-number

two

both

plus

and

times

two

equals

the-number

four.

Both   2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.

Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with bi'i to create mathematical intervals:

Example 14.153.

li

no

ga'o

bi'i

ke'i

pa

the-number

zero

(inclusive)

from-to

(exclusive)

one

[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one

You can also combine two operands with ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:

Example 14.154.

xy.

boi

xi

vei

by.

ce'o

dy.

[ve'o]

“  x”

sub

(

“  b”

sequence

“  d”

)

xb,d

Note that the boi in Example 14.154, “ ” is not elidable, because the xi subscript needs something to attach to.

Tenses, modals, and logical connection

The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo pu, ca, and ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a le nu abstraction; see the section called “Event abstraction”).

The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:

Example 14.155.

la

.artr.

pu

nolraitru

.ije

la

.artr.

ba

nolraitru

Arthur

[past]

is-a-noblest-governor.

And

Arthur

[future]

is-a-noblest-governor.

Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.

can be reduced to:

Example 14.156.

la

.artr.

pu

je

ba

nolraitru

Arthur

[past]

and

[future]

is-a-noblest-governor.

Arthur was and will be king.

Example 14.155, “ ” and Example 14.156, “ ” are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.

Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:

Example 14.157.

mi

pu

bi'o

ba

vasxu

I

[past]

from

...

to

[future]

breathe.

I breathe from a past time until a future time.

The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as “from a medium time ago until a long time from now”.

No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.

Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.158.

I went to the market, and I bought food.

The verbatim translation of Example 14.158, “ ”, namely:

Example 14.159.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

.ije

mi

pu

tervecnu

lo

cidja

I

[past]

go-to

the

market.

And

I

[past]

buy

items-of

food.

fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is discussed in Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals.) However, the tense information – that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying food – can be added to the logical connective as follows. The .ije is replaced by .ijebo, and the tense cmavo ba is inserted between .ije and bo:

Example 14.160.

mi

pu

klama

le

zarci

.ijebabo

mi

pu

tervecnu

lo

cidja

I

[past]

go-to

the

market.

And

[later]

I

[past]

buy

items-of

food.

Here the pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The ba relates the two items to one another: the second item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the bo; if it were omitted, the ba and the second pu would run together to form a compound tense bapu applying to the second bridi-tail only.

Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitted only in the following situations:

Between an ek (or joik) and bo, as in:

Example 14.161.

la

.djan

.ecabo

la

.alis.

klama

le

zarci

John

and

[simultaneous]

Alice

go-to

the

market.

John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.

Between an ek (or joik) and ke, as in:

Example 14.162.

mi

dzukla

le

zarci

.epuke

le

zdani

.a

le

ckule

[ke'e]

I

walk-to

the

market

and

[earlier]

(

the

house

or

the

school

).

I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.

Between a gihek and bo, as in:

Example 14.163.

mi

dunda

le

cukta

gi'ebabo

lebna

lo

rupnu

vau

do

I

give

the

book

and

[later]

take

some

currency-units

from/to

you.

I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from you.

Between a gihek and ke, as in:

Example 14.164.

mi

dzukla

le

zarci

gi'ecake

cusku

zo'e

la

djan.

[ke'e]

I

walk-to

the

market

and

[simultaneous]

express

something

to-John.

I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.

Between an ijek (or ijoik) and bo, as in:

Example 14.165.

mi

viska

pa

nanmu

.ijebabo

mi

viska

pa

ninmu

I

see

a

man.

And

[later]

I

see

a

woman.

I see a man, and then I see a woman.

Between an ijek (or ijoik) and tu'e, as in:

Example 14.166.

mi

viska

pa

nanmu

.ijebatu'e

mi

viska

pa

ninmu

[tu'u]

I

see

a

man.

And

[later]

I

see

a

woman.

I see a man, and then I see a woman.

And finally, between a jek (or joik) and bo, as in:

Example 14.167.

mi

mikce

jebabo

ricfu

I-am-a

doctor

and

[later]

rich

I am a doctor and future rich person.

As can be seen from Example 14.165, “ ” and Example 14.166, “ ”, the choice between bo and ke (or tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following bo, ke, or tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cmavo in Example 14.161, “ ” and Example 14.163, “ ” through Example 14.167, “ ”.

Non-logical connectives with bo and ke can include tense information in exactly the same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in their logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanru components respectively:

Example 14.168.

vei

ci

.ebabo

vo

[ve'o]

tadni

cu

zvati

le

kumfa

(

3

and

[future]

4

)

students

are-at

the

room.

Three and, later, four students were in the room.

is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense. For example:

Example 14.169.

mi

pu

ge

klama

le

zarci

gi

tervecnu

lo

cidja

I

[past]

both

go-to

the

market

and

buy

some

food

I went to the market and bought some food.

Example 14.169, “ ” is similar to Example 14.159, “ ”. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.

Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective. Example 14.170, “ ” and Example 14.171, “ ” are equivalent in meaning:

Example 14.170.

le

ka

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

.ije

le

ni

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

The

quality-of

Frank's

writing

is

bad,

and

the

quantity

of

Frank's

writing

is

bad.

Example 14.171.

le

ka

je

ni

la

frank.

ciska

cu

xlali

The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.

As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.

Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:

Example 14.172.

mi

jinvi

le

du'u

loi

jmive

cu

zvati

gi'onai

na

zvati

vau

la

.iupiter.

I

opine

the

fact-that

a-mass-of

living-things

(is-at

or-else

isn't-at)

Jupiter.

I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.

is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:

Example 14.173.

mi

jinvi

le

du'u

loi

jmive

cu

zvati

la

.iupiter.

.ijonai

mi

jinvi

le

du'u

loi

jmive

cu

zvati

la

.iupiter.

I

opine

the

fact-that

a-mass-of

living-things

is-at

Jupiter

or-else

I

opine

the

fact-that

a-mass-of

living-things

isn't-at

Jupiter

is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other ( jinvi requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike krici).

Constructs and appropriate connectives

The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.

A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not possible.

construct

afterthought logical

forethought logical

afterthought non-logical

forethought non-logical

bridi

ijek*

gek

ijoik*

joigik

sumti

ek*

gek

joik*

joigik

bridi-tails

gihek*

gek

-

joigik

termsets

ek*

gek

joik*

joigik

tanru parts

jek

guhek

joik*

-

operands

ek*

gek

joik*

joigik

operators

jek

guhek

joik

-

tenses/modals

jek

-

joik

-

abstractors

jek

-

joik

-

Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example, se.a means the same as a, and could be used instead.)

truth

ek

jek

gihek

gek-gik

guhek-gik

TTTF

a

ja

gi'a

ga-  gi

gu'a-  gi

TTFT

.a  nai

ja  nai

gi'a  nai

ga-gi  nai

gu'a-gi  nai

TTFF

u

ju

gi'u

gu-  gi

gu'u-  gi

TFTT

na  .a

na  ja

na  gi'a

ganai-  gi

gu'anai-  gi

TFTF

se.u

seju

segi'u

segu-  gi

segu'u-  gi

TFFT

o

jo

gi'o

go-  gi

gu'o-  gi

TFFF

e

je

gi'e

ge-  gi

gu'e-  gi

FTTT

na.a  nai

naja  nai

nagi'a  nai

ganai-gi  nai

gu'anai-gi  nai

FTTF

.o  nai

jo  nai

gi'o  nai

go-gi  nai

gu'o-gi  nai

FTFT

se.u  nai

seju  nai

segi'u  nai

segu-gi  nai

segu'u-gi  nai

FTFF

.e  nai

je  nai

gi'e  nai

ge-gi  nai

gu'e-gi  nai

FFTT

na  .u

na  ju

na  gi'u

gunai-  gi

gu'unai-  gi

FFTF

na  .e

na  je

na  gi'e

genai-  gi

gu'enai-  gi

FFFT

na.e  nai

naje  nai

nagi'e  nai

genai-gi  nai

gu'enai-gi  nai

Note: ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed i.

Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

The full set of rules for inserting na, se, and nai into any connective is:

Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):

- Negate first construct: Place na before the connective cmavo (but after the i of an ijek).

- Negate second construct: Place nai after the connective cmavo.

- Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo (after na if any).

Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks):

- Negate first construct: Place nai after the connective cmavo.

- Negate second construct: Place nai after the gi.

- Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo.

Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks):

- Negate connection: Place nai after the connective cmavo (but before the gi of a joigik).

- Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo.

Locations of other tables

the section called “Logical connection and truth tables”: a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.

the section called “The Four basic vowels”: a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.

the section called “Truth questions and connective questions”: a table of the connective question cmavo.

the section called “Non-logical connectives”: a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.

Chapter 15.  “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation

Introductory

The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word “not”. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of “not” with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.

Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.

In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called “subject” and “predicate”. In the statement

Example 15.1.

John goes to the store

“John” is the subject, and “goes to the store” is the predicate. Negating Example 15.1, “ ” to produce

Example 15.2.

John doesn't go to the store.

has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for the subject. Example 15.2, “ ” says nothing about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the store.

We will call this kind of negation “natural language negation”. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follow the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is termed contradictory negation.

Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can violate the rules of contradictory negation.

Example 15.3.

Some animals are not white.

Example 15.4.

Some animals are white.

Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negation of the other. Another example:

Example 15.5.

I mustn't go to the dance.

Example 15.6.

I must go to the dance.

At first thought, Example 15.5, “ ” negates Example 15.6, “ ”. Thinking further, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statements are false.

Sometimes order is significant:

Example 15.7.

The falling rock didn't kill Sam.

Example 15.8.

Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.

Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because Example 15.7, “ ” is written in what is called the “active voice”, we immediately get confused about whether “the falling rock” is a suitable subject for the predicate “did kill Sam”. “Kill” implies volition to us, and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the argument “Guns don't kill people; people kill people.”

Somehow, we don't have the same problem with Example 15.8, “ ”. The subject is Sam, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn't killed by the falling rock.

Example 15.8, “ ” also helps us focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot.

This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the sentence turns out not to exist:

Example 15.9.

The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.

Example 15.10.

The King of Mexico did come to dinner.

In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.

The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.

bridi negation

In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement “bridi negation”. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of “I haven't stopped beating my wife” without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply “It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.” Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.

For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to

Example 15.11.

Did you go to the store?

is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to

Example 15.12.

No, I didn't go to the store.

The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.

The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the cu, if there is one):

Example 15.13.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I

go-to

the

store.

when negated becomes:

Example 15.14.

mi

na

klama

le

zarci

I

[false]

go-to

the

store.

Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word “not”, because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with na and natural language negation with “not”. In English, the word “not” can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition, “not” may indicate either contradictory negation or another form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bridi.

Because of the ambiguity of English “not”, we will use “[false]” in the translation of Lojban examples to remind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more examples of bridi negation:

Example 15.15.

mi

[cu]

na

ca

klama

le

zarci

I

[false]

now

am-a-go-er

to

the

market.

I am not going to the market now.

Example 15.16.

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

na

krecau

The-actual

present

noblest-governor

of

the

French

country

[false]

is-hair-without.

The current king of France isn't bald.

Example 15.17.

ti

na

barda

prenu

co

melbi

mi

This

[false]

is

a

big-person

of-type

(beautiful

to

me).

This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.

Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's internal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, especially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo da, de, and di of selma'o KOhA, explained in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic) in the bridi, you can indeed translate Lojban na as “not” (or “isn't” or “doesn't”, as appropriate).

The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.

In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of na. For example:

Example 15.18.

mi

na

gleki

le

nu

na

klama

le

nu

dansu

I

[false]

am-happy-about

the

event-of

([false]

going-to

the

event-of

dancing).

It

is

not

the

case

that

I

am

happy

about

it

not

being

the

case

that

I

am

going

to

the

dance.

I am not happy about not going to the dance.

In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:

Example 15.19.

mi

nelci

le

na

melbi

I

am

fond

of

the-one-described-as

([false]

beautiful).

I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.

A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is:

Example 15.20.

mi

nelci

lo

na

ca

nolraitru

be

le

frasygu'e

I

am-fond-of

one-who-is

([false]

the

current

king

of

the

French-country).

I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.

The claim of Example 15.20, “ ” could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations in colloquial English.

Negation with na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.

The grammar of na allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out, as in normal logic:

Example 15.21.

ti

na

na

barda

prenu

co

melbi

mi

This

[false]

[false]

is-a-big

person

that

is

(beautiful

to

me).

which is the same as:

Example 15.22.

ti

barda

prenu

co

melbi

mi

This

is

a

big-person

that

is

(beautiful

to

me).

When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with na is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:

Example 15.23.

mi

[cu]

ta'e

klama

le

zarci

I habitually go to the market.

mean the same thing with na before the ta'e, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.

A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.

Thus, if you translate the English:

Example 15.24.

I do not go to the market because the car is broken.

as:

Example 15.25.

mi

na

klama

le

zarci

ki'u

lenu

le

karce

cu

spofu

I

[false]

go-to

the

market

because

the

car

is

broken.

It is false that:   “I go to the market because the car is broken.”

you end up negating too much.

Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of Example 15.24, “ ” is:

Example 15.26.

lenu

mi

na

klama

le

zarci

cu

se

krinu

lenu

le

karce

cu

spofu

The

event-of

(my

[false]

going-to

the

market)

is

justified

by

the

event-of

(the

car

being

broken).

My not going to the market is because the car is broken.

In Example 15.26, “ ”, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).

The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:

Example 15.27.

I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.

we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:

Example 15.28.

The

event-of

(my

[false]

being-conscripted-into

the

Army)

was

aided

by

my

uncle

the

Senator.

It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi -nar- has been reserved for na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in the section called “Scalar Negation”, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.

Scalar Negation

Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:

Example 15.29.

The chair is not brown.

we make a positive inference – that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:

Example 15.30.

It is green.

Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some responses. If we hear the following exchange:

Example 15.31.

The chair is not brown.

Correct. The chair is wooden.

we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't brown. If we hear the exchange:

Example 15.32.

Is the chair green?

No, it is in the kitchen.

we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!

What is going on in these statements is something called “scalar negation”. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):

Example 15.33.

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a green house.

We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct value which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:

Example 15.34.

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a blue car.

Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.

Now, if the following exchange occurs:

Example 15.35.

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a green car.

we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of context, “blue house” and “green car” seem to be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a clear way in English to say:

Example 15.36.

That isn't a “blue-house”.

aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting the pair of words as a single unit.

Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the sentence:

Example 15.37.

John didn't go to Paris from Rome.

Might Example 15.37, “ ” imply that John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.

In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the partial word “non-” as a prefix. But this is not always considered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For example, we can clearly distinguish

Example 15.38.

That is a non-blue house.

from the related sentence

Example 15.39.

That is a blue non-house.

Example 15.38, “ ” and Example 15.39, “ ” have the advantage that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.

We can't always use “non-” though, because of the peculiarities of English's grammar. It would sound strange to say:

Example 15.40.

John went to non-Paris from Rome.

or

Example 15.41.

John went to Paris from non-Rome.

although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumlocution for English scalar negation is “other than”, which works where “non-” does not, but is wordier.

Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar negations, or opposites:

Example 15.42.

John is moral

Example 15.43.

John is immoral

To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies the opposite condition. Statements like Example 15.43, “ ” are strong negations which not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since, “opposite” implies a scale, polar negations are a special variety of scalar negations.

To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale, showing two examples of how the scale is used:

Affirmations (positive)      Negations (negative)

|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|

All       Most        Some         Few       None

Excellent Good        Fair         Poor     Awful

Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thus we have “not necessary” or “unnecessary” being the polar opposite of necessary. Another scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations modified by one's philosophy: “not true” may be equated with “false” in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tri-valued logic an intermediate between “true” and “false” is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scale exists from true to false. The meaning of “not true” requires a knowledge of which variety of truth scale is being considered.

We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indicating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This is the intent expressed in most contexts by “not mild”, for example.

Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive than scalar negation – it says that the point or value stated is incorrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value, whether or not on the scale.

In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such as “other than”, “reverse of”, or “opposite from” expressions and their equivalents. More commonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes “non-”, “un-”, “il-”, and “im-”. Just which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.

In the examples of the section called “selbri and tanru negation”, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula “other than” when a phrase is scalar-negated, and “non-” when a single word is scalar-negated.

selbri and tanru negation

All the scalar negations illustrated in the section called “Scalar Negation” are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo na'e (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of na'e is as a prefix to the selbri:

Example 15.44.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I go to the market.

Example 15.45.

mi

na'e

klama

le

zarci

I

non-go

to

the

market.

Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used in Example 15.45, “ ” is na'e. But what exactly does na'e negate? Does the negation include only the gismu klama, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does it include the le zarci as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously “only the gismu”. The cmavo na'e always applies only to what follows it.

Example 15.45, “ ” looks as if it were parallel to:

Example 15.46.

mi

na

klama

le

zarci

I

[false]

go-to

the

market.

but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using na denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negation with na'e asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of na'e is determined.

In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-selbri-scope negation, for which we can use na'e as well. The positive sentence

Example 15.47.

mi

cadzu

klama

le

zarci

I

walking-ly

go

to

the

market.

can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:

Example 15.48.

mi

na'e

cadzu

klama

le

zarci

I

(other-than-walkingly)-go-to

the

market.

Example 15.49.

mi

cadzu

na'e

klama

le

zarci

I

walkingly-(other-than-go-to)

the

market.

These negations show the default scope of na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru. Example 15.48, “ ” says that I am going to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one – see Chapter 5, “Pretty Little Girls' School”: The Structure Of Lojban selbri for a discussion of tanru meaning).

In neither Example 15.48, “ ” nor Example 15.49, “ ” does the na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in Example 15.48, “ ”, which says that I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In Example 15.49, “ ”, we have claimed that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of “going to” (perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place while at the market).

The “scale”, or actually the “set”, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way that answers to a mo question must be plausible – the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.

We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the na'e):

Example 15.50.

mi

na'eke

cadzu

klama

[ke'e]

le

zarci

mi

na'e

(ke

cadzu

klama

[ke'e])

le

zarci

I

other-than-(walkingly-go-to)

the

market.

This negation uses the same ke and ke'e delimiters (the ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The ke'e, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by na'e.

Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:

Example 15.51.

mi

na'eke

sutra

cadzu

ke'e

klama

le

zarci

mi

na'e

(ke

sutra

cadzu

ke'e)

klama

le

zarci

I

other-than-(quickly-walkingly)

go-to

the

market.

In Example 15.51, “ ”, only the sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.

Negations made with na'e or na'eke also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with be or bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:

Example 15.52.

mi

na'e

ke

sutra

cadzu

be

le

mi

birka

ke'e

klama

le

zarci

I

other-than-(quickly

walking-on-my-arms-ly)

go-to

the

market.

Note that Example 15.53, “ ” and Example 15.54, “ ” do not express the same thing:

Example 15.53.

mi

na'eke

sutra

cadzu

[ke'e]

lemi

birka

mi

na'e

(ke

sutra

cadzu

[ke'e])

lemi

birka

I

other-than-(quickly-walk-on)

my-arms.

Example 15.54.

mi

na'eke

sutra

cadzu

be

lemi

birka

[ke'e]

mi

na'e

(ke

sutra

cadzu

be

lemi

birka

[ke'e])

I

other-than-(quickly-walk-on

my-arms).

The translations show that the negation in Example 15.53, “ ” is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 ( mi).

Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of na'e as an operator. Grouping with ke and ke'e, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage. na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with bo, is not as tightly bound as na'e. co, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.

In short, na'e and na'eke define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of na'e negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.

The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi -nal-, representing na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of non-. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:

Example 15.55.

na'e

klama

becomes

nalkla

na'e

cadzu

klama

becomes

naldzukla

na'e

sutra

cadzu

klama

becomes

nalsu'adzukla

nake

sutra

cadzu

ke'e

klama

becomes

nalsu'adzuke'ekla

Note: -kem- is the rafsi for ke, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous – ke'e is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a ke after the -nal-, since it needs to close something; only a ke immediately after the negation would make the ke'e meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.

In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate -nal- as “non-”, to match the English combining forms, except when the na'e has single word scope and English uses “un-” or “im-” to negate that single word. Translation style should determine the use of “other than”, “non-”, or another negator for na'e in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:

Example 15.56.

mi

na'e

klama

le

zarci

I

am

other-than-(going-to)

the

market.

I

am

not

going-to

the

market.

Example 15.57.

mi

nalkla

le

zarci

I

am-a-non-go-er-to

the

market.

Note that to compare with the English translation form using “non-”, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were a noun. Since Lojban klama is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.

Consider the following highly problematic sentence:

Example 15.58.

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

krecau

An-actual

currently

noblest-governor

of

the

French

country

is-hair-without.

The current King of France is bald.

The selbri krecau negates with na'e as:

Example 15.59.

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

na'e

krecau

An-actual

currently

noblest-governor

of

the

French

country

is-other-than

hair-without.

The current King of France is other-than-bald.

or, as a lujvo:

Example 15.60.

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

nalkrecau

An-actual

currently

noblest-governor

of

the

French

country

is-non-hair-without.

The current King of France is a non-bald-one.

Example 15.59, “ ” and Example 15.60, “ ” express the predicate negation forms using a negation word ( na'e) or rafsi ( -nal-); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of na'e to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.

Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably “false”, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:

Example 15.61.

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

na

krecau

An-actual

current

noblest-governor

of

the

French

Country

[false]

is-hair-without.

It is false that the current King of France is bald.

Note: lo is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using le instead of lo can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of le in the section called “The three basic description types”.)

Expressing scales in selbri negation

In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in the section called “selbri and tanru negation”, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:

Example 15.62.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

The

chair

is

a

non-(red-thing).

the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and not

Example 15.63.

le

stizu

cu

dzukla

be

le

zarci

The

chair

walkingly-goes-to-the-market.

However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or contrary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that we are referring to a color by saying:

Example 15.64.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

skari

The

chair

is

of

a

non-(red)-color

(as

perceived

by

something

under

some

conditions).

We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the “as perceived by” and “under conditions” places have been added to the place structure of xunre). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret Example 15.64, “ ” even with three specific sumti provided.

In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita ci'u, which translates roughly as “on a scale of X”, where X is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with be. To clarify Example 15.64, “ ”, we might say:

Example 15.65.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

be

ci'u

loka

skari

The

chair

is

a

non-(red

on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.

We can alternately use the sumti tcita teci'e, based on ciste, which translates roughly as “of a system of components X”, for universes of discourse; in this case, we would express Example 15.64, “ ” as:

Example 15.66.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

be

teci'e

le

skari

The

chair

is

a

non-(red

of-a-system-with-components-the-colors)-thing.

Other places of ciste can be brought out using the grammar of selma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus:

Example 15.67.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

be

ci'e

lo'i

skari

The

chair

is

a

non-(red

of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.

The cmavo le'a, also in selma'o BAI, can be used to specify a category:

Example 15.68.

le

stizu

cu

na'e

xunre

be

le'a

lo'i

skari

The

chair

is

a

non-(red

of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.

which is minimally different in meaning from Example 15.67, “ ”.

The cmavo na'e is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo to'e, which is grammatically equivalent to na'e:

Example 15.69.

le

stizu

cu

to'e

xunre

be

ci'u

loka

skari

The

chair

is

a

(opposite-of

red)

on-scale

a-property-of

color-ness.

Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo no'e, also grammatically equivalent to na'e. Here are some parallel examples of na'e, no'e, and to'e:

Example 15.70.

ta

melbi

That

is-beautiful.

Example 15.71.

ta

na'e

melbi

That

is-non-beautiful.

That

is

other

than

beautiful.

That is ugly [in one sense].

Example 15.72.

ta

no'e

melbi

That

is-neutrally

beautiful.

That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).

Example 15.73.

ta

to'e

melbi

That

is-opposite-of

beautiful.

That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.

The cmavo to'e has the assigned rafsi -tol- and -to'e-; the cmavo no'e has the assigned rafsi -nor- and -no'e-. The selbri in Example 15.71, “ ” through Example 15.73, “ ” could be replaced by the lujvo nalmle, normle, and tolmle respectively.

This large variety of scalar negations is provided because different scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both directions: there is no “ultimately ugly” or “ultimately beautiful”. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called “absolute zero”) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.

Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious to'e- what is the opposite of a dog? – while others have more than one, and need ci'u to specify which opposite is meant.

sumti negation

There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator na'ebo before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies, na'ebo forms a scalar negation.

Let us show examples of each.

Example 15.74.

no

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

krecau

Zero

of

those

who

are

currently

noblest-governors

of

the

French

country

are-hair-without.

No current king of France is bald.

Is Example 15.74, “ ” true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.

Now let us look at the same sentence using na'ebo negation:

Example 15.75.

na'ebo

lo

ca

nolraitru

be

le

fasygu'e

cu

krecau

[Something]

other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor

of

the

French

country)

is-hair-without.

Something other than the current King of France is bald.

Example 15.75, “ ” is true provided that something reasonably describable as “other than a current King of France”, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.

In place of na'ebo, you may also use no'ebo and to'ebo, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:

Example 15.76.

mi

klama

to'ebo

la

bastn.

I

go

to

the-opposite-of

Boston.

I go to Perth.

(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better “opposite”.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching to'ebo to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching to'e to the selbri of the description.

It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.

Negation of minor grammatical constructs

We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-combining negator, which is nai. nai, by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.

Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.

The following are places where nai is used:

When attached to tenses and modals (see the section called “Modal negation”, the section called “Interval properties: TAhE and roi”, the section called “Tense negation” and the section called “Logical and non-logical connections between tenses”), the nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of the tagged bridi. Thus punai as a tense inflection means “not-in-the-past”, or “not-previously”, without making any implication about any other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result,

Example 15.77.

mi

na

pu

klama

le

zarci

I

[false]

[past]

go-to

the

store.

I didn't go to the store.

and

Example 15.78.

mi

punai

klama

le

zarci

I

[past-not]

go-to

the

store.

I didn't go to the store.

mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of emphasis.

Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical connectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus punai je ca means the same thing as pu naje ca.

As a special case, a -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System) signals a scalar negation:

Example 15.79.

mi

paroinai

dansu

le

bisli

I

[once]

[not]

dance-on

the

ice

means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more times within the relevant time interval described by the bridi. Example 15.79, “ ” is very different from the English use of “not once”, which is an emphatic way of saying “never” – that is, exactly zero times.

In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI, nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in the section called “Attitudes as scales”, most indicators have an implicit scale, and nai changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end of the scale. Thus .uinai expresses unhappiness, and .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as .iecu'i).

Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator, but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense with about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For example, co'o could be expressed as coinai. However, this is not generally done.

Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called protocol situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversations, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protocol words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on nai: negative acknowledgement, which is je'enai ( “I didn't get that”).

Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, in a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only nai, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly. the section called “Vocative scales” provides more detail on this topic.

The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractions connected by logical connectives: su'ujeninai, which corresponds to su'u jenai ni just as punai je ca corresponds to pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see the section called “Abstractor connection”.

A nai attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in the section called “Non-logical connectives”.

Truth questions

One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers “Yes” or “No”). The truth question cmavo xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.

Example 15.80.

xu

la

djan.

pu

klama

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

Is

it

true

that:

(John

previously

went-to

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.)

You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).

The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the na immediately after the cu (and before any tense/modal):

Example 15.81.

na

go'i

[false]

[repeat

previous]

No.

which means

Example 15.82.

la

djan.

[cu]

na

pu

klama

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

John

[false]

previously

went-to

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.

It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.

The respondent can change the tense, putting the na in either before or after the new tense:

Example 15.83.

na

ba

go'i

[false]

[future]

[repeat

previous]

meaning

Example 15.84.

la

djan.

[cu]

na

ba

klama

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

John

[false]

later-will-go-to

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.

It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.

or alternatively

Example 15.85.

ba

na

go'i

[false]

[future]

[repeat

previous]

meaning

Example 15.86.

la

djan.

[cu]

ba

na

klama

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

John

later-will

[false]

go-to

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.

We stated in the section called “Scalar Negation” that sentences like Example 15.84, “ ” and Example 15.86, “ ” appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.

You can also use a scalar negation with na'e, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a na'eke immediately after any tense:

Example 15.87.

na'e

go'i

other-than

[repeat

previous]

which means

Example 15.88.

la

djan.

[cu]

pu

na'eke

klama

[ke'e]

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

John

previously

other-than(went-to)

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.

He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary ke and ke'e would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.

Affirmations

There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA ( ja'a) and selma'o NAhE ( je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in the section called “Truth questions”:

Example 15.89.

xu

na

go'i

Is-it-true-that

[false]

[repeat

previous]?

or equivalently

Example 15.90.

xu

la

djan.

[cu]

na

pu

klama

la

paris.

.e

la

rom.

Is

it

true

that:

John

[false]

previously-went-to

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.]

The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:

Example 15.91.

go'i

[repeat previous]

A plain go'i does not mean “Yes it is”; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, including any negators present; and Example 15.91, “ ” actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome.

When considering:

Example 15.92.

na

go'i

[false]

[repeat

previous]

as a response to a negative question like Example 15.90, “ ”, Lojban designers had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does Example 15.92, “ ” create a double negative in the sentence by adding a new na to the one already there (forming a double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the na replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?

It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way English usually works, but not all languages work this way – Russian, Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as positive.

The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can also replace the na in the context, giving:

Example 15.93.

ja'a

go'i

(John

truly-(previously

went-to)

[both]

Paris

and

Rome.)

ja'a can replace na in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:

Example 15.94.

mi

ja'a

klama

le

zarci

I indeed go to the store.

je'a can replace na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:

Example 15.95.

ta

je'a

melbi

that

is-indeed

beautiful.

Metalinguistic negation forms

The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence

Example 15.96.

I have not stopped beating my wife.

If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim: “I never have beaten my wife.”

Negations which follow such a pattern are called “metalinguistic negations”. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.

Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.

Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.

Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:

Example 15.97.

I have not stopped beating my wife

(I never started – failure of presupposition).

Example 15.98.

5 is not blue

(color does not apply to abstract concepts – failure of category).

Example 15.99.

The current King of France is not bald.

(there is no current King of France – existential failure)

Example 15.100.

I do not have THREE children.

(I have two – simple undue quantity)

Example 15.101.

I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.

(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)

Example 15.102.

It is not good, but bad.

(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)

Example 15.103.

She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.

(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)

Example 15.104.

The house is not blue, but green.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)

Example 15.105.

The house is not blue, but is colored.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)

Example 15.106.

The cat is not blue, but long-haired.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)

Example 15.107.

A: He ain't coming today.

B: “Ain't” ain't a word.

(solecism, or improper grammatical action)

Example 15.108.

I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.

(spelling or mispronunciation error)

Example 15.109.

Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.

(non-contradictory correction)

The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.

Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement, “true” and “false” don't really apply.

Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using na, na'e and kin. The cmavo na'i is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.

Since na'i is not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of na'i need not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, we can use the position of na'i to indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give na'i the grammar of UI. The inclusion of na'i anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.

Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic errors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked by devising analogies to these examples:

Existential failure can be marked by attaching na'i to the descriptor lo or the poi in a da poi-form sumti. (See the section called “The three basic description types” and the section called “Restricted claims: da poi” for details on these constructions.) Remember that if a le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind – the appropriate response is then ki'a, asking for clarification.

Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposition is overt; if not, one can insert a “mock presupposition” to question with the sumti tcita (selma'o BAI) word ji'u; ji'uku thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumption, and ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that something is wrong with that assumption. (See Chapter 9, To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals.)

Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with selma'o BAI. le'a has meaning “of category/class/type X”, ci'u has meaning “on scale X”, and ci'e, based on ciste, can be used to talk about universes of discourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in the section called “Truth questions”. kai and la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other quality and quantity errors.

We have to make particular note of potential problems in the areas of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the relationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban, blanu ( “blue”) is not explicitly defined as a skari ( “color”). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite of “good” is “bad”.

This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmatically, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these assumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break down (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation, however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a presumably obvious scale or category assumption.

Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by marking the offending word or phrase with na'i (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this sense, na'i becomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic marker “[sic]”. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quotes or sa'a-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unparsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI” for explanations of these usages.

In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA. na'i at the beginning of a statement merely says that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.

In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correcting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metalinguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless expression.

Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitimate negative answer to a xu question (see the section called “Truth questions”). na'i will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like “Have you stopped beating your wife?”:

Example 15.110.

xu

do

sisti

lezu'o

do

rapydarxi

ledo

fetspe

Have

you

ceased

the

activity

of

repeat-hitting

your

female-spouse?

Responses could include:

Example 15.111.

na'i

go'i

The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.

Example 15.112.

go'i

na'i

The selbri (  sisti) is inappropriate in some way.

One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguistically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:

Example 15.113.

go'i

ji'una'iku

Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.

Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with jo'a, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with – by overriding – a respondent's metalinguistic negation.

Summary – Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?

Example 15.114.

na

go'i

.ije

na'e

go'i

.ije

na'i

go'i

Chapter 16.  “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic

What's wrong with this picture?

The following brief dialogue is from Chapter 7 of Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll.

Example 16.1.

“Who did you pass on the road?” the King went on, holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.

Example 16.2.

“Nobody,” said the Messenger.

Example 16.3.

“Quite right,” said the King: “this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower than you.”

Example 16.4.

“I do my best,” the Messenger said in a sulky tone. “I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do!”

Example 16.5.

“He can't do that,” said the King, “or else he'd have been here first.”

This nonsensical conversation results because the King insists on treating the word “nobody” as a name, a name of somebody. However, the essential nature of the English word “nobody” is that it doesn't refer to somebody; or to put the matter another way, there isn't anybody to which it refers.

The central point of contradiction in the dialogue arises in Example 16.3, “ ”, when the King says “... Nobody walks slower than you”. This claim would be plausible if “Nobody” were really a name, since the Messenger could only pass someone who does walk more slowly than he. But the Messenger interprets the word “nobody” in the ordinary English way, and says (in Example 16.4, “ ”) “... nobody walks much faster than I do” (i.e., I walk faster, or as fast as, almost everyone), which the King then again misunderstands. Both the King and the Messenger are correct according to their respective understandings of the ambiguous word “nobody/Nobody”.

There are Lojban words or phrases corresponding to the problematic English words “somebody”, “nobody”, “anybody”, “everybody” (and their counterparts “some/no/any/everyone” and “some/no/any/everything”), but they obey rules which can often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot be translated into Lojban without distortion: the name “Nobody” would have to be represented by a Lojban name, which would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversationalists to affirm “Nobody walks slower than the Messenger” and “Nobody walks faster than the Messenger” and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)

This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojban guise.

Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of it is “logical”. In particular, the use of le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that

Example 16.6.

mi

viska

le

nanmu

I

see

the-one-I-refer-to-as-the

man.

I see the man/men.

that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).

In addition, the use of attitudinals (see Chapter 13, Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.

Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:

Example 16.7.

Something sees me.

There are two plausible Lojban translations of Example 16.7, “ ”. The simpler one is:

Example 16.8.

[zo'e]

viska

mi

Something-unspecified

sees

me.

The cmavo zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, even zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as explained in the section called “Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series”) and the listener must fill in the correct value from context. In other words, Example 16.8, “ ” means “‘You-know-what’ sees me.”

However, Example 16.7, “ ” is just as likely to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translation is:

Example 16.9.

da

zo'u

da

viska

mi

There-is-an-X

such-that

X

sees

me.

Example 16.9, “ ” does not presuppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called “existential claims”. (Formally, the one doing the seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or – in principle – an inanimate object. We will see in the section called “Restricted claims: da poi” how to represent such restrictions.)

Example 16.9, “ ” has a two-part structure: there is the part da zo'u, called the prenex, and the part da viska mi, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti followed by the cmavo zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo da, de, and di (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translations as “X”, “Y”, and “Z” respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called “variables”.

Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:

Example 16.10.

da

de

zo'u

da

prami

de

There-is-an-X

there-is-a-Y

such

that

X

loves

Y.

Somebody loves somebody.

In Example 16.10, “ ”, the literal interpretation of the two variables da and de as “there-is-an-X” and “there-is-a-Y” tells us that there are two things which stand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case that the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself; nothing in the Lojban version of Example 16.10, “ ” rules out that interpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say “Somebody loves somebody else.” The things referred to by different variables may be different or the same. (We use “somebody” here rather than “something” for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)

It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once in the main bridi:

Example 16.11.

da

zo'u

da

prami

da

There-is-an-X

such

that

X

loves

X

Somebody loves himself/herself.

What Example 16.11, “ ” claims is fundamentally different from what Example 16.10, “ ” claims, because da prami da is not structurally the same as da prami de. However,

Example 16.12.

de

zo'u

de

prami

de

There-is-a-Y

such

that

Y

loves

Y

means exactly the same thing as Example 16.11, “ ”; it does not matter which variable is used as long as they are used consistently.

It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi directly:

Example 16.13.

da

zo'u

le

da

gerku

cu

viska

mi

There-is-an-X

such-that

the

of-X

dog

sees

me

Somebody's dog sees me

is perfectly correct even though the da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessives are explained in the section called “Possessive sumti”.)

It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:

Example 16.14.

da

zo'u

la

ralf.

gerku

There is something such that Ralph is a dog.

has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.

Universal claims

What happens if we substitute “everything” for “something” in Example 16.7, “ ”? We get:

Example 16.15.

Everything sees me.

Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)

The Lojban translation of Example 16.15, “ ” is

Example 16.16.

ro

da

zo'u

da

viska

mi

For-every

X

:

X

sees

me.

When the variable cmavo da is preceded by ro, the combination means “For every X” rather than “There is an X”. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated: the section called “Variables with generalized quantifiers” will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of ro da for “everything” on faith.

Here is a universal claim with two variables:

Example 16.17.

ro

da

ro

de

zo'u

da

prami

de

For-every

X,

for-every

Y

:

X

loves

Y.

Everything loves everything.

Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so Example 16.17, “ ” does not mean “Everything loves everything else.” Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use “everyone” or “everybody” in the translation.

Note that ro appears before both da and de. If ro is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of the section called “Existential claims, prenexes, and variables”, partly universal.

Example 16.18.

ro

da

de

zo'u

da

viska

de

For-every

X,

there-is-a-Y

:

X

sees

Y.

Everything sees something.

Example 16.19.

da

ro

de

zo'u

da

viska

de

There-is-an-X

such-that-for-every-Y

:

X

sees

Y.

Something sees everything.

Example 16.18, “ ” and Example 16.19, “ ” mean completely different things. Example 16.18, “ ” says that for everything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for every seer. Example 16.19, “ ”, on the other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds of silliness.

There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use “anybody/anything” rather than “everybody/everything”. Often it makes no difference which of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one which is explained in the section called “The problem of “any””.

Restricted claims: da poi

The universal claims of the section called “Universal claims” are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between “everything” and “everybody” and the other pairs ending in “-thing” and “-body”. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.

In Lojban, a variable da, de, or di may be followed by a poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated, but the kind we will need at present consist of poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with ku'o or vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between

Example 16.20.

da

zo'u

da

viska

la

djim.

There-is-an-X

:

X

sees

Jim.

Something sees Jim.

and

Example 16.21.

da

poi

prenu

zo'u

da

viska

la

djim.

There-is-an-X

which

is-a-person

:

X

sees

Jim.

Someone sees Jim.

In Example 16.20, “ ”, the variable da can refer to any object whatever; there are no restrictions on it. In Example 16.21, “ ”, da is restricted by the poi prenu relative clause to persons only, and so da poi prenu translates as “someone.” (The difference between “someone” and “somebody” is a matter of English style, with no real counterpart in Lojban.) If Example 16.21, “ ” is true, then Example 16.20, “ ” must be true, but not necessarily vice versa.

Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider

Example 16.22.

ro

da

zo'u

da

vasxu

For-every

X

:

X

breathes

Everything breathes

and

Example 16.23.

ro

da

poi

gerku

zo'u

da

vasxu

For-every

X

which

is-a-dog

:

X

breathes.

Every

dog

breathes.

Each

dog

breathes.

All dogs breathe.

Example 16.22, “ ” is a silly falsehood, but Example 16.23, “ ” is an important truth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see the section called “Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA”). Note the various colloquial translations “every dog”, “each dog”, and “all dogs”. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of every dog is true of all dogs. “All dogs” is treated as an English plural and the others as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction.

If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal one, we get:

Example 16.24.

da

poi

gerku

zo'u

da

vasxu

There-is-an-X

which

is-a-dog

:

X

breathes.

Some dog breathes.

Dropping the prenex

It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any ro or poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus, Example 16.9, “ ” becomes just:

Example 16.25.

da

viska

mi

There-is-an-X-which

sees

me.

Something sees me.

and Example 16.23, “ ” becomes:

Example 16.26.

ro

da

poi

gerku

cu

vasxu

For-every

X

which

is-a-dog,

it-breathes.

Every dog breathes.

You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider

Example 16.27.

ro

da

poi

prenu

ku'o

de

poi

gerku

ku'o

zo'u

de

batci

da

For-every

X

which

is-a-person,

there-is-a-Y

which

is-a-dog:

Y

bites

X.

The prenex of Example 16.27, “ ” is like that of Example 16.18, “ ” (but with relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi part, the de appears before the da. Therefore, the true translation is

Example 16.28.

Every person is bitten by some dog (or other).

If we tried to omit the prenex and move the ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:

Example 16.29.

de

poi

gerku

cu

batci

ro

da

poi

prenu

There-is-a-Y

which

is-a-dog

which-bites

every

X

which

is-a-person

Some dog bites everyone.

which has the structure of Example 16.19, “ ”: it says that there is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that Example 16.29, “ ” is false, while agreeing to Example 16.27, “ ”.

Even so, Example 16.27, “ ” is most probably false, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4 (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In English we are prone to say that “Everyone says” or that “Everybody does” or that “Everything is” when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) which implicitly restricts them.

How can we express Example 16.27, “ ” in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:

Example 16.30.

ro

da

poi

prenu

cu

se

batci

de

poi

gerku

Every-X

which

is-a-person

is-bitten-by

some-Y

which

is-a-dog.

using the conversion operator se (explained in the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”) to change the selbri batci ( “bites”) into se batci ( “is bitten by”). The translation given in Example 16.28, “ ” uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained “logician's English”). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with se; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.

If a variable occurs more than once, then any ro or poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,

Example 16.31.

di

poi

prenu

zo'u

ti

xarci

di

di

There-is-a-Z

which

is-a-person

:

this-thing

is-a-weapon

for-use-against-Z

by-Z

This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.

(in which di is used rather than da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:

Example 16.32.

ti

xarci

di

poi

prenu

ku'o

di

This-thing

is-a-weapon-for-use-against

some-Z

which

is-a-person

by-Z.

As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.

Variables with generalized quantifiers

So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo ro in front. Now ro is a Lojban number, and means “all”; thus ro prenu means “all persons”, just as re prenu means “two persons”. In fact, unadorned da is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely su'o, which means “at least one”. Why is this? Consider Example 16.9, “ ” again, this time with an explicit su'o:

Example 16.33.

su'o

da

zo'u

da

viska

mi

For-at-least-one

X

:

X

sees

me.

Something sees me.

From this version of Example 16.9, “ ”, we understand the speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim, Example 16.16, “ ”, says that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.

Any other number can be used instead of ro or su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:

Example 16.34.

re

da

zo'u

da

viska

mi

For-two-Xes

:

X

sees

me.

Two things see me.

This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take “Two things see me” to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:

Example 16.35.

su'ore

da

zo'u

da

viska

mi

For-at-least-two

Xes

:

X

sees

me.

which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the speaker, but not otherwise. We note the su'o here meaning “at least”; su'o by itself is short for su'opa where pa means “one”, as is explained in the section called “Approximation and inexact numbers”.

The prenex may be removed from Example 16.34, “ ” and Example 16.35, “ ” as from the others, leading to:

Example 16.36.

re

da

viska

mi

Two Xes see me.

and

Example 16.37.

su'ore

da

viska

mi

At-least-two

Xes

see

me.

respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in the section called “Dropping the prenex”.

Now we can explain the constructions ro prenu for “all persons” and re prenu for “two persons” which were casually mentioned at the beginning of this Section. In fact, ro prenu, a so-called “indefinite description”, is shorthand for ro DA poi prenu, where “DA” represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of da, de, and di have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in the section called “A few notes on variables”.) So in fact

Example 16.38.

re

prenu

cu

viska

mi

Two persons see me.

is short for

Example 16.39.

re

da

poi

prenu

cu

viska

mi

Two

Xes

which

are-persons

see

me.

which in turn is short for:

Example 16.40.

re

da

poi

prenu

zo'u

da

viska

mi

For-two

Xes

which

are-persons

:

X

sees

me.

Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.

Grouping of quantifiers

Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is ro or su'o (remembering that su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):

Example 16.41.

ci

gerku

cu

batci

re

nanmu

Three dogs bite two men.

The question raised by Example 16.41, “ ” is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform Example 16.41, “ ” step by step as we did with Example 16.38, “ ”:

Example 16.42.

ci

da

poi

gerku

cu

batci

re

de

poi

nanmu

Three

Xes

which

are-dogs

bite

two

Ys

which

are-men.

(Note that we need separate variables da and de, because of the rule that says each indefinite description gets a variable never used before or since.)

Example 16.43.

ci

da

poi

gerku

ku'o

re

de

poi

nanmu

zo'u

da

batci

de

For-three

Xes

which

are-dogs,

for-two

Ys

which

are-men

:

X

bites

Y.

Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altogether.

How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the prenex to

Example 16.44.

re

de

poi

nanmu

ku'o

ci

da

poi

gerku

zo'u

da

batci

de

For-two

Ys

which

are-men,

for-three

Xes

which

are-dogs,

X

bites

Y

for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The distinction is called a “scope distinction”: in Example 16.42, “ ”, ci gerku is said to have wider scope than re nanmu, and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In Example 16.44, “ ” the reverse is true.

The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:

Example 16.45.

ci

gerku

ce'e

re

nanmu

cu

batci

nu'i

ci

gerku

re

nanmu

[nu'u]

cu

batci

Three

dogs

[plus]

two

men,

bite.

which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second Lojban version uses forethought; note that nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.

What about descriptors, like ci lo gerku, le nanmu or re le ci mlatu? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the lo case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it, le nanmu means ro le nanmu, as is explained in the section called “Quantified descriptions”. Two sumti with ro quantifiers are independent of order, so:

Example 16.46.

[ro]

le

ci

gerku

cu

batci

[ro]

le

re

nanmu

[All

of]

the

three

dogs

bite

[all

of]

the

two

men.

means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before le other than ro, the problems of this section reappear.

The problem of “any”

Consider the English sentence

Example 16.47.

Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.

Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation might be

Example 16.48.

ro

da

poi

klama

le

zarci

cu

cadzu

le

foldi

All

X

such-that-it

goes-to

the

store

walks-on

the

field.

Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.

But there is a subtle difference between Example 16.47, “ ” and Example 16.48, “ ”. Example 16.48, “ ” tells us that, in fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A sumti of the type ro da poi klama requires that there are things which klama: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresponding existential claims as well. Example 16.47, “ ”, on the other hand, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation of Example 16.47, “ ”:

Example 16.49.

ro

da

zo'u

da

go

klama

le

zarci

gi

cadzu

le

foldi

For-every

X:

X

is-a-goer-to

the

store

if-and-only-if

is-a-walker-on

the

field.

Although Example 16.49, “ ” is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.

There is another use of “any” in English that is not universal but existential. Consider

Example 16.50.

I need any box that is bigger than this one.

Example 16.50, “ ” does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation

Example 16.51.

mi

nitcu

da

poi

tanxe

gi'e

bramau

ti

I

need

some-X

which

is-a-box

and

is-bigger-than

this-one

does not work either, because it asserts that there really is such a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates:

Example 16.52.

da

poi

tanxe

gi'e

bramau

ti

zo'u

mi

nitcu

da

There-is-an-X

which

is-a-box

and

is-bigger-than

this

:

I

need

X.

What to do? Well, the x2 place of nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an object, and in fact Example 16.51, “ ” can also be paraphrased as:

Example 16.53.

mi

nitcu

lo

nu

mi

ponse

lo

tanxe

poi

bramau

ti

I

need

an

event-of

I

possess

some

box(es)

which-are

bigger-than

this-one.

Rewritten using variables, Example 16.53, “ ” becomes

Example 16.54.

mi

nitcu

lo

nu

da

zo'u

da

se

ponse

mi

gi'e

tanxe

gi'e

bramau

ti

I

need

an

event-of

there-being

an-X

such-that

:

X

is-possessed-by

me

and

is-a-box

and

is-bigger-than

this-thing.

So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prenex explicitly:

Example 16.55.

da

poi

tanxe

gi'e

bramau

ti

zo'u

mi

nitcu

le

nu

mi

ponse

da

There-is-an-X

which

is-a-box

and

is-bigger-than

this-one

such-that

:

I

need

the

event-of

my

possessing

X.

But what are the implications of Example 16.53, “ ” and Example 16.55, “ ”? The main difference is that in Example 16.55, “ ”, the da is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in Example 16.53, “ ”, the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So Example 16.55, “ ” means

Example 16.56.

There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need

which is what Example 16.52, “ ” says, whereas Example 16.53, “ ” turns out to be an effective translation of our original Example 16.47, “ ”. So uses of “any” that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.

Negation boundaries

This section, as well as the section called “bridi negation and logical connectives” through the section called “Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law”, are in effect a continuation of Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation, introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below, “there is a Y” and the like must be understood as “there is at least one Y, possibly more”.

As explained in the section called “bridi negation”, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting na at the beginning of the selbri:

Example 16.57.

mi

na

klama

le

zarci

I

[false]

go-to

the

store.

It

is

false

that

I

go

to

the

store.

I don't go to the store.

The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the compound cmavo naku in the prenex, which is identified and compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar, naku is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex, naku means precisely the same thing as the logician's “it is not the case that” in a similar English context. (Outside of a prenex, naku is also grammatically treated as a single entity – the equivalent of a sumti – but does not have this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in the section called “Using naku outside a prenex”.)

To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the na from before the selbri and place naku at the left end of the prenex. This form is called “external bridi negation”, as opposed to “internal bridi negation” using na. The prenex version of Example 16.57, “ ” is

Example 16.58.

naku

zo'u

la

djan.

klama

It

is

not

the

case

that:

John

comes.

It is false that: John comes.

However, naku can appear at other points in the prenex as well. Compare

Example 16.59.

naku

de

zo'u

de

zutse

It

is

not

the

case

that:

for

some

Y,

Y

sits.

It

is

false

that:

for

at

least

one

Y,

Y

sits.

It

is

false

that

something

sits.

Nothing sits.

with

Example 16.60.

su'ode

naku

zo'u

de

zutse

For

at

least

one

Y,

it

is

false

that:

Y

sits.

There is something that doesn't sit.

The relative position of negation and quantification terms within a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we can have:

Example 16.61.

roda

su'ode

zo'u

da

prami

de

For

every

X,

there

is

a

Y,

such

that

X

loves

Y.

Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).

or:

Example 16.62.

su'ode

roda

zo'u

da

prami

de

There

is

a

Y,

such

that

for

each

X,

X

loves

Y.

There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.

The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:

Example 16.63.

naku

roda

su'ode

zo'u

da

prami

de

It

is

false

that:

for

every

X,

there

is

a

Y,

such

that:

X

loves

Y.

It

is

false

that:

everybody

loves

at

least

one

thing.

(At least) someone doesn't love anything.

the negation of Example 16.61, “ ”, and

Example 16.64.

naku

su'ode

roda

zo'u

da

prami

de

It

is

false

that:

there

is

a

Y

such

that

for

each

X,

X

loves

Y.

It

is

false

that:

there

is

at

least

one

thing

that

is

loved

by

everybody.

There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.

the negation of Example 16.62, “ ”.

The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must “invert any quantifier” that the negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any ro (all) is changed to su'o (at least one) and vice versa. Thus, Example 16.63, “ ” and Example 16.64, “ ” can be restated as, respectively:

Example 16.65.

su'oda

naku

su'ode

zo'u

da

prami

de

For

some

X,

it

is

false

that:

there

is

a

Y

such

that:

X

loves

Y.

There is somebody who doesn't love anything.

and:

Example 16.66.

rode

naku

roda

zo'u

da

prami

de

For

every

Y,

it

is

false

that:

for

every

X,

X

loves

Y.

For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.

Another movement of the negation boundary produces:

Example 16.67.

su'oda

rode

naku

zo'u

da

prami

de

There

is

an

X

such

that,

for

every

Y,

it

is

false

that

X

loves

Y.

There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.

and

Example 16.68.

rode

su'oda

naku

zo'u

da

prami

de

For

every

Y,

there

is

an

X,

such

that

it

is

false

that:

X

loves

Y.

For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.

Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preserves the meanings of Example 16.63, “ ” and Example 16.64, “ ”.

The quantifier no (meaning “zero of”) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing a variable quantified with no, we must first expand it. Consider

Example 16.69.

noda

rode

zo'u

da

prami

de

There

is

no

X,

for

every

Y,

such

that

X

loves

Y.

Nobody loves everything.

which is negated by:

Example 16.70.

naku

noda

rode

zo'u

da

prami

de

It

is

false

that:

there

is

no

X

that,

for

every

Y,

X

loves

Y.

It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.

We can simplify Example 16.70, “ ” by transforming the prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the no quantifier. Thus “for no x” means the same thing as “it is false for some x”, and the corresponding Lojban noda can be replaced by naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we get:

Example 16.71.

naku

naku

su'oda

rode

zo'u

da

prami

de

It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.

Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped, so this means the same as:

Example 16.72.

su'oda

rode

zo'u

da

prami

de

There

is

an

X

such

that,

for

every

Y,

X

loves

Y.

At least one person loves everything.

which is clearly the desired contradiction of Example 16.69, “ ”.

The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.

bridi negation and logical connectives

A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System. What is said here is intentionally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications.

A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapter, we will make use of the logical connectives “and” and “or” (where “or” really means “and/or”, “either or both”). The following simplified recipes explain how to make some logical connectives:

- To logically connect two Lojban sumti with “and”, put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo e.

- To logically connect two Lojban bridi with “and”, replace the regular separator cmavo i with the compound cmavo .ije.

- To logically connect two Lojban sumti with “or”, put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo a.

- To logically connect two Lojban bridi with “or”, replace the regular separator cmavo i with the compound cmavo .ija.

More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one may place na before e or a, or between i and je or ja; likewise, one may place nai at the end of a connective. Both na and nai have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being connected. Specifically, na negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and nai negates the second or right-hand one.

Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentence can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and joining the sentences by a logical connective beginning with i. Thus the following sentence:

Example 16.73.

mi

.e

do

klama

ti

I and you come here.

can be expanded to:

Example 16.74.

mi

klama

ti

.ije

do

klama

ti

I come here, and, you come here.

The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical connective, with any valid combination of na or nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a transformation.

Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does negation mean between sentences?

The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the prenex. Thus:

Example 16.75.

mi

.enai

do

prami

roda

I, and not you, love everything.

expands to:

Example 16.76.

mi

prami

roda

.ijenai

do

prami

roda

I

love

everything,

and-not,

you

love

everything.

and then into prenex form as:

Example 16.77.

roda

zo'u

mi

prami

da

.ije

naku

zo'u

do

prami

da

For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.

By the rules of predicate logic, the ro quantifier on da has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've picked a value for da for the first sentence, it stays the same for both sentences. (The da continues with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.)

Thus the following example has the indicated translation:

Example 16.78.

su'oda

zo'u

mi

prami

da

.ije

naku

zo'u

do

prami

da

For

at

least

one

thing:

I

love

that

thing.

And

it

is

false

that:

you

love

that

(same)

thing.

There is something that I love that you don't.

If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong:

- Within a prenex, whenever you move naku past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.

- A na before the selbri is always transformed into a naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.

Using naku outside a prenex

Let us consider the English sentence

Example 16.79.

Some

children

do

not

go

to

school.

We cannot express this directly with na; the apparently obvious translation

Example 16.80.

su'oda

poi

verba

na

klama

su'ode

poi

ckule

At-least-one

X

which-are

child(ren)

[false]

go-to

at-least-one

Y

which-are

school(s).

when converted to the external negation form produces:

Example 16.81.

naku

zo'u

su'oda

poi

verba

cu

klama

su'ode

poi

ckule

It

is

false

that

some

which

are

children

go-to

some

which

are

schools.

All children don't go to some school (not just some children).

Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting naku before the selbri, instead of a na. naku is clearly a contradictory negation, given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using naku, Example 16.79, “ ” can be expressed as:

Example 16.82.

su'oda

poi

verba

naku

klama

su'ode

poi

ckule

Some

which-are

children

don't

go-to

some

which-are

schools.

Some children don't go to a school.

Although it is not technically a sumti, naku can be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment.

When you use naku within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a negation boundary. As explained in the section called “Negation boundaries”, when a prenex negation boundary expressed by naku moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. The same is true for naku in the bridi proper. We can move naku to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the following are equivalent to Example 16.82, “ ” (no good English translations exist):

Example 16.83.

su'oda

poi

verba

cu

klama

rode

poi

ckule

naku

For some children, for every school, they don't go to it.

Example 16.84.

su'oda

poi

verba

cu

klama

naku

su'ode

poi

ckule

Some children don't go to (some) school(s).

Example 16.85.

naku

roda

poi

verba

cu

klama

su'ode

poi

ckule

It is false that all children go to some school(s).

In Example 16.83, “ ”, we moved the negation boundary rightward across the quantifier of de, forcing us to invert it. In Example 16.85, “ ” we moved the negation boundary across the quantifier of da, forcing us to invert it instead. Example 16.84, “ ” merely switched the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers.

The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the selbri of Example 16.82, “ ” and rearrange the sumti to produce

Example 16.86.

su'ode

poi

ckule

ku'o

naku

se

klama

roda

poi

verba

Some

schools

aren't

gone-to-by

every

child.

or rather, Example 16.86, “ ” means something completely different from Example 16.82, “ ”. Conversion with se under naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation with naku is considered an advanced technique, used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.

It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverted in a sentence. Example 16.82, “ ” is identical in meaning to:

Example 16.87.

su'o

verba

naku

klama

su'o

ckule

Some

children

don't

go-to

some

school.

but in Example 16.87, “ ”, the bound variables da and de have been hidden.

It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with na to the prenex, as we saw in the section called “Negation boundaries”; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting naku require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with naku, and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus Example 16.82, “ ” goes into prenex form as:

Example 16.88.

su'oda

poi

verba

ku'o

naku

su'ode

poi

ckule

zo'u

da

klama

de

For

some

X

which

is

a

child,

it

is

not

the

case

that

there

is

a

Y

which

is

a

school

such

that:

X

goes

to

Y.

We can now move the naku to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with na:

Example 16.89.

naku

roda

poi

verba

su'ode

poi

ckule

zo'u

da

klama

de

It

is

not

the

case

that

for

all

X's

which

are

children,

there

is

a

Y

which

is

a

school

such

that:

X

goes

to

Y.

from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:

Example 16.90.

naku

zo'u

roda

poi

verba

cu

klama

su'ode

poi

ckule

It is not the case that all children go to some school.

or more briefly

Example 16.91.

ro

verba

cu

na

klama

su'o

ckule

All

children

[false]

go-to

some

school(s).

As noted in the section called “Dropping the prenex”, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as Example 16.91, “ ”, cannot always be converted with se without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:

Example 16.92.

roda

poi

verba

su'ode

poi

ckule

zo'u

de

na

se

klama

da

It

is

not

the

case

that

for

all

X's

which

are

children,

there

is

a

Y

which

is

a

school

such

that:

Y

is

gone

to

by

X.

While you can't freely convert with se when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use na negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be done. If you use naku negation, then quantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.

Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on naku negation instead of na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In the section called “Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law”, for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.

Since naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including be and bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we recommend avoiding such constructs.

You can put multiple nakus in a sentence, each forming a separate negation boundary. Two adjacent nakus in a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:

Example 16.93.

mi

naku

naku

le

zarci

cu

klama

Other expressions using two naku s may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the naku s cancel.

Negation with internal naku is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical manipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating.

Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective between terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a change in the connective. Thus (where “p” and “q” stand for terms or sentences) “not (p or q)” is identical to “not p and not q”, and “not (p and q)” is identical to “not p or not q”. The corresponding changes for the other two basic Lojban connectives are: “not (p equivalent to q)” is identical to “not p exclusive-or not q”, and “not (p whether-or-not q)” is identical to both “not p whether-or-not q” and “not p whether-or-not not q”. In any Lojban sentence having one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction from these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System.)

The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by modifying the basic connectives with nai, na and se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identities, and then, apply each nai, na and se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.

When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we wish to “distribute” a negation over a logical connective; and, for internal naku negation, whenever a logical connective moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation – when it crosses a negation boundary.

Let us apply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explained in the section called “Forethought bridi connection”. It suffices to know that ga and gi, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean “either” and “or” respectively, and that ge and gi used similarly mean “both” and “and”. Furthermore, ga, ge, and gi can all be suffixed with nai to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.

We have defined na and naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law to be applied. Example 16.94, “ ” and Example 16.95, “ ” are exactly equivalent:

Example 16.94.

la

djan.

na

klama

ga

la

paris.

gi

la

rom.

John

[false]

goes-to

either

Paris

or

Rome.

Example 16.95.

naku

zo'u

la

djan.

klama

ga

la

paris.

gi

la

rom.

It-is-false

that:

John

goes-to

either

Paris

or

Rome.

It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However, Example 16.94, “ ” and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance, Example 16.95, “ ” expands to:

Example 16.96.

ge

la

djan.

la

paris.

na

klama

gi

la

djan.

la

rom.

na

klama

[It

is

true

that]

both

John,

to-Paris,

[false]

goes,

and

John,

to-Rome,

[false]

goes.

The ga and gi, meaning “either-or”, have become ge and gi, meaning “both-and”, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.

Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in the section called “Compound bridi”):

Example 16.97.

la

djein.

le

zarci

na

ge

dzukla

gi

bajrykla

Jane

to-the

market

[false]

both

walks

and

runs.

Example 16.98.

la

djein.

le

zarci

ganai

dzukla

ginai

bajrykla

Jane

to-the

market

either

[false]

walks

or

[false]

runs.

Jane

to-the

market

if

walks

then

([false]

runs).

(Placing le zarci before the selbri makes sure that it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.)

It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from Example 16.97, “ ” to Example 16.98, “ ”, that you become familiar with expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the sentences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation correct by the following steps. By moving its na to the beginning of the prenex as a naku, Example 16.97, “ ” becomes:

Example 16.99.

naku

zo'u

la

djein.

le

zarci

ge

dzukla

gi

bajrykla

It

is

false

that

:

Jane

to-the

market

(both

walks

and

runs).

And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two bridi,

Example 16.100.

naku

zo'u

ge

la

djein.

le

zarci

cu

dzukla

gi

la

djein.

le

zarci

cu

bajrykla

It-is-false-that:

both

(Jane

to-the

market

walks)

and

(Jane

to-the

market

runs).

is the result.

At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get

Example 16.101.

ga

la

djein.

le

zarci

na

dzukla

gi

la

djein.

le

zarci

na

bajrykla

Either

Jane

to-the

market

[false]

walks,

or

Jane

to-the

market

[false]

runs.

which is the same as

Example 16.102.

ganai

la

djein.

le

zarci

cu

dzukla

ginai

la

djein.

le

zarci

cu

bajrykla

If

Jane

to-the

market

walks,

then

Jane

to-the

market

[false]

runs.

If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.

which then condenses down to Example 16.98, “ ”.

DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal naku negations:

Example 16.103.

ga

la

paris.

gi

la

rom.

naku

se

klama

la

djan.

(Either

Paris

or

Rome)

is-not

gone-to-by

John.

Example 16.104.

la

djan.

naku

klama

ge

la

paris.

gi

la

rom.

John

doesn't

go-to

both

Paris

and

Rome.

That Example 16.103, “ ” and Example 16.104, “ ” mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.

selbri variables

In addition to the variables da, de, and di that we have seen so far, which function as sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables bu'a, bu'e, and bu'i which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will represent bu'a, bu'e and bu'i with F, G, and H respectively.

Example 16.105.

su'o

bu'a

zo'u

la

djim.

bu'a

la

djan.

For-at-least-one

relationship-F

:

Jim

stands-in-relationship-F

to-John.

There's some relationship between Jim and John.

The translations of Example 16.105, “ ” show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like Example 16.105, “ ” need to be totally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as su'o; it is ungrammatical to just say bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and su'o bu'a is technically a sumti – in fact, it is an indefinite description like re nanmu, since bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.

When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:

Example 16.106.

la

djim.

bu'a

la

djan.

Jim

stands-in-at-least-one-relationship

to-John.

As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but su'o, the prenex is required:

Example 16.107.

ro

bu'a

zo'u

la

djim.

bu'a

la

djan.

For-every

relationship-F

:

Jim

stands-in-relationship-F

to-John.

Every relationship exists between Jim and John.

Example 16.105, “ ” and Example 16.106, “ ” are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human. Example 16.107, “ ” is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.

A few notes on variables

A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:

Example 16.108.

ci

da

poi

mlatu

cu

blabi

.ije

re

da

cu

barda

Three

Xs

which-are

cats

are

white,

and

two

Xs

are

big.

What does Example 16.108, “ ” mean? The appearance of ci da quantifies da as referring to three things, which are restricted by the relative clause to be cats. When re da appears later, it refers to two of those three things – there is no saying which ones. Further uses of da alone, if there were any, would refer once more to the three cats, so the requantification of da is purely local.

In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in the section called “Logical connection of bridi”) such as the .ije in Example 16.108, “ ”. Theoretically, a bare i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, however, variables may persist for a while even after an i, as if it were an .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as explained in the section called “The problem of “any””. A prenex preceding tu'e…tu'u long-scope brackets persists until the tu'u, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.

If the variables da, de, and di (or the selbri variables bu'a, bu'e, and bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in the section called “Subscripts: XI”, but in general consist of the cmavo xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.

A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:

Example 16.109.

ci

da

poi

prenu

cu

se

ralju

pa

da

Three

Xs

which

are-persons

are-led-by

one-of

X

Three people are led by one of them.

The pa da in Example 16.109, “ ” does not specify the number of things to which da refers, as the preceding ci da does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of da remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.

Conclusion

This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication, those that are not).

Chapter 17. As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses

What's a letteral, anyway?

James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word “letteral” (by analogy with “numeral”) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as “f” or “z”. A typical example of its use might be

Example 17.1.

There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral “e” in this sentence.

(Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word “letteral” avoids confusion with “letter”, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly, there is a Lojban gismu for “letteral”, namely lerfu, and this word will be used in the rest of this chapter.

Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold:

First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to and represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in English and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabet to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow.

Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in writing English. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: English-speakers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled “phi” as “fye”, whereas “fee” would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban, in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other writing systems.

Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and abbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti – the equivalent of English pronouns.

In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to use the word lerfu for both the letterals themselves and for the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term “lerfu word” will invariably be used for the latter. The Lojban equivalent would be lerfu valsi or lervla.

A to Z in Lojban, plus one

The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between “doubleyou” and “w” is strictly historical in nature; “aitch” represents “h” but has no clear relationship to it at all; and “z” has two distinct lerfu words, “zee” and “zed”, depending on the dialect of English in question.

All of Lojban's basic lerfu words are made by one of three rules:

- to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add bu;

- to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add y;

- the lerfu word for ' is .y'y.

Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alphabet:

'

.y'y.

a

.abu

b

by.

c

cy.

d

dy.

e

.ebu

f

fy.

g

gy.

i

.ibu

j

jy.

k

ky.

l

ly.

m

my.

n

ny.

o

.obu

p

py.

r

ry.

s

sy.

t

ty.

u

.ubu

v

vy.

x

xy.

y

.ybu

z

zy.

There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and ' lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that by and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is .y'y. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when bu follows.

Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:

Example 17.2.

ty.

.abu

ny.

ry.

.ubu

“t” “a” “n” “r” “u”

Example 17.3.

ky.

.obu

.y'y.

.abu

“k” “o” “'” “a”

Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words “fail” and “vale” sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely “eff” or “vee”, is enough to discriminate easily between them – and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither “vail” nor “fale” is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.

Note that the lerfu words ending in y were written (in Example 17.2, “ ” and Example 17.3, “ ”) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:

Example 17.4.

mi

cy.

claxu

I

lerfu-

“  c”

without

I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter   “c”.

without a pause after cy would be interpreted as:

Example 17.5.

micyclaxu

(Observative:)

doctor-without

Something unspecified is without a doctor.

A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in y unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.

Upper and lower cases

Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:

Example 17.6.

.iVAN.

the name   “Ivan” in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.

It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo ga'e and to'a representing upper case and lower case respectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them.

The effect of ga'e is to change the interpretation of all lerfu words following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurrence of to'a causes the interpretation to revert to lower case. Thus, ga'e .abu means not “a” but “A”, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus:

Example 17.7.

.ibu

ga'e

vy.

.abu

ny.

to'a

i

[upper]

V

A

N

[lower]

The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called “shift words”.

How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.

It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo tau, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See the section called “List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo” for details.)

A likely use of tau is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:

Example 17.8.

tau

sy.

[single

shift]

S

S (chemical symbol for sulfur)

Example 17.9.

tau

sy.

.ibu

[single

shift]

S

i

Si (chemical symbol for silicon)

If a shift to upper-case is in effect when tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.

The universal bu

So far we have seen bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.

Formally, bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo ba'e, za'e, zei, zo, zoi, la'o, lo'u, si, sa, su, and fa'o may not have bu attached, because they are interpreted before bu detection is done; in particular,

Example 17.10.

zo

bu

the word   “bu”

is needed when discussing bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach bu to itself, but more than one bu may be attached to a word; thus .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably different from .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following words.

The ability to attach bu to words has been used primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name for the “happy face” is .uibu, based on the attitudinal .ui that means “happiness”. Likewise, the “smiley face”, written “:-)” and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is called zo'obu The existence of these names does not mean that you should insert .uibu into running Lojban text to indicate that you are happy, or zo'obu when something is funny; instead, use the appropriate attitudinal directly.

Likewise, joibu represents the ampersand character, “&”, based on the cmavo joi meaning “mixed and”. Many more such lerfu words will probably be invented in future.

The . and , characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words denpa bu (literally, “pause bu”) and slaka bu (literally, “syllable bu”). The written space is mandatory here, because denpa and slaka are normal gismu with normal stress: denpabu would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed denPAbu. No pause is required between denpa (or slaka) and bu, though.

Alien alphabets

As stated in the section called “What's a letteral, anyway?”, Lojban's goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.

There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing systems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to create a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban provides.

One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek “alpha” in running Lojban text is probably most easily handled by calling it .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding bu. Note that the pause after .alfas. is still needed.

Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters “h”, “q”, and “w” that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu word with bu attached. The following assignments have been made:

.y'y.bu

h

ky.bu

q

vy.bu

w

As an example, the English word “quack” would be spelled in Lojban thus:

Example 17.11.

ky.bu

.ubu

.abu

cy.

ky.

“q” “u” “a” “c” “k”

Note that the fact that the letter “c” in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.

A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in languages other than English:

ty.bu

þ (thorn)

dy.bu

ð (edh)

However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thing, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with bu added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu word would be .Omikron. bu, with four syllables and two mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to choose?

The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to those introduced in the section called “Upper and lower cases”. After the appearance of such a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for example, the lerfu word ty would represent not Latin “t” but Greek “tau”. Why “tau”? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterpart of “t” within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would be all right to map ty. to “phi” or even “omega”, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extremely hard to remember.

Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a bu form. Since a bu form may mean different things in different alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when bu forms are in use.

Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o BY:

lo'a

Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet

ge'o

Greek alphabet

je'o

Hebrew alphabet

jo'o

Arabic alphabet

ru'o

Cyrillic alphabet

The cmavo zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with bu suffixed:

Example 17.12.

zai

.devanagar.

bu

Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet

Example 17.13.

zai

.katakan.

bu

Japanese katakana syllabary

Example 17.14.

zai

.xiragan.

bu

Japanese hiragana syllabary

Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (Note the . characters marking leading and following pauses.)

In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional “font and face” distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cmavo ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:

Example 17.15.

ce'a

.xelveticas.

bu

Helvetica font

Example 17.16.

ce'a

.xancisk.

bu

handwriting

Example 17.17.

ce'a

.pavrel.

bu

12-point

font

size

The cmavo na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than lo'a, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving font and case shifts in place.

Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of proposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.

Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels, called (in English) “acute”, “grave”, and “circumflex”. Likewise, German uses a mark called “umlaut”; a mark which looks the same is also used in French, but with a different name and meaning.

These marks may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojban. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words must be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representing the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer programs that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent mark before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often pronounced afterwards (for example, in German “a umlaut” is preferred to “umlaut a”).

Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo tei (of selma'o TEI) and foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word “été”, with acute accent marks on both “e” lerfu, could be spelled as:

Example 17.18.

tei

.ebu

.akut.

bu

foi

ty.

tei

.akut.

bu

.ebu

foi

(   “e” acute ) “t” ( acute “e”)

and it does not matter whether akut. bu appears before or after .ebu; the tei…foi grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by Example 17.18, “ ” would rarely be required: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.

This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolved by further conventions not yet established.

Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like “ll” and “ch” in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by enclosing the combination in tei…foi.

In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally or well understood from context: thus Spanish “ll” or Croatian “lj” could be called .ibu, but that usage would not necessarily be universally understood.

the section called “Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters” contains a table of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.

Punctuation marks

Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo lau of selma'o LAU. lau must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a bu suffix.

Why is lau necessary at all? Why not just use a bu-marked word and announce that it is always to be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban users to make up bu words without bothering to explain what they mean. Using the lau cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of zai to signal an alphabet shift or ce'a to signal a font shift.)

Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the interpretation of a lau-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.

What about Chinese characters?

Chinese characters ( “han 4 zi 4” in Chinese, kanji in Japanese) represent an entirely different approach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanese hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoken language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chinese. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters that can exist, and many thousands are in regular use.

It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift words, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there are various possible ways around the problem.

First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet representations, known as “pinyin” for Chinese and “romaji” for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the word “han 4 zi 4” is conventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:

Example 17.19.

.y'y.bu

.abu

ny.

vo

zy.

.ibu

vo

“h” “a” “n” 4 “z” “i” 4

The cmavo vo is the Lojban digit “4”. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in the section called “Accent marks and compound lerfu words”.

The Japanese company named “Mitsubishi” in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:

Example 17.20.

my.

.ibu

ty.

sy.

.ubu

by.

.ibu

sy.

.y'y.bu

.ibu

“m” “i” “t” “s” “u” “b” “i” “s” “h” “i”

Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with a tei, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.

lerfu words as pro-sumti

So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term “lerfu string” is introduced: it is short for “sequence of one or more lerfu words”.

A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti ko'a, ko'e, and so on:

Example 17.21.

.abu

prami

by.

A loves B

In Example 17.21, “ ”, .abu and by. represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.

Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by goi, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:

Example 17.22.

le

gerku

goi

gy.

cu

xekri

.i

gy.

klama

le

zdani

The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.

There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be found for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban with that lerfu. So Example 17.22, “ ” can be rephrased:

Example 17.23.

le

gerku

cu

xekri.

.i

gy.

klama

le

zdani

The dog is black. G goes to the house.

(A less literal English translation would use “D” for “dog” instead.)

Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:

Example 17.24.

la

stivn.

mark.

djonz.

merko

.i

la

.aleksandr.

paliitc.

kuzNIETsyf.

rusko

.i

symyjy.

tavla

.abupyky.

bau

la

lojban.

Steven

Mark

Jones

is-American.

Alexander

Pavlovitch

Kuznetsov

is-Russian.

SMJ

talks-to

APK

in

Lojban.

Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as ru'o.abupyky instead.

What about

Example 17.25.

.abu

dunda

by.

cy.

A gives B C

Does this mean that A gives B to C? No. by. cy. is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use boi is to attach a free modifier – subscript, parenthesis, or what have you – to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:

Example 17.26.

.abu

[boi]

dunda

by.

boi

cy.

[boi]

A gives B to C

where the two occurrences of boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:

Example 17.27.

xy.

boi

ro

[boi]

prenu

cu

prami

X

all

persons

loves.

X loves everybody.

requires the first boi to separate the lerfu string xy. from the digit string ro.

References to lerfu

The rules of the section called “lerfu words as pro-sumti” make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:

Example 17.28.

.abu.

cu

lerfu

A

is-a-letteral.

the hearer would try to find what previous sumti .abu refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.

Example 17.29.

me'o

.abu

cu

lerfu

The-expression   “a” is-a-letteral.

Now we can translate Example 17.1, “ ” into Lojban:

Example 17.30.

dei

vasru

vo

lerfu

po'u

me'o

.ebu

this-sentence

contains

four

letterals

which-are

the-expression

“  e”

.

This sentence contains four   “e” s.

Since the Lojban sentence has only four e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one – but Example 17.31, “ ” is a Lojban truth just as Example 17.1, “ ” is an English truth. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of Example 17.31, “ ” is also true!

The reader might be tempted to use quotation with lu…li'u instead of me'o, producing:

Example 17.31.

lu

.abu

li'u

cu

lerfu

[quote]

.abu

[unquote]

is-a-letteral.

(The single-word quote zo cannot be used, because .abu is a compound cmavo.) But Example 17.31, “ ” is false, because it says:

Example 17.32.

The word .abu is a letteral

which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:

Example 17.33.

la'e

lu

.abu

li'u

cu

lerfu

The-referent-of

[quote]

.abu

[unquote]

is-a-letteral.

which is correct.

Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban, so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.

- A lerfu string as mathematical variable:

Example 17.34.

li

.abu

du

li

by.

su'i

cy.

the-number

a

equals

the-number

b

plus

c

a = b + c

- A lerfu string as function name (preceded by ma'o of selma'o MAhO):

Example 17.35.

li

.y.bu

du

li

ma'o

fy.

boi

xy.

the-number

y

equals

the

number

the-function

f

of

x

y = f(x)

Note the boi here to separate the lerfu strings fy and xy.

- A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):

Example 17.36.

le

vi

ratcu

ny.moi

le'i

mi

ratcu

the

here

rat

is-nth-of

the-set-of

my

rats

This rat is my Nth rat.

- A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI):

Example 17.37.

ny.mai

Nthly

- A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by xi of selma'o XI):

Example 17.38.

xy.

xi

ky.

x

sub

k

- A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in vei…ve'o parentheses):

Example 17.39.

vei

ny.

[ve'o]

lo

prenu

(

“  n”

)

persons

The parentheses are required because ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti, ny. and lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo ve'o, can usually be elided.

All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojban, .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication “a × b × c” but is the variable abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the value of a variable like abc, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values of the variables a, b, and c multiplied together.)

There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.

Acronyms

An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are “DNA”, “NATO”, “CIA”. In English, some of these are spelled out (like “DNA” and “CIA”) and others are pronounced more or less as if they were ordinary English words (like “NATO”). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunciations: “SQL” may be “ess cue ell” or “sequel”.

In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:

Example 17.40.

la

dyny'abub.

.i

la

ny'abuty'obub.

.i

la

cy'ibu'abub.

.i

la

sykybulyl.

.i

la

.ibubymym.

.i

la

ny'ybucyc.

DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.

There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In Example 17.40, “ ”, the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.

Some compression can be done by leaving out bu after vowel lerfu words (except for .y.bu, wherein the bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:

Example 17.41.

la

dyny'am.

.i

la

ny'aty'om.

.i

la

cy'i'am.

.i

la

sykybulym.

.i

la

.ibymym.

.i

la

ny'ybucym.

DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.

In Example 17.41, “ ”, the final consonant m stands for merko, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.

Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a ' character, is to use the consonant z instead of ':

Example 17.42.

la

dynyzaz.

.i

la

nyzatyzoz.

.i

la

cyzizaz.

.i

la

sykybulyz.

.i

la

.ibymyz.

.i

la

nyzybucyz.

DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.

One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with me, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:

Example 17.43.

la

me

dy

ny.

.abu

that-named what-pertains-to   “d” “n” “a”

This works because la, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:

Example 17.44.

la

cribe

cu

ciska

That-named

“  Bear”

writes.

Bear is a writer.

Example 17.44, “ ” does not of course refer to a bear ( le cribe or lo cribe) but to something else, probably a person, named “Bear”. Similarly, me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can be used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual lerfu words.

Computerized character codes

Since the first application of computers to non-numerical information, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called “character codes”) into selected lerfu, digits, and punctuation marks (collectively called “characters”). Historically, these character sets have only covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using the cmavo se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set:

Example 17.45.

me'o

se'ecixa

cu

lerfu

la

.asycy'i'is.

loi

merko

rupnu

The-expression

[code]

36

is-a-letteral

in-set

ASCII

for-the-mass-of

American

currency-units.

The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.

“$” represents American dollars.

Understanding Example 17.45, “ ” depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the “$” character. Therefore, the se'e convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.

As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:

Example 17.46.

me'o

se'erexarerei

sinxa

le

ka

panpi

the-expression

[code]

262E

is-a-sign-of

the

quality-of

being-at-peace

When a se'e string appears in running discourse, some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other base, and which character set is in use.

List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

bu

BU

makes previous word into a lerfu word

ga'e

BY

upper case shift

to'a

BY

lower case shift

tau

LAU

case-shift next lerfu word only

lo'a

BY

Latin/Lojban alphabet shift

ge'o

BY

Greek alphabet shift

je'o

BY

Hebrew alphabet shift

jo'o

BY

Arabic alphabet shift

ru'o

BY

Cyrillic alphabet shift

se'e

BY

following digits are a character code

na'a

BY

cancel all shifts

zai

LAU

following lerfu word specifies alphabet

ce'a

LAU

following lerfu word specifies font

lau

LAU

following lerfu word is punctuation

tei

TEI

start compound lerfu word

foi

FOI

end compound lerfu word

Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where “equivalent” means: either any Lojban word followed by bu, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a tei…foi compound cmavo.

Proposed lerfu words – introduction

The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.

These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down into a final, conventional form.

For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see the section called “A to Z in Lojban, plus one” (for Lojban) and the section called “Alien alphabets” (for non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).

Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

alpha

.alfas. bu

.abu

beta

.betas. bu

by

gamma

.gamas. bu

gy

delta

.deltas. bu

dy

epsilon

.Epsilon. bu

.ebu

zeta

.zetas. bu

zy

eta

.etas. bu

.e'ebu

theta

.tetas. bu

ty. bu

iota

.iotas. bu

.ibu

kappa

.kapas. bu

ky

lambda

.lymdas. bu

ly

mu

.mus. bu

my

nu

.nus. bu

ny

xi

.ksis. bu

ksis. bu

omicron

.Omikron. bu

.obu

pi

.pis. bu

py

rho

.ros. bu

ry

sigma

.sigmas. bu

sy

tau

.taus. bu

ty

upsilon

.Upsilon. bu

.ubu

phi

.fis. bu

py. bu

chi

.xis. bu

ky. bu

psi

.psis. bu

psis. bu

omega

.omegas. bu

.o'obu

rough

.dasei,as. bu

.y'y

smooth

.psiles. bu

xutla bu

Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

The second column in this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as needed.

a

.azys. bu

.abu

b

.bukys. bu

by

v

.vedis. bu

vy

g

.glagolis. bu

gy

d

.dobros. bu

dy

e

.iestys. bu

.ebu

zh

.jivet. bu

jy

z

.zemlias. bu

zy

i

.ije,is. bu

.ibu

short i

.itord. bu

.itord. bu

k

.kakos. bu

ky

l

.liudi,ies. bu

ly

m

.myslites. bu

my

n

.naciys. bu

ny

o

.onys. bu

.obu

p

.pokois. bu

py

r

.riytsis. bu

ry

s

.slovos. bu

sy

t

.tyvriydos. bu

ty

u

.ukys. bu

.ubu

f

.friytys. bu

fy

kh

.xerys. bu

xy

ts

.tsis. bu

tsys. bu

ch

.tcriyviys. bu

tcys. bu

sh

.cas. bu

cy

shch

.ctas. bu

ctcys. bu

hard sign

.ier. bu

jdari bu

yeri

.ierys. bu

.y.bu

soft sign

.ieriys. bu

ranti bu

reversed e

.ecarn. bu

.ecarn. bu

yu

.ius. bu

.iubu

ya

.ias. bu

.iabu

Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

aleph

.alef. bu

.alef. bu

bet

.bet. bu

by

gimel

.gimel. bu

gy

daled

.daled. bu

dy

he

.xex. bu

.y'y

vav

.vav. bu

vy

zayin

.zai,in. bu

zy

khet

.xet. bu

xy. bu

tet

.tet. bu

ty. bu

yud

.iud. bu

.iud. bu

kaf

.kaf. bu

ky

lamed

.LYmed. bu

ly

mem

.mem. bu

my

nun

.nun. bu

ny

samekh

.samex. bu

samex. bu

ayin

.ai,in. bu

.ai,in bu

pe

.pex. bu

py

tzadi

.tsadik. bu

tsadik. bu

quf

.kuf. bu

ky. bu

resh

.rec. bu

ry

shin

.cin. bu

cy

sin

.sin. bu

sy

taf

.taf. bu

ty.

dagesh

.daGEC. bu

daGEC. bu

hiriq

.xirik. bu

.ibu

tzeirekh

.tseirex. bu

.eibu

segol

.seGOL. bu

.ebu

qubbutz

.kubuts. bu

.ubu

qamatz

.kamats. bu

.abu

patach

.patax. bu

.a'abu

sheva

.cyVAS. bu

.y.bu

kholem

.xolem. bu

.obu

shuruq

.curuk. bu

.u'ubu

Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish “dark” l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.

acute

.akut. bu or .pritygal. bu [pritu   galtu]

grave

.grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [zunle   galtu]

circumflex

.cirkumfleks. bu or .midgal. bu [midju   galtu]

tilde

.tildes. bu

macron

.makron. bu

breve

.brevis. bu

over-dot

.gapmoc. bu [gapru   mokca]

umlaut/trema

.relmoc. bu [re   mokca]

over-ring

.gapyjin. bu [gapru   djine]

cedilla

.seDIlys. bu

double-acute

.re'akut. bu [re akut.]

ogonek

.ogoniek. bu

hacek

.xatcek. bu

ligatured fi

tei fy. ibu foi

Danish/Latin ae ae

tei .abu .ebu foi

Dutch ij

tei .ibu jy. foi

German es-zed

tei sy. zy. foi

Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as the “ICAO Phonetic Alphabet”, and are used even in non-English-speaking countries.

This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus carlis. bu, not tcarlis. bu).

Alfa

.alfas. bu

Bravo

.bravos. bu

Charlie

.carlis. bu

Delta

.deltas. bu

Echo

.ekos. bu

Foxtrot

.fokstrot. bu

Golf

.golf. bu

Hotel

.xoTEL. bu

India

.indias. bu

Juliet

.juliet. bu

Kilo

.kilos. bu

Lima

.limas. bu

Mike

.maik. bu

November

.novembr. bu

Oscar

.oskar. bu

Papa

.paPAS. bu

Quebec

.keBEK. bu

Romeo

.romios. bu

Sierra

.sieras. bu

Tango

.tangos. bu

Uniform

.Uniform. bu

Victor

.viktas. bu

Whiskey

.uiskis. bu

X-ray

.eksreis. bu

Yankee

.iankis. bu

Zulu

.zulus. bu

Chapter 18. lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban

Introductory

lojbau mekso ( “Lojbanic mathematical-expression”) is the part of the Lojban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statements. Its formal design goals include:

1. representing all the different forms of expression used by mathematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambiguously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expect a listener to understand it;

2. providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full resources of Lojban;

3. permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, of unambiguous mathematical text;

4. encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in natural languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary language situations than natural languages allow.

Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notation such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision for all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used.

Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either side at many points.

Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is culturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However, international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For example, the expression

Example 18.1.

3x + 2y

contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpretations for the strings “3x” and “2y” than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of Example 18.1, “ ” must not omit the multiplication operators.

The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those components – as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clarified.

Lojban numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pa

PA

1

re

PA

2

ci

PA

3

vo

PA

4

mu

PA

5

xa

PA

6

ze

PA

7

bi

PA

8

so

PA

9

no

PA

0

The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples:

Example 18.2.

pa

re

ci

one

two

three

123

one hundred and twenty three

Example 18.3.

pa

no

one

zero

10

ten

Example 18.4.

pa

re

ci

vo

mu

xa

ze

bi

so

no

one

two

three

four

five

six

seven

eight

nine

zero

1234567890

one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.

Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for “ten”, “hundred”, etc.

There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for no, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels a, e, i, and o respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments.

Signs and numerical punctuation

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma'u

PA

positive sign

ni'u

PA

negative sign

pi

PA

decimal point

fi'u

PA

fraction slash

ra'e

PA

repeating decimal

ce'i

PA

percent sign

ki'o

PA

comma between digits

A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of ma'u and ni'u, which are the positive and negative signs as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example:

Example 18.5.

ni'u

pa

negative-sign

1

-1

Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are attached. It is also possible to use ma'u and ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numbers is explained in the section called “Indefinite numbers”.

Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following examples:

Example 18.6.

ci

pi

pa

vo

pa

mu

three

point

one

four

one

five

3.1415

(In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symbolic version of Example 18.6, “ ”; pi is still the Lojban representation for the decimal point.)

Example 18.7.

re

fi'u

ze

two

fraction

seven

2/7

Example 18.7, “ ” is the name of the number two-sevenths; it is not the same as “the result of 2 divided by 7” in Lojban, although numerically these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present but the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the reciprocal of the following number:

Example 18.8.

fi'u

ze

fraction

seven

1/7

Example 18.9.

pi

ci

mu

ra'e

pa

vo

re

bi

mu

ze

point

three

five

repeating

one

four

two

eight

five

seven

.35142857142857...

Note that the ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating portion “142857” begins.

Example 18.10.

ci

mu

ce'i

three

five

percent

35%

Example 18.11.

pa

ki'o

re

ci

vo

ki'o

mu

xa

ze

one

comma

two

three

four

comma

five

six

seven

1,234,567

(In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representation of Example 18.11, “ ”; ki'o is still the Lojban representation.)

It is also possible to have less than three digits between successive ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been elided:

Example 18.12.

pa

ki'o

re

ci

ki'o

vo

one

comma

two

three

comma

four

1,023,004

In the same way, ki'o can be used after pi to divide fractions into groups of three:

Example 18.13.

pi

ki'o

re

re

point

comma

two

two

.022

Example 18.14.

pi

pa

ki'o

pa

re

ki'o

pa

point

one

comma

one

two

comma

one

.001012001

Special numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ci'i

PA

infinity

ka'o

PA

imaginary   i, sqrt(-1)

pai

PA

π,   pi (approx 3.14159...)

te'o

PA

exponential   e (approx 2.71828...)

fi'u

PA

golden ratio,   Φ, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.61803...)

The last cmavo is the same as the fraction sign cmavo: a fraction sign with neither numerator nor denominator represents the golden ratio.

Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-number cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination:

Example 18.15.

ma'u

ci'i

+∞

Example 18.16.

ci

ka'o

re

3i2 (a complex number equivalent to   3 + 2i)

Note that ka'o is both a special number (meaning “i”) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real and the imaginary parts of a complex number).

Example 18.17.

ci'i

no

infinity zero

ℵ_0 (a transfinite cardinal)

The special numbers pai and te'o are mathematically important, which is why they are given their own cmavo:

Example 18.18.

pai

pi,   π

Example 18.19.

te'o

e

However, many combinations are as yet undefined:

Example 18.20.

pa

pi

re

pi

ci

1.2.3

Example 18.21.

pa

ni'u

re

1

negative-sign

2

Example 18.21, “ ” is not “1 minus 2”, which is represented by a different cmavo sequence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number system.

It is possible, of course, that some of these “oddities” do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure differently.

More information on numbers may be found in the section called “Indefinite numbers” to the section called “Number questions”.

Simple infix expressions and equations

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

du

GOhA

equals

su'i

VUhU

plus

vu'u

VUhU

minus

pi'i

VUhU

times

te'a

VUhU

raised to the power

ny.

BY

letter

vei

VEI

left parenthesis

ve'o

VEhO

right parenthesis

Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to:

Example 18.22.

li

pa

su'i

pa

du

li

re

The-number

one

plus

one

equals

the-number

two.

1 + 1 = 2

Example 18.22, “ ”, a mekso sentence, is a regular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features. du is the predicate meaning “x1 is mathematically equal to x2”. It is a cmavo for conciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathematical contexts, du means “x1 is identical with x2” or “x1 is the same object as x2”.

The cmavo li is the number article. It is required whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantify things. For example:

Example 18.23.

le

ci

prenu

the three persons

requires no li article, because the ci is being used to specify the number of prenu. However, the sentence

Example 18.24.

levi

sfani

cu

grake

li

ci

This

fly

masses-in-grams

the-number

three.

This fly has a mass of 3 grams.

requires li because ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the second place. Using li for le in Example 18.23, “ ” would produce

Example 18.25.

li

ci

prenu

The-number

3

is-a-person.

which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.

The cmavo su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathematical operators, and means “addition”. As mentioned before, it is distinct from ma'u which means the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:

Example 18.26.

li

ma'u

pa

su'i

ni'u

pa

du

li

no

The-number

positive-sign

one

plus

negative-sign

one

equals

the-number

zero.

+1 + -1 = 0

Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of du:

Example 18.27.

li

mu

su'i

pa

du

li

ci

su'i

ci

The-number

five

plus

one

equals

the-number

three

plus

three.

5 + 1 = 3 + 3

Why don't we say li mu su'i li pa rather than just li mu su'i pa? The answer is that VUhU operators connect mekso operands (numbers, in Example 18.27, “ ”), not general sumti. li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in Example 18.27, “ ”, filling the places of a bridi

By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathematics: there is no notion of “operator precedence”. Consider the following example, where pi'i means “times”, the multiplication operator:

Example 18.28.

li

ci

su'i

vo

pi'i

mu

du

li

reci

The-number

three

plus

four

times

five

equals

the-number

two-three.

3 + 4 × 5 = 23

Is the Lojban version of Example 18.28, “ ” true? No! “3 + 4 × 5” is indeed 23, because the usual conventions of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition; that is, the multiplication “4 × 5” is done first, giving 20, and only then the addition “3 + 20”. But VUhU operators by default are done left to right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be:

Example 18.29.

li

ci

su'i

vo

pi'i

mu

du

li

cimu

The-number

three

plus

four

times

five

equals

the-number

three-five.

3 + 4 × 5 = 35

Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 × 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simplicity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of mathematics. What can be done?

There are three solutions, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution is to ignore the problem. People will say li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, because the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one area.

(Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are different.)

The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the precedence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be explained in the section called “Explicit operator precedence”.

The third solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with the cmavo bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus,

Example 18.30.

li

ci

su'i

vo

bi'e

pi'i

mu

du

li

reci

The-number

three

plus

four-times-five

equals

the-number

two-three.

3 + 4 × 5 = 23

is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allowed.

In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses vei and ve'o, which can be used just like their written equivalents “(” and “)” to group expressions in any way desired:

Example 18.31.

li

vei

ny.

su'i

pa

ve'o

pi'i

vei

ny.

su'i

pa

[ve'o]

du

li

ny.

[bi'e]

te'a

re

su'i

re

bi'e

pi'i

ny.

su'i

pa

The-number

(

n

plus

one)

times

(

n

plus

one)

equals

the-number

n-power-two

plus

two-times-

n

plus

1.

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n

There are several new usages in Example 18.31, “ ”: te'a means “raised to the power”, and we also see the use of the lerfu word ny, representing the letter “n”. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ordinary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu words (called a “lerfu string”) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word, in agreement with computer-science conventions; “abc” is a single variable, not the equivalent of “a × b × c”. (Of course, a local convention could state that the value of a variable like “abc”, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values of the variables “a”, “b”, and “c” multiplied together.)

The explicit operator pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form whereas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator: the first use of it in Example 18.31, “ ” is required, but the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not necessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the other one.

Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

boi

BOI

numeral/lerfu string terminator

va'a

VUhU

negation/additive inverse

pe'o

PEhO

forethought flag

ku'e

KUhE

forethought terminator

py.

BY

letter   “p”

xy.

BY

letter   “x”

zy.

BY

letter   “z”

ma'o

MAhO

convert operand to operator

fy.

BY

letter   “f”

The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes, but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators have exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from context or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.

But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression in such cases is the use of “forethought operators”, also known as Polish notation. In this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the operands afterwards:

Example 18.32.

li

su'i

paboi

reboi

ci[boi]

du

li

xa

The-number

the-sum-of

one

two

three

equals

the-number

six.

sum(1,2,3) = 6

Note that the normally elidable number terminator boi is required after pa and re because otherwise the reading would be pareci= 123. It is not required after ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sake of symmetry. The only time boi is required is, as in Example 18.32, “ ”, when there are two consecutive numbers or lerfu strings.

Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in Example 18.32, “ ”, three. How do we know how many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban solution is employed: an elidable terminator, namely ku'e. Here is an example:

Example 18.33.

li

py.

su'i

va'a

ny.

ku'e

su'i

zy

du

li

xy.

The-number

“  p”

plus

negative-of(

“  n”

)

plus

“  z”

equals

the-number

“  x”

.

p + -n + z = x

where we know that va'a is a forethought operator because there is no operand preceding it.

va'a is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU. In contrast, vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but only for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse va'a and vu'u, which are operators, with ni'u, which is part of a number.

In Example 18.33, “ ”, the operator va'a and the terminator ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regular parentheses vei and ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the ku'e were omitted, the su'i zy would be swallowed up by the va'a forethought operator, which would then appear to have two operands, ny and su'i zy., where the latter is also a forethought expression.

Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functional notation. How do we represent “z = f(x)”? The answer is:

Example 18.34.

li

zy

du

li

ma'o

fy.boi

xy.

The-number

z

equals

the-number

the-operator

f

x.

z = f(x)

Again, no parentheses are used. The construct ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, and appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special flag ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo xy. and zy. are variables, but fy. is an operator (a function) because ma'o marks it as such. The boi is required because otherwise the xy. would look like part of the operator name. (The use of ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso operand: see the section called “Miscellany”.)

When using forethought mekso, the optional marker pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. This usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked pe'o and ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list. Example 18.32, “ ” to Example 18.34, “ ”, respectively, with explicit pe'o and ku'e:

Example 18.35.

li

pe'o

su'i

paboi

reboi

ciboi

ku'e

du

li

xa

Example 18.36.

li

py.

su'i

pe'o

va'a

ny.

ku'e

su'i

zy

du

li

xy.

Example 18.37.

li

zy

du

li

pe'o

ma'o

fy.boi

xy.

ku'e

Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands really are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless parenthesized with vei and ve'o. An earlier version of the complex Example 18.119, “ ” came to grief because I forgot this rule.

Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving du. What about inequalities such as “x < 5”? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:

Example 18.38.

li

xy.

mleca

li

mu

The-number

x

is-less-than

the-number

5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:

du

x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...

dunli

x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3

mleca

x1 is less than x2

zmadu

x1 is greater than x2

dubjavme'a

x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equal or less]

dubjavmau

x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equal or greater]

tamdu'i

x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shape-equal]

turdu'i

x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, structure-equal]

cmima

x1 is a member of set x2

gripau

x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-part]

na'ujbi

x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, number-near]

terci'e

x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3

Note the difference between dunli and du; dunli has a third place that specifies the kind of equality that is meant. du refers to actual identity, and can have any number of places:

Example 18.39.

py.

du

xy.boi

zy.

“  p”

is-identical-to

“  x”

“  z”

p = x = z

Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the du is not repeated.

Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with na, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that the relation is false:

Example 18.40.

li

re

su'i

re

na

du

li

mu

the-number

2

+

2

is-not

equal-to

the-number

5.

2 + 2 ≠ 5

As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not say anything about what might be true.

Indefinite numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro

PA

all

so'a

PA

almost all

so'e

PA

most

so'i

PA

many

so'o

PA

several

so'u

PA

a few

no'o

PA

the typical number of

da'a

PA

all but (one) of

rau

PA

enough

du'e

PA

too many

mo'a

PA

too few

Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathematical sense. For example, the cmavo ro means “all” or “each”. This number does not have a definite value in the abstract: li ro is undefined. But when used to count or quantify something, the parallel between ro and pa is clearer:

Example 18.41.

mi

catlu

pa

prenu

I

look-at

one

person

Example 18.42.

mi

catlu

ro

prenu

I

look-at

all

persons

Example 18.41, “ ” might be true, whereas Example 18.42, “ ” is almost certainly false.

The cmavo so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, and so'u represent a set of indefinite numbers less than ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:

Example 18.43.

mi

catlu

so'a

prenu

I

look-at

almost-all

persons

Example 18.44.

mi

catlu

so'e

prenu

I

look-at

most

persons

Example 18.45.

mi

catlu

so'i

prenu

I

look-at

many

persons

Example 18.46.

mi

catlu

so'o

prenu

I

look-at

several

persons

Example 18.47.

mi

catlu

so'u

prenu

I

look-at

a-few

persons

The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space for up to five indefinite numbers between ro and no, with a built-in ordering. In particular, so'e does not mean “most” in the sense of “a majority” or “more than half”.

Each of these numbers, plus ro, may be prefixed with pi (the decimal point) in order to make a fractional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality. piro therefore means “the whole of”:

Example 18.48.

mi

citka

piro

lei

nanba

I

eat

the-whole-of

the-mass-of

bread

Similarly, piso'a means “almost the whole of”; and so on down to piso'u, “a tiny part of”. These numbers are particularly appropriate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as Example 18.48, “ ” shows.

In addition to these cmavo, there is no'o, meaning “the typical value”, and pino'o, meaning “the typical portion”: Sometimes no'o can be translated “the average value”, but the average in question is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appropriately represented by operators.

Example 18.49.

mi

catlu

no'o

prenu

I

look-at

a-typical-number-of

persons

Example 18.50.

mi

citka

pino'o

lei

nanba

I

eat

a-typical-amount-of

the-mass-of

bread.

da'a is a related cmavo meaning “all but”:

Example 18.51.

mi

catlu

da'a

re

prenu

I

look-at

all-but

two

persons

Example 18.52.

mi

catlu

da'a

so'u

prenu

I

look-at

all-but

a-few

persons

Example 18.52, “ ” is similar in meaning to Example 18.43, “ ”.

If no number follows da'a, then pa is assumed; da'a by itself means “all but one”, or in ordinal contexts “all but the last”:

Example 18.53.

ro

ratcu

ka'e

citka

da'a

ratcu

All

rats

can

eat

all-but-one

rats.

All rats can eat all other rats.

(The use of da'a means that Example 18.53, “ ” does not require that all rats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot eat, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictates that “itself” is, indeed, the “other” rat.)

As mentioned in the section called “Signs and numerical punctuation”, ma'u and ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean “some positive number” and “some negative number” respectively.

Example 18.54.

li

ci

vu'u

re

du

li

ma'u

the-number

3

−

2

=

some-positive-number

Example 18.55.

li

ci

vu'u

vo

du

li

ni'u

the-number

3

−

4

=

some-negative-number

Example 18.56.

mi

ponse

ma'u

rupnu

I

possess

a-positive-number-of

currency-units.

All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers ( rairgugde, “superlative-states”) in the world, then ro rairgugde means the same as xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however, to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo rau (enough), du'e (too many), and mo'a (too few) are then appropriate:

Example 18.57.

mi

ponse

rau

rupnu

I

possess

enough

currency-units.

Like the so'a-series, rau, du'e, and mo'a can be preceded by pi; for example, pirau means “a sufficient part of.”

Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the given context:

Example 18.58.

mi

viska

le

rore

gerku

I

saw

the

all-of/two

dogs.

I saw both dogs.

Example 18.59.

mi

speni

so'ici

prenu

I

am-married-to

many/three

persons.

I am married to three persons (which is   “many” in the circumstances).

Example 18.59, “ ” assumes a mostly monogamous culture by stating that three is “many”.

Approximation and inexact numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ji'i

PA

approximately

su'e

PA

at most

su'o

PA

at least

me'i

PA

less than

za'u

PA

more than

The cmavo ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number, the whole number is approximate:

Example 18.60.

ji'i

vo

no

approximation

four

zero

approximately 40

If ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits following it are approximate:

Example 18.61.

vo

no

ji'i

mu

no

four

zero

approximation

five

zero

roughly 4050 (where the   “four thousand” is exact, but the “fifty” is approximate)

If ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign cmavo ( ma'u or ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.

Example 18.62.

re

pi

ze

re

ji'i

two

point

seven

two

approximation

2.72 (rounded)

Example 18.63.

re

pi

ze

re

ji'i

ma'u

two

point

seven

two

approximation

positive-sign

2.72 (rounded up)

Example 18.64.

re

pi

ze

pa

ji'i

ni'u

two

point

seven

one

approximation

negative-sign

2.71 (rounded down)

Example 18.62, “ ” through Example 18.64, “ ” are all approximations to te'o (exponential e). ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case it means “approximately the typical value in this context”.

The four cmavo su'e, su'o, me'i, and za'u, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:

Example 18.65.

mi

catlu

su'e

re

prenu

I

look-at

at-most

two

persons

Example 18.66.

mi

catlu

su'o

re

prenu

I

look-at

at-least

two

persons

Example 18.67.

mi

catlu

me'i

re

prenu

I

look-at

less-than

two

persons

Example 18.68.

mi

catlu

za'u

re

prenu

I

look-at

more-than

two

persons

Each of these is a subtly different claim: Example 18.66, “ ” is true of two or any greater number, whereas Example 18.68, “ ” requires three persons or more. Likewise, Example 18.65, “ ” refers to zero, one, or two; Example 18.67, “ ” to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers, me'i re can be any number less than 2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier, “exactly 2, neither more nor less” is just re. Note that su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals.

If no number follows one of these cmavo, pa is understood: therefore,

Example 18.69.

mi

catlu

su'o

prenu

I

look-at

at-least

[one]

person

is a meaningful claim.

Like the numbers in the section called “Indefinite numbers”, all of these cmavo may be preceded by pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a whole. For example, pisu'o means “at least some part of”. The quantifiers ro, su'o, piro, and pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA and LE, as explained in the section called “Quantified descriptions”. Descriptions in general are outside the scope of this chapter.

Non-decimal and compound bases

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ju'u

VUhU

to the base

dau

PA

hex digit A = 10

fei

PA

hex digit B = 11

gai

PA

hex digit C = 12

jau

PA

hex digit D = 13

rei

PA

hex digit E = 14

vai

PA

hex digit F = 15

pi'e

PA

compound base point

In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particular circumstances.

To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator ju'u is suitable:

Example 18.70.

li

pa

no

pa

no

ju'u

re

du

li

pa

no

The-number

1010

base

2

equals

the-number

10.

Here, the final pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been worked out.)

Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided:

Example 18.71.

li

daufeigai

ju'u

paxa

du

li

rezevobi

The-number

ABC

base

16

equals

the-number

2748.

Example 18.72.

li

jaureivai

ju'u

paxa

du

li

cimuxaze

The-number

DEF

base

16

equals

the-number

3567.

Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs au, ei, ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 – there was simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.

The base point pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10:

Example 18.73.

li

vai

pi

bi

ju'u

paxa

du

li

pamu

pi

mu

The-number

F.8

base

16

equals

the-number

15.5.

Since ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which is not a constant.

There are some numerical values that require a “base” that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three “digits”: the first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator pi'e is used:

Example 18.74.

ci

pi'e

rere

pi'e

vono

3:22:40

Each digit sequence separated by instances of pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the number as a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by special rules:

Example 18.75.

li

ci

pi'e

rere

pi'e

vono

su'i

pi'e

ci

pi'e

cici

du

li

ci

pi'e

rexa

pi'e

paci

The-number

3:22:40

plus

:3:33

equals

the-number

3:26:13.

3:22:40 + 0:3:33 = 3:26:13

Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the numbers in Example 18.74, “ ” and Example 18.75, “ ” is hours, the second minutes, and the third seconds.

The same mechanism using pi'e can be used to express numbers which have a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from no to paso, each separated by pi'e:

Example 18.76.

li

pa

pi'e

re

pi'e

ci

ju'u

reno

du

li

vovoci

the-number

1;2;3

base

20

equals

the-number

443

Carefully note the difference between:

Example 18.77.

pano

ju'u

reno

the-digit-10

base

20

which is equal to ten, and:

Example 18.78.

pa

pi'e

no

ju'u

reno

1;0

base

20

which is equal to twenty.

Both pi and pi'e can be used to express large-base fractions:

Example 18.79.

li

pa

pi'e

vo

pi

ze

ju'u

reno

du

li

re

vo

pi

ci

mu

The-number

1;4.7

base

20

equals

the-number

24.35.

pi'e is also used where the base of each digit is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:

Example 18.80.

dei

jufra

panopi'epapamoi

This-utterance

is-a-sentence-type-of

10;11th-thing.

This is Sentence 10.11.

Special mekso selbri

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mei

MOI

cardinal selbri

moi

MOI

ordinal selbri

si'e

MOI

portion selbri

cu'o

MOI

probability selbri

va'e

MOI

scale selbri

me

ME

make sumti into selbri

me'u

MEhU

terminator for ME

Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based selbri with specific place structures.

The cmavo mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure is:

x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3

A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical necessity.

Some examples:

Example 18.81.

lei

mi

ratcu

cu

cimei

Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of

my

rats

are-a-threesome.

My

rats

are

three.

I have three rats.

Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.

Another example, with one element this time:

Example 18.82.

mi

poi

pamei

cu

cusku

dei

I

who

am-an-individual

express

this-sentence.

In Example 18.82, “ ”, mi refers to a mass, “the mass consisting of me”. Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.

However, when the number expressed before -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in the section called “Indefinite numbers”, a slightly different place structure is required:

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.

An example:

Example 18.83.

lei

ratcu

poi

zvati

le

panka

cu

so'umei

lo'i

ratcu

The-mass-of

rats

which

are-in

the

park

are

a-fewsome

with-respect-to

the-set-of

rats.

The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.

In Example 18.83, “ ”, the x2 and x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by lo'i ratcu, which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means “the whole of the set of all those things which are rats”, or simply “the set of all rats.”

Example 18.84.

le'i

ratcu

poi

zvati

le

panka

cu

se

so'imei

The-set-of

rats

which-are

in

the

park

is-a

manysome.

There are many rats in the park.

In Example 18.84, “ ”, the conversion cmavo se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats are “many” with respect to some unspecified comparison set.

More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in the section called “Individuals and masses”.

The cmavo moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3

Some examples:

Example 18.85.

ti

pamoi

le'i

mi

ratcu

This-one

is

the

first-of

the

rats

associated-with

me.

This is my first rat.

Example 18.86.

ta

romoi

le'i

mi

ratcu

That

is-the-allth-of

the

rats

associated-with

me.

That is my last rat.

Example 18.87.

mi

raumoi

le

velskina

porsi

I

am-enough-th-in

the

movie-audience

sequence

I

am

enough-th

in

the

movie

line.

Example 18.87, “ ” means, in the appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I will get a seat for the movie.

The cmavo si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2

Some examples:

Example 18.88.

levi

sanmi

cu

fi'ucisi'e

lei

mi

djedi

cidja

This-here

meal

is-a-slash-three-portion-of

my

day-food.

This meal is one-third of my daily food.

The cmavo cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is:

event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2

The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:

Example 18.89.

le

nu

lo

sicni

cu

sedja'o

cu

pimucu'o

The

event

of

a

coin

being

a

head-displayer

has

probability

.5.

The cmavo va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2

If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:

Example 18.90.

le

vi

rozgu

cu

sofi'upanova'e

xunre

This

rose

is

9/10-scale

red.

This

rose

is

9

out

of

10

on

the

scale

of

redness.

This rose is very red.

When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers rau, du'e, or mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for “by standard”. For example:

Example 18.91.

lei

ratcu

poi

zvati

le

panka

cu

du'emei

fo

mi

The-mass-of

rats

which-are

in

the

park

are

too-many

by-standard

me.

There are too many rats in the park for me.

The extra place (which for -mei is the x4 place labeled by fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as ma'i because a specification of the standard for judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like “enough”.

This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a number. Therefore, du'e ratcu means “too many rats” without specifying any standard.

It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:

Example 18.92.

ta

ny.moi

le'i

mi

ratcu

That

is-nth-of

the-set-of

my

rats.

That is my nth rat.

More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expression is required.

The cmavo me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti into a selbri. A whole me construction can have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:

Example 18.93.

ta

me

li

ny.

su'i

pa

me'u

moi

le'i

mi

ratcu

That

is

the-number

n

plus

one-th-of

the-set-of

my

rats.

That

is

my

(n+1)-th

rat.

Here the mekso ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with me and me'u moi. The elidable terminator me'u is required here in order to keep the pa and the moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them into the compound pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.

It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after me and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed:

Example 18.94.

le

nu

mi

nolraitru

cu

me

le'e

snime

bolci

be

vi

la

xel.

cu'o

The

event-of

me

being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler

has-the-stereotypical

snow

type-of-ball

at

Hell

probability.

I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king.

Note: the elidable terminator boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the me'u in Example 18.93, “ ” could also be replaced by a boi, which would serve the same function of preventing the pa and moi from joining into a compound.

Number questions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xo

PA

number question

The cmavo xo, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blank where the answer should go. (See the section called “Questions and answers” for more on Lojban questions.)

Example 18.95.

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

xo

The-number

2

plus

2

equals

the-number

what?

What is 2 + 2?

Example 18.96.

le

xomoi

prenu

cu

darxi

do

The

what-number-th

person

hit

you?

Which

person

[as

in

a

police

lineup]

hit

you?

xo can also be combined with other digits to ask questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:

Example 18.97.

li

remu

pi'i

xa

du

li

paxono

The-number

25

times

6

equals

the-number

1?0

to which the correct reply would be mu, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)

Subscripts

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi

XI

subscript

Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:

Example 18.98.

li

xy.boixici

du

li

xy.boixipa

su'i

xy.boixire

The-number

x-sub-3

equals

the-number

x-sub-1

plus

x-sub-2.

x_3 = x_1 + x_2

Subscripts always begin with the flag xi (of selma'o XI). xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a general mekso expression in parentheses:

Example 18.99.

xy.boixino

x_0

Example 18.100.

xy.boixiny.

xn

Example 18.101.

xy.boixi

vei

ny.

su'i

pa

[ve'o]

x(n+1)

Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an otherwise elidable terminator.

There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these purposes.

The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely boi. By convention, a subscript following another subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript:

Example 18.102.

xy.boi

xi

by.boi

xi

vo

xb_4

See Example 18.123, “ ” for the standard method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object.

More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in the section called “Subscripts: XI”.

Infix operators revisited

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o

PA

null operand

ge'a

VUhU

null operator

gei

VUhU

exponential notation

The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been required. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even though it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tricks: the null operand tu'o and the null operator ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to express the numerical negation operator va'a in infix form. We would use:

Example 18.103.

li

tu'o

va'a

ny.

du

li

no

vu'u

ny.

The-number

(null)

additive-inverse

n

equals

the-number

zero

minus

n.

-n = 0 − n

The tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left operand for the infix use of va'a, even though semantically none is needed or wanted.

Finding a suitable example of ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternary operators are not common. The operator gei, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also called “exponential”) notation. The first operand of gei is the exponent, and the second operand is the mantissa or fraction:

Example 18.104.

li

cinonoki'oki'o

du

li

bi

gei

ci

The-number

three-zero-zero-comma-comma

equals

the-number

eight

scientific

three.

300,000,000 = 3 × 10^8

Why are the arguments to gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic notation? So that gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specification of a large (or small) imprecise number:

Example 18.105.

gei

reno

(scientific)

two-zero

10 20

Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of gei, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default value. Most computers internally store so-called “floating-point” numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (This has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40:

Example 18.106.

papano

bi'eju'u

re

gei

pipanopano

bi'eju'u

re

ge'a

re

(one-one-zero

base

2)

scientific

(point-one-zero-one-zero

base

2)

with-base

2

.1010_2 x 2110_2

Vectors and matrices

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jo'i

JOhI

start vector

te'u

TEhU

end vector

pi'a

VUhU

matrix row combiner

sa'i

VUhU

matrix column combiner

A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands.

jo'i, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of components; te'u is the elidable terminator. An example:

Example 18.107.

li

jo'i

paboi

reboi

te'u

su'i

jo'i

ciboi

voboi

du

li

jo'i

voboi

xaboi

The-number

array

(one,

two)

plus

array

(three,

four)

equals

the-number

array

(four,

six).

(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

Vectors can be combined into matrices using either pi'a, the matrix row operator, or sa'i, the matrix column operator. The first combines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator ge'a.

Therefore, the “magic square” matrix

8

1

6

3

5

7

4

9

2

can be represented either as:

Example 18.108.

jo'i

biboi

paboi

xa

pi'a

jo'i

ciboi

muboi

ze

ge'a

jo'i

voboi

soboi

re

the-vector

(8

1

6)

matrix-row

the-vector

(3

5

7),

the-vector

(4

9

2)

or as

Example 18.109.

jo'i

biboi

ciboi

vo

sa'i

jo'i

paboi

muboi

so

ge'a

jo'i

xaboi

zeboi

re

the-vector

(8

3

4)

matrix-column

the-vector

(1

5

9),

the-vector

(6

7

2)

The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by ma'o.

Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using either pi'a or sa'i with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between pi'a and sa'i.

Reverse Polish notation

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fu'a

FUhA

reverse Polish flag

So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed odd when applied to “+”, but when applied to “f” they appear as the usual functional notation. Now comes a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something completely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation of some programming languages.)

In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso of the kind explained in the section called “Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)”.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no terminator. Here is a simple example:

Example 18.110.

li

fu'a

reboi

ci

su'i

du

li

mu

the-number

(RP!)

two,

three,

plus

equals

the-number

five.

The operands are re and ci; the operator is su'i.

Here is a more complex example:

Example 18.111.

li

fu'a

reboi

ci

pi'i

voboi

mu

pi'i

su'i

du

li

rexa

the-number

(RP!)

(two,

three,

times),

(four,

five,

times),

plus

equals

the-number

two-six

Here the operands of the first pi'i are re and ci; the operands of the second pi'i are vo and mu (with boi inserted where needed), and the operands of the su'i are reboi ci pi'i, or 6, and voboi mu pi'i, or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doesn't get lost) to comprehend.

The operands of an RP operator can be any legal mekso operand, including parenthesized mekso that can contain any valid syntax, whether more RP or something more conventional.

In Lojban, RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operands. What about operators which require only one operand, or more than two operands? The null operand tu'o and the null operator ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator like va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context as tu'o va'a. The tu'o provides the second operand, which is semantically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version of gei appears in reverse Polish as ge'a gei, where the ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a single operand. Here are some examples:

Example 18.112.

li

fu'a

ciboi

muboi

vu'u

du

li

fu'a

reboi

tu'o

va'a

The-number

(RP!)

(three,

five,

minus)

equals

the-number

(RP!)

two,

null,

negative-of.

3 − 5 = -2

Example 18.113.

li

cinoki'oki'o

du

li

fu'a

biboi

ciboi

panoboi

ge'a

gei

The-number

30-comma-comma

equals

the-number

(RP!)

8,

(3,

10,

null-op),

exponential-notation.

30,000,000 = 3 × 10

Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

.abu

BY

letter   “a”

by

BY

letter   “b”

cy

BY

letter   “c”

fe'a

VUhU

nth root of (default square root)

lo'o

LOhO

terminator for LI

As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connectives are provided in Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System. Operands are connected in afterthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no accident.

In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and ke…ke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators.

Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things. Example 18.114, “ ” exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:

Example 18.114.

vei

ci

.a

vo

ve'o

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

(

Three

or

four

)

people

go-to

the

market.

Example 18.115, “ ” is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:

Example 18.115.

vei

ga

ci

gi

vo

ve'o

prenu

cu

klama

le

zarci

(

Either

3

or

4

)

people

go-to

the

market.

Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using li.

By the way, li has an elidable terminator, lo'o, which is needed when a li sumti is followed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For example:

Example 18.116.

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

vo

lo'o

.onai

lo

nalseldjuno

namcu

The-number

two

plus

two

equals

the-number

four

or

else

a

non-known

number.

Omitting the lo'o would cause the parser to assume that another operand followed the .onai and reject lo as an invalid operand.

Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:

Example 18.117.

li

re

su'i

je

pi'i

re

du

li

vo

The-number

two

plus

and

times

two

equals

the-number

four.

2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.

The forethought-connection form of Example 18.117, “ ” is:

Example 18.118.

li

re

ge

su'i

gi

pi'i

re

du

li

vo

the-number

two

both

plus

and

times

two

equals

the-number

four.

Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.

Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:

Example 18.119.

go

li

.abu

bi'epi'i

vei

xy.

te'a

re

ve'o

su'i

by.

bi'epi'i

xy.

su'i

cy.

du

li

no

gi

li

xy.

du

li

vei

va'a

by.

ku'e

su'i

ja

vu'u

fe'a

vei

by.

bi'ete'a

re

vu'u

vo

bi'epi'i

.abu

bi'epi'i

cy.

ve'o

[ku'e]

ve'o

fe'i

re

bi'epi'i

.abu

If-and-only-if

the-number

“  a”

-times-(

“  x”

power

two

)

plus

“  b”

-times-

“  x”

plus

“  c”

equals

the-number

zero

then

the-number

x

equals

the-number

[

the-negation-of(

b

)

plus

or

minus

the-root-of

(

“  b”

-power-2

minus

four-times-

“  a”

-times-

“  c”

)

]

divided-by

two-times-

“  a”

.

Iff ax   2 + bx + c = 0, then x = -b ± √ (b 2 − 4ac) 2a

Note the mixture of styles in Example 18.119, “ ”: the negation of b and the square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precedence by prefixed bi'e, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be removed here in favor of simple fe'a and ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting Example 18.119, “ ” to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with most of the bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules be understood.

Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with bi'o to create intervals:

Example 18.120.

li

no

ga'o

bi'o

ke'i

pa

the-number

zero

(inclusive)

from-to

(exclusive)

one

[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one

Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by mi'i:

Example 18.121.

li

pimu

ga'o

mi'i

ke'i

pimu

the-number

0.5

±

0.5

which expresses the same interval as Example 18.120, “ ”. Note that the ga'o and ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:

Example 18.122.

li

pimu

su'i

ni'upimu

bi'o

ma'upimu

the-number

0.5

plus

[-0.5

from-to

+0.5]

Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another interval centered on the number. As Example 18.122, “ ” shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.

You can also combine two operands with ce'o, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:

Example 18.123.

xy.

xi

vei

by.

ce'o

dy.

[ve'o]

“  x”

sub

(

“  b”

sequence

“  d”

)

xb,d

Using Lojban resources within mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

na'u

NAhU

selbri to operator

ni'e

NIhE

selbri to operand

mo'e

MOhE

sumti to operand

te'u

TEhU

terminator for all three

One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors marked with jo'i)

The cmavo na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In general, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the other unfilled places specify the operands:

Example 18.124.

li

na'u

tanjo

te'u

vei

pai

fe'i

re

[ve'o]

du

li

ci'i

The-number

the-operator

tangent

(π

/

2

)

=

the-number

infinity.

tan(π/2) = ∞

tanjo is the gismu for “x1 is the tangent of x2”, and the na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used in forethought

The cmavo ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a ni abstraction, since ni abstractions represent numbers. The ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions:

Example 18.125.

li

ni'e

ni

clani

[te'u]

pi'i

ni'e

ni

ganra

[te'u]

pi'i

ni'e

ni

condi

te'u

du

li

ni'e

ni

canlu

The-number

quantity-of

length

times

quantity-of

width

times

quantity-of

depth

equals

the-number

quantity-of

volume.

Length × Width × Depth = Volume

The cmavo mo'e operates similarly to ni'e, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensioned numbers:

Example 18.126.

li

mo'e

re

ratcu

su'i

mo'e

re

ractu

du

li

mo'e

vo

danlu

The-number

two

rats

plus

two

rabbits

equals

the-number

four

animals.

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.

Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called “folk quantifiers”, such as “a pride of lions”:

Example 18.127.

mi

viska

vei

mo'e

lo'e

lanzu

ve'o

cinfo

I

see

(

the-typical

family

)-number-of

lions.

I see a pride of lions.

Other uses of mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me'o

LI

the mekso

nu'a

NUhA

operator to selbri

mai

MAI

utterance ordinal

mo'o

MAI

higher order utterance ordinal

roi

ROI

quantified tense

So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.

The cmavo me'o has the same grammatical use as li but slightly different semantics. li means “the number which is the value of the mekso ...”, whereas me'o just means “the mekso ...” So it is true that:

Example 18.128.

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

vo

The-number

two

plus

two

equals

the-number

four.

2 + 2 = 4

but false that:

Example 18.129.

me'o

re

su'i

re

du

me'o

vo

The-mekso

two

plus

two

equals

the-mekso

four.

“2 + 2”=“4”

since the expressions “2 + 2” and “4” are not the same. The relationship between li and me'o is related to that between la djan., the person named John, and zo .djan., the name “John”

The cmavo nu'a is the inverse of na'u, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a normal selbri, with the place structure:

x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...

for as many places as may be required. For example:

Example 18.130.

li

ni'umu

cu

nu'a

va'a

li

ma'umu

The-number

-5

is-the-negation-of

the-number

+5.

uses nu'a to make the operator va'a into a two-place bridi

Used together, nu'a and na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider Example 18.131, “ ”, to which Example 18.132, “ ” is one correct answer:

Example 18.131.

li

re

na'u

mo

re

du

li

vo

The-number

two

what-operator?

two

equals

the-number

four.

2 ? 2 = 4

Example 18.132.

nu'a

su'i

plus

In Example 18.131, “ ”, na'u mo is an operator question, because mo is the selbri question cmavo and na'u makes the selbri into an operator. Example 18.132, “ ” makes the true answer su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with the inverse cmavo nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting Example 18.132, “ ” into Example 18.131, “ ” produces:

Example 18.133.

li

re

na'u

nu'a

su'i

re

du

li

vo

The-number

two

(the-operator

the-selbri

plus)

two

equals

the-number

four.

where the na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi

Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English “firstly”, “secondly”, and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:

Example 18.134.

pamai

firstly

Example 18.135.

remai

secondly

Example 18.136.

romai

all-ly

lastly

Example 18.137.

ny.mai

nth-ly

Example 18.138.

pasomo'o

nineteenthly (higher order)

The difference between mai and mo'o is that mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and internally numbered with mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each section would be numbered with mo'o. (See the section called “Utterance ordinals: MAI” for more on these words.)

A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to English “once”, “twice”, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed discussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in the section called “Interval properties: TAhE and roi”.

Note: the elidable terminator boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or ROI.

Explicit operator precedence

As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the precedences of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not understand these declarations.

The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment using ti'o, a member of selma'o SEI. sei, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse which the bridi comprises. The format of a ti'o declaration has not been formally established, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-established scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existing operators.

In future, we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declarations of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Originally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence levels. Complex operators formed with na'u, ni'e, or ma'o would remain at the standard low precedence; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is probable that such a parser would have a set of “commonly assumed precedences” built into it (selectable by a special ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.

Miscellany

A few other points:

se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:

Example 18.139.

li

ci

se

vu'u

vo

du

li

pa

The-number

three

(inverse)

minus

four

equals

the-number

one.

3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.

The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably unintelligible) operators as needed.

Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi true:

Example 18.140.

li

ci

na'e

su'i

vo

du

li

pare

The-number

3

non-plus

4

equals

the-number

12.

Example 18.141.

li

ci

to'e

vu'u

re

du

li

mu

The-number

3

opposite-of-minus

2

equals

the-number

5.

The sense in which “plus” is the opposite of “minus” is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; negated operators are defined only loosely.

la'e and lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:

Example 18.142.

li

re

su'i

re

du

li

na'ebo

mu

The-number

2

plus

2

equals

the-number

non-5.

2 + 2 = something other than 5.

The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as names:

Example 18.143.

la

zel.

poi

gunta

la

tebes.

pu

nanmu

Those-named

“  Seven”

who

attack

that-named

“  Thebes”

[past]

are-men.

The Seven Against Thebes were men.

Of course, there is no guarantee that the name zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is:

Example 18.144.

la

zemei

poi

gunta

la

tebes.

pu

nanmu

Those-named-the

Sevensome

who

attack

Thebes

[past]

are-men.

Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi: so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o, so'u, da'a, ro, su'e, su'o, pi, and ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo fi'u does not have a rafsi as such, it is closely related to the gismu frinu, meaning “fraction”; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you can use any of the rafsi for frinu to indicate a fraction slash.

A similar convention is used for the cmavo cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to cunso (probability); use a rafsi for cunso in order to create lujvo based on cu'o. The cmavo mei and moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact: mem/ mei and mom/ moi respectively.

The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with ni'enu'a, which transforms the operator into a matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand.

To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo ma'o, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu string such as fy. into an operator. In fact, ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, using the elidable terminator te'u if necessary.

There is a potential semantic ambiguity in ma'o fy. [te'u] if fy. is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean “the function whose value is always f”. However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.

Four score and seven: a mekso problem

Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words “Four score and seven years ago”. This section exhibits several different ways of saying the number “four score and seven”. (A “score”, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it is analogous to a “dozen” for 12.) The trivial way:

Example 18.145.

li

bize

eight

seven

87

Example 18.145, “ ” is mathematically correct, but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are intended to be complex and formal.

Example 18.146.

li

vo

pi'i

reno

su'i

ze

four

times

twenty

plus

seven

4 × 20 + 7

Example 18.146, “ ” is also mathematically correct, but still misses something. “Score” is not a word for 20 in the same way that “ten” is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as short for “Four score years and seven years ago”. Thinking of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:

Example 18.147.

li

mo'e

voboi

renomei

te'u

su'i

ze

the-number-of

four

twentysomes

plus

seven

In Example 18.147, “ ”, voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four things each of which are groups of twenty; the mo'e and te'u then make this sumti into a number in order to allow it to be the operand of su'i.

Another approach is to think of “score” as setting a representation base. There are remnants of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is “quatre-vingt-sept”, literally “four-twenties-seven”. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Address hard to translate into French!) If “score” is the representation base, then we have:

Example 18.148.

li

vo

pi'e

ze

ju'u

reno

four

;

seven

base

20

47

Overall, Example 18.147, “ ” probably captures the flavor of the English best. Example 18.145, “ ” and Example 18.146, “ ” are too simple, and Example 18.148, “ ” is too tricky. Nevertheless, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustrate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can probably be said in more than one way.

mekso selma'o summary

Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.

BOI

elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings

BY

lerfu for variables and functions (see   the section called “Mathematical uses of lerfu strings”)

FUhA

reverse-Polish flag

GOhA

includes   du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo

JOhI

array flag

KUhE

elidable terminator for forethought mekso

LI

mekso articles (  li and me'o)

MAhO

make operand into operator

MOI

creates mekso selbri (  moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see the section called “Special mekso selbri”)

MOhE

make sumti into operand

NAhU

make selbri into operator

NIhE

make selbri into operand

NUhA

make operator into selbri

PA

numbers (see   the section called “Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.”)

PEhO

optional forethought mekso marker

TEhU

elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI

VEI

left parenthesis

VEhO

right parenthesis

VUhU

operators (see   the section called “Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures”)

XI

subscript flag

Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a, b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethought operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU.

su'i

plus

(((a + b) + c) + ...)

pi'i

times

(((a × b) × c) × ...)

vu'u

minus

(((a − b) − c) − ...)

fe'i

divided by

(((a / b) / c) / ...)

ju'u

number base

numeral string   a interpreted in the base b

pa'i

ratio

the ratio of   a to b a:b

fa'i

reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse

1 / a

gei

scientific notation

b × (c [default 10] to the   a power)

ge'a

null operator

(no operands)

de'o

logarithm

log   a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate)

te'a

to the power/exponential

a to the b power

fe'a

nth root of/inverse power

b  th root of a (default square root: b = 2)

cu'a

absolute value/norm

| a |

ne'o

factorial

a!

pi'a

matrix row vector combiner

(all operands are row vectors)

sa'i

matrix column vector combiner

(all operands are column vectors)

ri'o

integral

integral of a with respect to b over range c

sa'o

derivative

derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (default 1)

fu'u

non-specific operator

(variable)

si'i

sigma (Σ) summation

summation of a using variable b over range c

va'a

negation of/additive inverse

-a

re'a

matrix transpose/dual

a*

Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.

- no

non

0

pa

pav

1

re

rel

2

ci

cib

3

vo

von

4

mu

mum

5

xa

xav

6

ze

zel

7

bi

biv

8

so

soz

9

- dau

A/10

fei

B/11

gai

C/12

jau

D/13

rei

E/14

vai

F/15

- pai

π

ka'o

imaginary i

te'o

exponential e

ci'i

infinity (∞)

- pi

piz

decimal point

ce'i

cez

percentage

fi'u

fi'u (from frinu; see the section called “Explicit operator precedence”)

fraction (not division)

pi'e

mixed-base point

ma'u

plus sign (not addition)

ni'u

minus sign (not subtraction)

ki'o

thousands comma

ra'e

repeating-decimal indicator

ji'i

approximation sign

ka'o

complex number separator

- ro

all

rol

so'a

soj

almost all

so'e

sop

most

so'i

many

sor

so'i

so'o

sos

several

so'u

sot

few

da'a

daz

all but

- rau

enough

du'e

too few

mo'a

too many

- xo

number question

tu'o

null operand

Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

mei

mem

mei

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4]

moi

mom

moi

x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 [by standard x4]

si'e

x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]

cu'o

cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see the section called “Explicit operator precedence”)

event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 [by standard x3]

va'e

x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 [by standard x3]

Chapter 19. Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts

Introductory

This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragraphs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are found in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents.

This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing reference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was as complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified language, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before understanding every part of it (to some degree).

Sentences: I

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.i

I

sentence separator

Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo i (of selma'o I):

Example 19.1.

mi

klama

le

zarci

.i

do

cadzu

le

bisli

I

go

to-the

store.

You

walk

on-the

ice.

The word “separator” should be noted. i is not normally used after the last sentence nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical. i signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the following sentence states something that happened after the previous sentence.

Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is capitalized, the cmavo i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate to place extra space before i to make it stand out better for the reader. In some styles of Lojban writing, every i is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leaving space at the end of the previous line.

An i cmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not.

An i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these constructs are explained in the section called “Other modal connections”, the section called “Tense relations between sentences”, and the section called “Logical connection of bridi”. In all cases, the i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals can also be attached to an i if they are meant to apply to the whole sentence: see the section called “The uses of indicators”.

There exist a pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentences closely together. If the i (with or without connectives) is followed by bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences being separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connected by i alone.

Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit. A common use of tu'e…tu'u is to group the sentences which compose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from it by i. Another use might be a set of directions, where each numbered direction might be surrounded by tu'e…tu'u and contain one or more sentences separated by i. Grouping with tu'e and tu'u is analogous to grouping with ke and ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-logical connectives (see the section called “Grouping of afterthought connectives”).

Paragraphs: NIhO

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o

NIhO

new topic

no'i

NIhO

old topic

da'o

DAhO

cancel cmavo assignments

The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purposes: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appearance of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo ni'o and no'i, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two, ni'o is the more common. By convention, written Lojban is broken into paragraphs just before any ni'o or no'i, but a very long passage on a single topic might be paragraphed before an i. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this convention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of these conventions affect meaning in any way.

A ni'o can take the place of an i as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a new topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of ni'o cmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent to a single one; semantically, a greater number of ni'o cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. This feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and sub-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between ni'o in writing and in conversation.

In written text, a single ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, whereas ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. In this situation, ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitions of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an indicator – it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of selma'o UI) or tense references, but ni'oni'oni'o, indicating a drastic change of topic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See the section called “Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO” for a discussion of indicator scope.)

In spoken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by one, with ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in stories within stories such as “The Arabian Nights”, further levels may be expressed by extending the ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text will begin with the number of ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale division which the text contains. ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each context of discourse: see the section called “Subscripts: XI”.

no'i is similar in effect to ni'o, but indicates the resumption of a previous topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English discursive phrases as “But getting back to the point ...”. By default, the topic resumed is that in effect before the last ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, then no'i would resume the previous subtopic and no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that no'i also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments dropped at the previous ni'o.

If a ni'o is subscripted, then a no'i with the same subscript is assumed to be a continuation of it. A no'i may also have a negative subscript, which would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found thereby.

Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

zo'u

ZOhU

topic/comment separator

The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:

Example 19.2.

mi

klama

le

zarci

I went to the market

In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:

Example 19.3.

zhe  4 xiao^1xi^2 wo^3 zhi^1dao le

this

news

I

know

[perfective]

As for this news, I knew it.

I've heard this news already.

The wide space in the first two versions of Example 19.3, “ ” separate the topic ( “this news”) from the comment ( “I know already”).

Lojban uses the cmavo zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):

Example 19.4.

le

nuzba

zo'u

mi

ba'o

djuno

The

news

:

I

[perfective]

know.

Example 19.4, “ ” is the literal Lojban translation of Example 19.3, “ ”. Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:

Example 19.5.

mi

ba'o

djuno

le

nuzba

I

[perfective]

know

the

news.

Example 19.5, “ ” means the same as Example 19.4, “ ”, and it is simpler. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri within the comment is vague:

Example 19.6.

le

finpe

zo'u

citka

the

fish

:

eat

Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The Chinese equivalent of Example 19.6, “ ” is:

Example 19.7.

yu  2 chi^1

fish

eat

which is vague in exactly the same way.

Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sentences, but is necessary in the other use of zo'u: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see the section called “Existential claims, prenexes, and variables”), but an example would be:

Example 19.8.

roda

poi

prenu

ku'o

su'ode

zo'u

de

patfu

da

For-all

X

which-are-persons,

there-exists-a-Y

such-that

Y

is

the

father

of

X.

Every person has a father.

The string of sumti before zo'u (called the “prenex”: see the section called “Existential claims, prenexes, and variables”) may contain both a topic and bound variables:

Example 19.9.

loi

patfu

roda

poi

prenu

ku'o

su'ode

zo'u

de

patfu

da

For-the-mass-of

fathers

for-all

X

which-are-persons,

there-exists-a-Y

such-that

Y

is

the

father

of

X.

As for fathers, every person has one.

To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in tu'e…tu'u brackets and place the topic and the zo'u directly in front. This is the exception to the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence:

Example 19.10.

loi

jdini

zo'u

tu'e

do

ponse

.inaja

do

djica

[tu'u]

The-mass-of

money

:

(

[if]

you

possess,

then

you

want

)

Money: if you have it, you want it.

Note: In Lojban, you do not “want money”; you “want to have money” or something of the sort, as the x2 place of djica demands an event. As a result, the straightforward rendering of Example 19.9, “ ” without a topic is not:

Example 19.11.

do

ponse

loi

jdini

.inaja

do

djica

ri

You

possess

money

only-if

you

desire

its-mere-existence.

where ri means loi jdini and is interpreted as “the mere existence of money”, but rather:

Example 19.12.

do

ponse

loi

jdini

.inaja

do

djica

tu'a

ri

You

possess

money

only-if

you

desire

something-about

it.

namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like Example 19.10, “ ” are inherently vague, and this difference between ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) and djica is ignored. See Example 19.45, “ ” for another topic/comment sentence.

The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especially if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentences don't necessarily have a “subject” in the English sense.

Questions and answers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

xu

UI

truth question

ma

KOhA

sumti question

mo

GOhA

bridi question

xo

PA

number question

ji

A

sumti connective question

ge'i

GA

forethought connective question

gi'i

GIhA

bridi-tail connective question

gu'i

GUhA

tanru forethought connective question

je'i

JA

tanru connective question

pei

UI

attitude question

fi'a

FA

place structure question

cu'e

CUhE

tense/modal question

pau

UI

question premarker

Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth questions, of the form “Is it true that ...”, and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, with the cmavo xu (of selma'o UI):

Example 19.13.

xu

do

klama

le

zarci

[True

or

false?]

You

go

to

the

store

Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?

(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation might be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in the section called “Truth questions”.

Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds of blanks.

Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti:

Example 19.14.

ma

klama

le

zarci

[What

sumti?]

goes-to

the

store

Who is going to the store?

Of course, the ma need not be in the x1 place:

Example 19.15.

do

klama

ma

You

go-to

[what

sumti?]

Where are you going?

The answer is a simple sumti:

Example 19.16.

le

zarci

The store.

A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by itself constitute a bridi – it does not claim anything, but merely completes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi.

There can be two ma cmavo in a single question:

Example 19.17.

ma

klama

ma

Who goes where?

and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in the two ma cmavo in order:

Example 19.18.

mi

le

zarci

I, to the store.

An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical connective fa'u (of selma'o JOI), which is like the English “and ... respectively”:

Example 19.19.

ma

fa'u

ma

klama

ma

fa'u

ma

Who and who goes where and where, respectively?

An answer might be

Example 19.20.

la

djan.

la

marcas.

le

zarci

le

briju

John,

Marsha,

the

store,

the

office.

John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.

(Note: A mechanical substitution of Example 19.20, “ ” into Example 19.19, “ ” produces an ungrammatical result, because * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: the first le zarci has to be closed with its proper terminator ku, for reasons explained in the section called “Non-logical connectives”. This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.)

Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi:

Example 19.21.

la

lojban.

mo

Lojban

[what

selbri?]

What is Lojban?

Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a mo question, make it part of a tanru.

Questions about numbers are expressed with xo of selma'o PA:

Example 19.22.

do

viska

xo

prenu

You

saw

[what

number?]

persons.

How many people did you see?

The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:

Example 19.23.

vomu

Forty-five.

Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical connectives (using cmavo ji of A, ge'i of GA, gi'i of GIhA, gu'i of GUhA, or je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik as an answer) – see the section called “Truth questions and connective questions”; attitudes (using pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) – see the section called “Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours”; place structures (using fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) – see the section called “Tagging places: FA”; tenses and modals (using cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as an answer) – see the section called “Modal tags: BAI” and Chapter 10, Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System.

Questions can be marked by placing pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See the section called “Miscellaneous indicators” for details.

The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to questions is:

- any number of sumti (with elidable terminator vau, see Chapter 6, To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti)

- an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see Chapter 14, If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System)

- a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parentheses (see Chapter 18, lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban)

- a bare na negator (to negate some previously expressed bridi), or corresponding ja'a affirmer (see Chapter 15, “No” Problems: On Lojban Negation)

- a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti, see Chapter 8, Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated)

- a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, see Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic)

- linked arguments (beginning with be or bei and attached to some previously expressed selbri, often in a description, see the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”)

At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also permitted:

- one or more names (to indicate direct address without doi, see Chapter 6, To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti)

- indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see Chapter 13, Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators)

- nai (to vaguely negate something or other, see the section called “Negation of minor grammatical constructs”)

Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these are made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversation, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely because most of them are vague.

Subscripts: XI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi

XI

subscript

The cmavo xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.

Lojban gismu have at most five places:

Example 19.24.

mi

cu

klama

le

zarci

le

zdani

le

dargu

le

karce

I

go

to-the

market

from-the

house

via-the

road

using-the

car.

Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Conversion of Example 19.24, “ ”, using xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:

Example 19.25.

le

karce

cu

xe

klama

le

zarci

le

zdani

le

dargu

mi

The

car

is-a-transportation-means

to-the

market

from-the

house

via-the

road

for-me.

And reordering of the place structures might produce:

Example 19.26.

fo

le

dargu

fi

le

zdani

fa

mi

fe

le

zarci

fu

le

karce

cu

klama

Via

the

road,

from

the

house,

I,

to

the

market,

using-the

car,

go.

Example 19.24, “ ” to Example 19.26, “ ” all mean the same thing. But consider the lujvo nunkla, formed by applying the abstraction operator nu to klama:

Example 19.27.

la'edi'u

cu

nunkla

mi

le

zarci

le

zdani

le

dargu

le

karce

The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence

is-an-event-of-going

by-me

to-the

market

from-the

house

via-the

road

using-the

car.

Example 19.27, “ ” shows that nunkla has six places: the five places of klama plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing transformations similar to that of Example 19.25, “ ” requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (the section called “Subscripts: XI”):

Example 19.28.

le

karce

cu

sexixa

nunkla

mi

le

zarci

le

zdani

le

dargu

la'edi'u

The

car

is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going

by-me

to-the

market

via-the

road

which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.

Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of FA with a subscript:

Example 19.29.

fu

le

dargu

fo

le

zdani

fe

mi

fa

la'edi'u

fi

le

zarci

faxixa

le

karce

cu

nunkla

Via

the

road,

from

the

house,

by

me,

the-referent-of-the-last-sentence,

to

the

market,

using

the

car,

is-an-event-of-going.

Example 19.27, “ ” to Example 19.29, “ ” also all mean the same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or FA could be substituted into sexixa and faxixa without change of meaning: vexixa means the same thing as sexixa.

Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bound using goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more fully in Chapter 16, “Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody”: Lojban And Logic.) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo and 3 da-series cmavo available.

If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-series can be subscripted:

Example 19.30.

daxivo

X

sub

4

is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, and

Example 19.31.

ko'ixipaso

something-3

sub

18

is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series. This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequences of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that daxivo and dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti, unlike the situation with sexixa and vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi broda, brode, brodi, brodo, and brodu.

Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variables:

Example 19.32.

li

xy.boixipa

du

li

xy.boixire

su'i

xy.boixici

The-number

x-sub-1

equals

the-number

x-sub-2

plus

x-sub-3

x_1 = x_2 + x_3

and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantically equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In Example 19.32, “ ”, note the required terminator boi after each xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be attached without ambiguity.)

Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the same name:

Example 19.33.

la

djan.

xipa

cusku

lu

mi'enai

do

li'u

la

djan.

xire

John

1

expresses

“  I-am-not you”

to

John

2

.

Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same general cmavo. For example, puxipa could refer to one point in the past, and puxire a second point (earlier or later).

You can place a subscript on the word ja'a, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely “true” or “false”, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor jei:

Example 19.34.

li

pimu

jei

mi

ganra

The-number

.5

is-the-truth-value-of

my

being-broad.

However, by convention we can attach a subscript to ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to na if we change the amount):

Example 19.35.

mi

ja'a

xipimu

ganra

I

truly-sub-.5

am-broad

Finally, as mentioned in the section called “Sentences: I”, ni'o and no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.

Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.

Utterance ordinals: MAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mai

MAI

utterance ordinal, -thly

mo'o

MAI

higher order utterance ordinal

Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English “firstly”, “secondly”, and so on, can be created by suffixing mai or mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:

Example 19.36.

mi

klama

pamai

le

zarci

.e

remai

le

zdani

I

go-to

(firstly)

the

store

and

(secondly)

the

house.

This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the house: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for convenience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or its meaning.

Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI: romai, for example, means “all-thly” or “lastly”. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list and have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say ny.mai, or “Nthly”.

The difference between mai and mo'o is that mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text; mai was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with mo'o: this section would then be introduced with zemo'o, or “Section 7.”

Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fu'e

FUhE

open attitudinal scope

fu'o

FUhO

close attitudinal scope

Lojban has a complex system of “attitudinals”, words which indicate the speaker's attitude to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, intensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and evidentials (which indicate “how the speaker knows”). Most of these words belong to selma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of UI and CAI are discussed in Chapter 13, Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators; only the rules for applying them in discourse are presented here.

Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. However, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal:

Example 19.37.

mi

viska

le

blanu

.ia

zdani

[ku]

I

see

the

blue

[belief]

house.

I see the house, which I believe to be blue.

Example 19.38.

mi

viska

le

blanu

zdani

.ia

[ku]

I

see

the

blue

house

[belief].

I see the blue thing, which I believe to be a house.

Example 19.39.

mi

viska

le

.ia

blanu

zdani

[ku]

I

see

the

[belief]

blue

house

I see what I believe to be a blue house.

Example 19.40.

mi

viska

le

blanu

zdani

ku

.ia

I

see

(the

blue

house)

[belief]

I see what I believe to be a blue house.

An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached to the preceding i, expressed or understood:

Example 19.41.

[.i]

.ia

mi

viska

le

blanu

zdani

[belief]

I

see

the

blue

house.

I believe I see a blue house.

or to an explicit vau placed at the end of a bridi.

Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be attached to ni'o or no'i. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies to the whole text.

However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the boundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and fu'o (of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. Placing fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words until further notice. The notice is given by fu'o, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-force attitudinals. For example:

Example 19.42.

mi

viska

le

fu'e

.ia

blanu

zdani

fu'o

ponse

I

see

the

[start]

[belief]

blue

house

[end]

possessor

I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.

Here, only the blanu zdani portion of the three-part tanru blanu zdani ponse is marked as a belief of the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interpreting multi-part tanru: blanu zdani groups first because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with ke or bo.

Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudinals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active attitudinals rather than superseding them.

Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lu

LU

begin quotation

li'u

LIhU

end quotation

lo'u

LOhU

begin error quotation

le'u

LEhU

end error quotation

Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them are sumti, and they all mean something like “the piece of text here quoted”:

Example 19.43.

mi

pu

cusku

lu

mi'e

djan

[li'u]

I

[past]

express

[quote]

I-am

John

[unquote]

I said,   “I'm John”.

But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the case, quotation deserves some elaboration.

The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in Example 19.43, “ ”, uses the cmavo lu (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and the cmavo li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between lu and li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text.

The cmavo lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology), so that the le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quotation with lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to mark such errors:

Example 19.44.

lo'u

mi

du

do

du

la

djan.

le'u

na

tergerna

la

lojban.

[quote]

mi

du

do

du

la

djan.

[unquote]

is-not

a-grammatical-structure

in

Lojban.

Example 19.44, “ ” is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly, lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:

Example 19.45.

lu

le

mlatu

cu

viska

le

finpe

li'u

zo'u

lo'u

viska

le

le'u

cu

selbasti

.ei

lo'u

viska

lo

le'u

[quote]

le mlatu cu viska le finpe

[unquote]

:

[quote]

viska le

[unquote]

is-replaced-by

[obligation!]

[quote]

viska lo

[unquote].

In the sentence   le mlatu viska le finpe, viska le should be replaced by viska lo.

Note the topic-comment formulation ( the section called “Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU”) and the indicator applying to the selbri only ( the section called “Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO”). Neither viska le nor viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require lo'u quotation.

Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when lu…li'u is used, but not when lo'u ... le'u is used:

Example 19.46.

la

tcarlis.

cusku

lu

le

ninmu

cu

morsi

li'u

.iku'i

ri

jmive

Charlie

says

[quote]

the

woman

is-dead

[unquote].

However,

the-last-mentioned

is-alive.

Charlie says   “The woman is dead”, but she is alive.

In Example 19.46, “ ”, ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previous sumti, namely le ninmu. Compare:

Example 19.47.

la

tcarlis.

cusku

lo'u

le

ninmu

cu

morsi

le'u

.iku'i

ri

jmive

Charlie

says

[quote]

le ninmu cu morsi

[unquote].

However,

the-last-mentioned

is-alive.

Charlie says   le ninmu cu morsi, but he is alive.

In Example 19.47, “ ”, ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti le ninmu, because le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted sequence of Lojban words. Instead, ri ends up referring to the referent of the sumti la tcarlis., and so it is Charlie who is alive.

The metalinguistic erasers si, sa, and su, discussed in the section called “Erasure: SI, SA, SU”, do not operate in text between lo'u and le'u. Since the first le'u terminates a lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to have a lo'u quotation within another lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a le'u to occur within a lo'u ... le'u quotation by preceding it with the cmavo zo, discussed in the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”. Note that le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is required.

More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo

ZO

quote single word

zoi

ZOI

non-Lojban quotation

la'o

ZOI

non-Lojban name

The cmavo zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other uses, zo allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:

Example 19.48.

zo

si

cu

lojbo

valsi

si is a Lojbanic word.

Since zo acts on a single word only, there is no corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of zo, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely or never elidable.

The cmavo zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is zoi X. text .X, where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted:

Example 19.49.

zoi

gy.

John

is

a

man

.gy.

cu

glico

jufra

“John is a man” is an English sentence.

where gy stands for glico. Other popular choices of delimiting words are .kuot., a Lojban name which sounds like the English word “quote”, and the word zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word suggesting the topic of the quotation.

Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimiting word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimiting word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-visual isomorphism: Example 19.50, “ ” is fine in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas Example 19.51, “ ” is correct when written but ungrammatical in speech.

Example 19.50.

mi

djuno

fi

le

valsi

po'u

zoi

gy.

gyrations

.gy.

I know about the word which-is   “gyrations”.

Example 19.51.

mi

djuno

fi

le

valsi

po'u

zoi

jai.

gyrations

.jai

I know about the word which-is   “gyrations”.

The text gy appears in the written word “gyrations”, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by jai appears in the spoken word “gyrations”. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a matter of good style.

It should be noted particularly that zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and zoi quotation is the only way to quote things which are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example:

Example 19.52.

zoi

ry.

sku

.ry.

cu

rafsi

zo

cusku

sku is a rafsi of cusku.

(A minor note on interaction between lo'u ... le'u and zoi: The text between lo'u and le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-Lojban material in the form of a zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the word le'u is used either as the delimiting word for the zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, the outer lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefore, le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word in any zoi quotation.)

Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the names of things:

Example 19.53.

zo

.bab.

cmene

la

bab.

The-word   “Bob” is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.

In Example 19.53, “ ”, zo .bab. is the word, whereas la bab. is the thing named by the word. The cmavo la'e and lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between references and their referents:

Example 19.54.

zo

.bab.

cmene

la'e

zo

.bab.

The-word

“  Bob”

is-the-name-of

the-referent-of

the-word

“  Bob”

.

Example 19.55.

lu'e

la

bab.

cmene

la

bab.

A-symbol-for

Bob

is-the-name-of

Bob.

Example 19.53, “ ” through Example 19.55, “ ” all mean approximately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis. Example 19.56, “ ” is different:

Example 19.56.

la

bab.

cmene

la

bab.

Bob is the name of Bob.

and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlikely situation. People are not names.

(In Example 19.53, “ ” through Example 19.54, “ ”, the name bab. was separated from a preceding zo by a pause, thus: zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause is that all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word other than la, lai, la'i (all of selma'o LA) and doi (of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other cmavo that may precede a name: of these, zo is one of the most common.)

The cmavo la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation. Instead, la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Linnaean binomial names (such as “Homo sapiens”) which are the internationally standardized names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names which can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such as “Goethe”, can also appear in Lojban text with la'o:

Example 19.57.

la'o

dy.

Goethe

.dy.

cu

me

la'o

ly.

Homo

sapiens

.ly.

Goethe is a Homo sapiens.

Using la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of la'o might be la me zoi.

Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ba'e

BAhE

emphasize next word

za'e

BAhE

next word is nonce

English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for contrastive emphasis, thus

Example 19.58.

I saw George.

is quite different from

Example 19.59.

I saw George.

The heavy stress on “ George ” (represented in writing by italics) indicates that I saw George rather than someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only to help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word order is rearranged, producing something like

Example 19.60.

It was George whom I saw.

In Lojban, the cmavo ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is to be emphasized:

Example 19.61.

mi

viska

la

ba'e

.djordj.

I

saw

the-one-named

[emphasis]

“  George”

.

I saw   George.

Note the pause before the name djordj., which serves to separate it unambiguously from the ba'e. Alternatively, the ba'e can be moved to a position before the la, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct la djordj.:

Example 19.62.

mi

viska

ba'e

la

djordj.

I

saw

[emphasis]

the-one-named

“  George”

.

I saw   George.

Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis marking:

Example 19.63.

ba'e

mi

viska

la

djordj.

I, no one else, saw George.

Example 19.64.

mi

ba'e

viska

la

djordj.

I saw (not heard or smelled) George.

Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.

For completeness, the cmavo za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):

Example 19.65.

mi

klama

la

za'e

.albeinias.

I

go-to

so-called

Albania

marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropriate standard form might be something like la ckiipyris., reflecting the country's name in Albanian.

Before a lujvo or fu'ivla, za'e indicates that the word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).

Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

to

TO

open parenthesis

to'i

TO

open editorial parenthesis

toi

TOI

close parenthesis

sei

SEI

metalinguistic bridi marker

The cmavo to and toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, but the reverse is not true.

Example 19.66.

doi

lisas.

mi

djica

le

nu

to

doi

frank.

ko

sisti

toi

do

viska

le

mlatu

O

Lisa,

I

desire

the

event-of

(O

Frank,

[imperative]

stop!)

you

see

the

cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

Example 19.66, “ ” implicitly redefines do within the parentheses: the listener is changed by doi frank. When the context sentence resumes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.

There is another cmavo of selma'o TO: to'i. The difference between to and to'i is the difference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks within to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, whereas remarks within to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an editor:

Example 19.67.

la

frank.

cusku

lu

mi

prami

do

to'isa'a

do

du

la

djein.

toi

li'u

Frank

expresses

“  I love you [you = Jane]”

The sa'a suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o UI) meaning “editorial insertion”, and indicating that the marked word or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of the quotation. It is required whenever the to'i ... toi remark is physically within quotation marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the convention may be relaxed if no actual confusion results.

Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the previous word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents of subscripts and other such so-called “free modifiers”. Semantically, however, parenthetical remarks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what follows them.

The cmavo sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi. Comments added with sei are called “metalinguistic”, because they are comments about the discourse itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This sense of the term “metalinguistic” is used throughout this chapter, and is not to be confused with the sense “language for expressing other languages”.

When marked with sei, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:

Example 19.68.

la

frank.

prami

sei

la

frank.

gleki

la

djein.

Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.

Using the happiness attitudinal, .ui, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:

Example 19.69.

la

frank.

prami

sei

gleki

la

djein.

Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

The grammar of the bridi following sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with be and bei:

Example 19.70.

la

frank.

prami

sei

gleki

be

fa

la

suzn.

la

djein.

Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.

This restriction allows the terminator cmavo se'u to almost always be elided.

Since a discursive utterance is working at a “higher” level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at “higher” metalinguistic levels in determining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English “he said” in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this purpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be at a higher level than the context.

Lojban works differently from English in that the “he said” can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojban, you can say:

Example 19.71.

la

djan.

cusku

lu

mi

klama

le

zarci

li'u

John

expresses

“  I go to-the store”

.

which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversation, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a conversation, you don't want the “he said” or “she said” to be considered part of the conversation. If unmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use:

Example 19.72.

lu

mi

klama

le

zarci

seisa'a

la

djan.

cusku

be

dei

li'u

“  I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence)”

“I go to the store”, said John.

And of course other orders are possible:

Example 19.73.

lu

seisa'a

la

djan.

cusku

be

dei

mi

klama

le

zarci

John said,   “I go to the store”.

Example 19.74.

lu

mi

klama

seisa'a

la

djan

cusku

le

zarci

“I go”, John said, “to the store”.

Note the sa'a following each sei, marking the sei and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these sa'a cmavo would probably be dropped.

The elidable terminator for sei is se'u (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to separate a selbri within the sei comment from an immediately following selbri (or component) outside the comment.

Erasure: SI, SA, SU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

si

SI

erase word

sa

SA

erase phrase

su

SU

erase discourse

The cmavo si (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken:

Example 19.75.

ti

gerku

si

mlatu

This

is-a-dog,

er,

is-a-cat.

means the same thing as ti mlatu. Multiple si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of words:

Example 19.76.

ta

blanu

zdani

si

si

xekri

zdani

That

is-a-blue

house,

er,

er,

is-a-black

house.

In order to erase the word zo, it is necessary to use three si cmavo in a row:

Example 19.77.

zo

.bab.

se

cmene

zo

si

si

si

la

bab.

The-word

“  Bob”

is-the-name-of

the

word

si

,

er,

er,

Bob.

The first use of si does not erase anything, but completes the zo quotation. Two more si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first si and the zo.

Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with si:

Example 19.78.

mi

tavla

fo

la

.esperanto

si

si

.esperanton.

I

talk

in-language

that-named

“  and”

“  speranto”

,

er,

er,

Esperanto.

The Lojbanized spelling .esperanto breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban morphology rules (see Chapter 4, The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology) into two Lojban words, the cmavo e and the undefined fu'ivla speranto. Therefore, two si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course, .e speranto is not grammatical after la, but recognition of si is done before grammatical analysis.

Even more messy is the result of an incorrect zoi:

Example 19.79.

mi

cusku

zoi

fy.

gy.

.fy.

si

si

si

si

zo

.djan

I

express

[foreign]

[quote]

gy

[unquote],

er,

er,

er,

er,

“  John”

.

In Example 19.79, “ ”, the first fy is taken to be the delimiting word. The next word must be different from the delimiting word, and gy., the Lojban name for the letter g, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. Similarly, a stray lo'u quotation mark must be erased with fy. le'u si si si, by completing the quotation and then erasing it all with three si cmavo.

What if less than the entire zo or zoi construct is erased? The result is something which has a loose zo or zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and which is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by zo, it turns out to be necessary to erase the zo as well:

Example 19.80.

mi

se

cmene

zo

.djan.

si

si

zo

.djordj.

I

am-named-by

the-word

“  John”

,

er,

er,

the-word

“  George”

.

The parser will reject zo .djan. si .djordj., because in that context djordj. is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather than a quoted word.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement si erasure.

As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cmavo sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one word. The cmavo following sa should be the starting marker of some grammatical construct. The effect of the sa is to erase back to and including the last starting marker of the same kind. For example:

Example 19.81.

mi

viska

le

sa

.i

mi

cusku

zo

.djan.

I

see

the

...

I

say

the-word

“  John”

.

Since the word following sa is i, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the preceding sentence. So Example 19.81, “ ” is equivalent to:

Example 19.82.

mi

cusku

zo

.djan.

Another example, erasing a partial description rather than a partial sentence:

Example 19.83.

mi

viska

le

blanu

zdan.

sa

le

xekri

zdani

I

see

the

blue

hou

...

the

black

house.

In Example 19.83, “ ”, le blanu zdan. is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects the speaker's original intention to say le blanu zdani. However, the zdani was cut off before the end and changed into a name. The entire ungrammatical le construct is erased and replaced by le xekri zdani.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement sa erasure. Getting sa right is even more difficult (for a computer) than getting si right, as the behavior of si is defined in terms of words rather than in terms of grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptually simpler entities. On the other hand, sa is generally easier for human beings, because the rules for using it correctly are less finicky.

The cmavo su (of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple speakers, then su will only erase the remarks made by the one who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore susu is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conversation.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement either su or susu erasure.

Hesitation: Y

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.y.

Y

hesitation noise

Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English hesitation noise written “uh” (or “er”), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having nothing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is not significant in Lojban, the y sound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respected.

Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, repeating) a word ( “este” in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning “that is”), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism requires a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course, .y. has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.

No more to say: FAhO

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fa'o

FAhO

end of text

The cmavo fa'o (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with zo or with lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at the end of subordinate texts quoted with lu…li'u or parenthesized with to ... toi.

List of cmavo interactions

The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recognized by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of them interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in this chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER CASE.

- zo quotes the following word, no matter what it is.

- si erases the preceding word unless it is a zo.

- sa erases the preceding word and other words, unless the preceding word is a zo.

- su is the same as sa, but erases more words.

- lo'u quotes all following words up to a le'u (but not a zo le'u).

- le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of a “lo'u quotation.

- ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no matter what it is, but using le'u may create difficulties.

- zei combines the preceding and the following word into a lujvo, but does not affect zo, si, sa, su, lo'u, ZOI cmavo, fa'o, and zei.

- BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is si, sa, or su, or unless it is preceded by zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession.

- bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu word, except for zo, si, sa, su, lo'u, ZOI cmavo, fa'o, zei, BAhE cmavo, and bu. Multiple bu cmavo may be used in succession.

- UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for zo, si, sa, su, lo'u, ZOI, fa'o, zei, BAhE cmavo, and bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A following nai is made part of the UI.

- .y., da'o, fu'e, and fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absorb a following nai.

List of Elidable Terminators

The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban. The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kinds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cmavo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo.

be'o

BE

sumti attached to a tanru unit

boi

PA/BY

number or lerfu string

do'u

COI/DOI

vocative phrases

fe'u

FIhO

ad-hoc modal tags

ge'u

GOI

relative phrases

kei

NU

abstraction bridi

ke'e

KE

groups of various kinds

ku

LE/LA

description sumti

ku'e

PEhO

forethought mekso

ku'o

NOI

relative clauses

li'u

LU

quotations

lo'o

LI

number sumti

lu'u

LAhE/NAhE+BO

sumti qualifiers

me'u

ME

tanru units formed from sumti

nu'u

NUhI

forethought termsets

se'u

SEI/SOI

metalinguistic insertions

te'u

various

mekso conversion constructs

toi

TO

parenthetical remarks

tu'u

TUhE

multiple sentences or paragraphs

vau

(none)

simple bridi or bridi-tails

ve'o

VEI

mekso parentheses

Chapter 20. A Catalogue of selma'o

The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are given in capital letters (with “h” serving as the capital of “'”) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is shown.

selma'o A (the section called “sumti connection”)

Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”), usually between sumti.

la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci

John and/or Jane goes to the store.

Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with “bu”.

selma'o BAI (the section called “Modal tags: BAI”)

May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not otherwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a single place of some other selbri.

mi tavla bau la lojban.

I speak in-language Lojban.

selma'o BAhE (the section called “Contrastive emphasis: BAhE”)

Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (one invented for the occasion).

la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci

George goes to the store.

It is George who goes to the store.

selma'o BE (the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”)

Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit making up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, and successive places in that order. BE is most useful in descriptions formed with LE. See BEI, BEhO.

mi klama be ta troci

I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier.

I try to go to that place.

selma'o BEI (the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”)

Separates multiple sumti attached by BE to a tanru unit.

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci

I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier.

I try to go from the home to the market.

selma'o BEhO (the section called “Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o”)

Elidable terminator for BE. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru unit.

mi klama be le zarci be'o troci

I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier.

I try to go to the market.

selma'o BIhE ( the section called “Simple infix expressions and equations”)

Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priority than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.

li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze

The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17.

3 × 4 + 5 = 17

selma'o BIhI (the section called “Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection”)

Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to form intervals. See GAhO.

mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.

I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.

selma'o BO ( the section called “Three-part tanru grouping with bo”, the section called “sumti negation”, the section called “Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso”)

Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to bind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc. BO is always high precedence and right-grouping.

ta cmalu nixli bo ckule

That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).

That is a small school for girls.

selma'o BOI ( the section called “Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)”)

Elidable terminator for PA or BY. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immediately follows.

li re du li vu'u voboi re

The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four-and two.

selma'o BU (the section called “The universal bu”)

A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word representing a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a symbol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to single-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.

.abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu

a, e, i, o, u, y.

selma'o BY (the section called “A to Z in Lojban, plus one”)

Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus various shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Terminated by BOI.

.abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami

A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers.

A talks to B about IBM computers.

selma'o CAI (the section called “Attitudes as scales”)

Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion.

.ei cai mi klama le zarci

[Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market.

I must go to the market.

selma'o CAhA (the section called “Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA”)

Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.

ro datka ka'e flulimna

All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers.

All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating.

selma'o CEI (the section called “Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series”)

Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: “broda”, “brode”, “brodi”, “brodo”, or “brodu”, for later use.

ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda

.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu

This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.

The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.

selma'o CEhE ( the section called “Termset logical connection”, the section called “Grouping of quantifiers”)

Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.

mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo

I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.

I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.

selma'o CO (the section called “Inversion of tanru: co”)

When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.

mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani

I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).

I try to go to the market from the house.

selma'o COI ( the section called “The syntax of vocative phrases”, the section called “Vocative scales”)

When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocative: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewell, and radio communication. Terminated by DOhU. See DOI.

coi .djan.

Greetings, John.

selma'o CU (the section called “Standard bridi form: cu”)

Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it. Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable terminators.

le gerku cu klama le zarci

The dog goes to-the store.

selma'o CUhE (the section called “Tense questions: cu'e”)

Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the rest of the bridi is true. See PU, CAhA, TAhE, and BAI.

do cu'e klama le zarci

You [When/Where?] go to-the store?

When are you going to the store?

selma'o DAhO (the section called “Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling”)

Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o KOhA) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o GOhA).

selma'o DOI (the section called “Vocative scales”)

The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without COI. No pause is required between “doi” and a following name. See DOhU.

doi frank. mi tavla do

O Frank, I speak-to you.

Frank, I'm talking to you.

selma'o DOhU (the section called “Vocative scales”)

Elidable terminator for COI or DOI. Signals the end of a vocative.

coi do'u

Greetings [terminator]

Greetings, O unspecified one!

selma'o FA (the section called “Tagging places: FA”)

Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.

fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce

x1= I go x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x4= the road x5= the car.

I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car.

selma'o FAhA (the section called “Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA”)

Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked with MOhI) or along which (when prefixed by VEhA or VIhA) the action of the bridi takes place.

le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku

The man [left] bites the dog.

To my left, the man bites the dog.

selma'o FAhO (the section called “No more to say: FAhO”)

A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.

selma'o FEhE (the section called “Space interval modifiers: FEhE”)

Indicates that the following interval modifier (using TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO) refers to space rather than time.

ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni

You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain.

Sow the grain in a line and evenly!

selma'o FEhU (the section called “Modal places: FIhO, FEhU”)

Elidable terminator for FIhO. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: the tagged sumti immediately follows.

mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle

I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing

I see you with the left eye.

selma'o FIhO (the section called “Modal places: FIhO, FEhU”)

When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal tag, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o BAI. Terminated by FEhU.

mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle

I see you with eye the left-thing

I see you with my left eye.

selma'o FOI (the section called “Accent marks and compound lerfu words”)

Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins with TEI. Not an elidable terminator.

tei .ebu .akut. bu foi

( “e” “acute” )

the letter “e” with an acute accent

selma'o FUhA ( the section called “Reverse Polish notation”)

Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be interpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators follow their operands.

li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo

the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four

2 + 2 = 4

selma'o FUhE (the section called “Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO”)

Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o UI affect not the preceding word, as usual, but rather all following words until a FUhO.

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse

I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor

I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one.

selma'o FUhO (the section called “Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO”)

Cancels all indicators of selma'o UI which are in effect.

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse

I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor.

I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.

selma'o GA (the section called “Forethought bridi connection”)

Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-tails, or various other things. Logical connections include “both ... and”, “either ... or”, “if ... then”, and so on. See GI.

ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu

Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).

selma'o GAhO (the section called “Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection”)

Specifies whether an interval specified by BIhI includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in pairs before and after the BIhI cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left- and the right-hand endpoints.

mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.

I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.

selma'o GEhU (the section called “Relative phrases”)

Elidable terminator for GOI. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See KUhO.

la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu

John (referred to as it-1) is-blue.

selma'o GI (the section called “Forethought bridi connection”)

Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought connective involving GA, GUhA, or JOI.

ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu

(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.

selma'o GIhA (the section called “The six types of logical connectives”)

Specifies a logical connective (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-tail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any preceding sumti.

mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.

I go-to the market and like John.

selma'o GOI (the section called “Relative phrases”)

Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by GEhU See NOI.

la djan. goi ko'a cu blanu

John (referred to as it-1) is blue.

selma'o GOhA (the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”)

A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of brivla. There are several groups of these.

A: mi klama le zarci

B: mi go'i

A: I'm going to the market.

B: Me, too.

selma'o GUhA (the section called “The six types of logical connectives”)

Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. Takes the place of GA when forming logically-connected tanru. See GI.

la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu

Alice is both rich and blue.

selma'o I (the section called “Sentences: I”)

Separates two sentences from each other.

mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani

I go-to the market. I go-to the office.

selma'o JA (the section called “The six types of logical connectives”)

Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two tanru units, mathematical operands, tenses, or abstractions.

ti blanu je zdani

This is-blue and a-house.

selma'o JAI (the section called “Modal conversion: JAI”)

When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place of the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of the abstracted-over bridi.

mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari

I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color.

I act so as to modify the wall color.

I change the color of the wall.

selma'o JOI (the section called “Non-logical connectives”)

Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things. When immediately followed by GI, provides forethought non-logical connection analogous to GA.

la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno

John massed-with Alice carry the piano.

selma'o JOhI ( the section called “Vectors and matrices”)

Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list terminated by TEhU) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional array).

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du

li jo'i voboi xaboi

The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals

the-number array (four, six).

(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

selma'o KE (the section called “Complex tanru with ke and ke'e”)

Groups everything between itself and a following KEhE for purposes of logical connection, tanru construction, or other purposes. KE and KEhE are not used for mathematical (see VEI and VEhO) or discursive (see TO and TOI) purposes.

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule

That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.

selma'o KEI (the section called “The syntax of abstraction”)

Elidable terminator for NU. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.

la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica

John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.

John wants to be a soldier.

selma'o KEhE (the section called “Complex tanru with ke and ke'e”)

Elidable terminator for KE. Marks the end of a grouping.

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule

That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.

selma'o KI (the section called “Sticky and multiple tenses: KI”)

When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it “sticky”, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appearance of KI. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.

selma'o KOhA (the section called “What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?”)

A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.

le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti

The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big.  It-1 is-not smaller-than this-thing.

selma'o KU ( the section called “The three basic description types”, the section called “Introductory”)

Elidable terminator for LE and some uses of LA. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the compound NA+ KU to indicate natural language-style negation.

le prenu ku le zdani ku klama

The person, to-the house, goes.

The person goes to the house.

selma'o KUhE ( the section called “Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)”)

Elidable terminator for PEhO: indicates the end of a forethought mathematical expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).

li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa

The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-number six.

selma'o KUhO (the section called “What are you pointing at?”)

Elidable terminator for NOI. Indicates the end of a relative clause.

le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda

The house which is-blue is-big.

selma'o LA (the section called “The three basic description types”)

Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which identify people or things by name. Similar to LE. May be terminated with KU if followed by a description selbri.

la kikeros. du la tulis.

Cicero is Tully.

selma'o LAU (the section called “List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo”)

Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a single marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, etc.)

tau sy. .ibu

[single-shift] “s” “i”

Si (chemical symbol for silicon)

selma'o LAhE (the section called “sumti qualifiers”)

Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into another sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from selma'o NAhE plus BO. Terminated by LUhU.

mi viska la'e zoi kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot

I see that-represented-by the-text “A Tale of Two Cities”.

I see the book “A Tale of Two Cities”.

selma'o LE (the section called “The three basic description types”)

Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or specify things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by KU. See LA.

le gerku cu klama le zdani

The dog goes-to the house.

selma'o LEhU (the section called “Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU”)

Indicates the end of a quotation begun with LOhU. Not an elidable terminator.

lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani

[quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct.

“mi du do du mi” is not correct Lojban.

selma'o LI ( the section called “Simple infix expressions and equations”)

Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressions into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by LOhO.

li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo

The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4.

2 - 2 ≠ 4 + 4

selma'o LIhU (the section called “Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU”)

Elidable terminator for LU. Indicates the end of a text quotation.

mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u

I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote].

selma'o LOhO ( the section called “Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso”)

Elidable terminator for LI. Indicates the end of a mathematical expression used in a LI description.

li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu

The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater.

4 > 3

selma'o LOhU (the section called “Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU”)

Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammatical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they form a text or not. Terminated by LEhU.

do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u

You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end quote].

You said, “mi du do du ko'a”.

selma'o LU (the section called “Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU”)

Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammatical only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Terminated by LIhU.

mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u

I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote].

selma'o LUhU (the section called “sumti qualifiers”)

Elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+ BO. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.

mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u

I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref]

I saw “Big Dog” [not the words, but a book or movie].

selma'o MAI ( the section called “Other uses of mekso”, the section called “Introductory”)

When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.

pamai mi pu klama le zarci

1-thly, I [past] go to-the market.

First, I went to the market.

selma'o MAhO ( the section called “Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)”)

Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand. Terminated by TEhU. See VUhU.

ma'o fy. boi xy.

[operator] f x

f(x)

selma'o ME ( the section called “selbri based on sumti: me”, the section called “Introductory”)

Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the things referenced by the sumti. Terminated by MEhU.

ta me la ford. karce

That is-a-Ford-type car

That's a Ford car.

selma'o MEhU (the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”)

The elidable terminator for ME. Indicates the end of a sumti converted to a tanru unit.

ta me mi me'u zdani

That's a me type of house.

selma'o MOI ( the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”, the section called “Using Lojban resources within mekso”)

Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various numerically-based selbri.

la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei

John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome.

John and Frank are two brothers.

selma'o MOhE ( the section called “Using Lojban resources within mekso”)

Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimensioned units. Terminated by TEhU.

li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu

The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.

selma'o MOhI (the section called “Movement in space: MOhI”)

A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specified by a following FAhA cmavo.

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli

The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.

The child walks toward my right on the ice.

selma'o NA ( the section called “The six types of logical connectives”, the section called “Negation of minor grammatical constructs”)

Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or true).

mi na klama le zarci

It is not true that I go to the market.

Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.

selma'o NAI ( the section called “The six types of logical connectives”, the section called “Negation of minor grammatical constructs”)

Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain selma'o as specified by the grammar.

selma'o NAhE (the section called “selbri and tanru negation”)

Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with following BO to construct a sumti qualifier; see LAhE.

ta na'e blanu zdani

That is-a-non- blue house.

That is a house which is other than blue.

selma'o NAhU ( the section called “Using Lojban resources within mekso”)

Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by TEhU. See VUhU.

li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i

The-number the-operator tangent (

π / 2 ) = the-number infinity.

tan(

π/2) = ∞

selma'o NIhE ( the section called “Using Lojban resources within mekso”)

Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a “ni” abstraction. Terminated by TEhU.

li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i

ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu

The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times

quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume.

Length × Width × Depth = Volume

selma'o NIhO (the section called “Paragraphs: NIhO”)

Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it contains old or new subject matter.

selma'o NOI (the section called “What are you pointing at?”)

Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the preceding sumti. Terminated by KUhO. See GOI.

le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu

The house which is blue is small.

selma'o NU (the section called “The syntax of abstraction”)

Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction selbri. Terminated by KEI.

la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]

John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.

selma'o NUhA ( the section called “Other uses of mekso”)

Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See VUhU.

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu

The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5

selma'o NUhI ( the section called “Termset logical connection”, the section called “Grouping of quantifiers”)

Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultaneous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated by NUhU.

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]

I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school.

selma'o NUhU (the section called “Termset logical connection”)

Elidable terminator for NUhI. Marks the end of a termset.

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]

I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school.

selma'o PA ( the section called “Lojban numbers”)

Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminated by BOI.

mi speni re ninmu

I am-married-to two women.

selma'o PEhE (the section called “Termset logical connection”)

Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two termsets. Termsets (see CEhE) are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.

mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo

I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.

I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.

selma'o PEhO ( the section called “Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)”)

An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which precede their operands. Terminated by KUhE.

li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re

The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two.

selma'o PU (the section called “Temporal tenses: PU and ZI”)

Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).

mi pu klama le zarci

I [past] go-to the market.

I went to the market.

selma'o RAhO (the section called “Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series”)

The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicitly attached to a pro-bridi (see GOhA) to fit the current context rather than the original context.

A: mi ba lumci le mi karce

B: mi go'i

A: I [future] wash my car.

B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A's car).

A: mi ba lumci le mi karce

B: mi go'i ra'o

A: I [future] wash my car.

B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B's car).

selma'o ROI (the section called “Interval properties: TAhE and roi”)

When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once, twice, many times).

mi reroi klama le zarci

I twice go-to the market.

selma'o SA (the section called “Erasure: SI, SA, SU”)

Erases the previous phrase or sentence.

mi klama sa do klama le zarci

I go, er, you go-to the market.

selma'o SE ( the section called “Conversion of simple selbri”, the section called “Conversion: SE”)

Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging the x1 place with a specified numbered place.

le zarci cu se klama mi

The market is-gone-to by me.

Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.

selma'o SEI (the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI”)

Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment on the main bridi. Terminated by SEhU.

la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein.

Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

selma'o SEhU (the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI”)

Elidable terminator for SEI and SOI. Ends metalinguistic insertions.

la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein.

Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.

selma'o SI (the section called “Erasure: SI, SA, SU”)

Erases the previous single word.

mi si do klama le zarci

I, er, you go to-the market.

selma'o SOI (the section called “Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series”)

Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like “vice versa” in English).

mi prami do soi mi

I love you [reciprocally] me.

I love you and vice versa.

selma'o SU (the section called “Erasure: SI, SA, SU”)

Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.

selma'o TAhE (the section called “Interval properties: TAhE and roi”)

A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of time or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).

le verba ta'e klama le ckule

The child habitually goes to-the school.

selma'o TEI (the section called “Accent marks and compound lerfu words”)

Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts grammatically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elidable selma'o FOI.

tei .ebu .akut. bu foi

( “e” “acute” )

the letter “e” with an acute accent

selma'o TEhU ( the section called “Vectors and matrices”)

Elidable terminator for JOhI, MAhO, MOhE, NAhU, or NIhE. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion construct.

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du

li jo'i voboi xaboi

The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals

the-number array( four, six).

(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

selma'o TO (the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI”)

Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Terminated by TOI.

doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu

O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see the cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

selma'o TOI (the section called “Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI”)

Elidable terminator for TO. The right discursive parenthesis.

doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu

O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see the cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

selma'o TUhE (the section called “Sentences: I”)

Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Terminated by TUhU.

lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno .i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu'u]

Is-best : [start] If food, then new. If wine, then old.

As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [is best].

selma'o TUhU (the section called “Sentences: I”)

Elidable terminator for TUhE. Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.

selma'o UI (the section called “What are attitudinal indicators?”)

Particles which indicate the speaker's emotional state or source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.

.ui la djan. klama

[Happiness!] John is-coming.

Hurrah! John is coming!

selma'o VA (the section called “Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA”)

A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).

le nanmu va batci le gerku

The man [medium distance] bites the dog.

Over there the man is biting the dog.

selma'o VAU (the section called “Compound bridi”)

Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of a GIhA logical connection.

mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau]

I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.

selma'o VEI ( the section called “Simple infix expressions and equations”)

Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. Terminated by VEhO.

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du

li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa

The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals

the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n

2 + 2n + 1

selma'o VEhA (the section called “Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA”)

A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, medium, or short).

selma'o VEhO (the section called “Questions and answers”)

Elidable terminator for VEI: right mathematical parenthesis.

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du

li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa

The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals

the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n

2 + 2n + 1

selma'o VIhA (the section called “Dimensionality: VIhA”)

A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume, or space-time interval).

le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli

The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.

In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.

selma'o VUhO ( the section called “Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o”)

Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connected) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.

la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa

Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room.

Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room.

selma'o VUhU ( the section called “Simple infix expressions and equations”)

Mathematical operators (e.g. +, −). See MAhO.

li mu vu'u re du li ci

The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3.

5 − 2 = 3

selma'o XI ( the section called “Subscripts”)

The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a subscript for whatever precedes it.

xy. xi re

x sub 2

x

2

selma'o Y (the section called “Hesitation: Y”)

Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be interpreted as having nothing more to say.

doi .y. .y. .djan

O, uh, uh, John!

selma'o ZAhO (the section called “Event contours: ZAhO and re'u”)

A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginning, ending, continuing).

mi pu'o damba

I [inchoative] fight.

I'm on the verge of fighting.

selma'o ZEI (the section called “rafsi”)

A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands between into the equivalent of a lujvo.

ta xy. zei kantu kacma

That is-an-(X – ray) camera.

That is an X-ray camera.

selma'o ZEhA (the section called “Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA”)

A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium, or short).

mi puze'a citka

I [past] [short interval] eat.

I ate for a little while.

selma'o ZI (the section called “Temporal tenses: PU and ZI”)

A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short time ago or in the future).

mi puzi citka

I [past] [short distance] eat.

I ate a little while ago.

selma'o ZIhE (the section called “Multiple relative clauses: zi'e”)

Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the same sumti. Although generally translated with “and”, it is not considered a logical connective.

mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a

I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love it.

I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love.

I own a white dog, which I love.

selma'o ZO (the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”)

Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.

zo si cu lojbo valsi

The-word “si” is-a-Lojbanic word.

selma'o ZOI (the section called “More on quotations: ZO, ZOI”)

Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (which can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The delimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the text by pauses.

zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra

The-text “Socrates is mortal” is-an-English sentence.

selma'o ZOhU (the section called “Existential claims, prenexes, and variables”, the section called “Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU”)

Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment sentences.

su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de

For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves Y

There is a man who loves all fish.

Chapter 21. Formal Grammars

YACC Grammar of Lojban

The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojban. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to describe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a more human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is official.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for each selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.

/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine Grammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,The Logical Language Group, Inc.

grammar.300 */

/* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process. The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, concatenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the grammar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which is LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using some language-coded processing.

Step 1 – Lexing

From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojban unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech will have to have some way to deal with “non-Lojban” failures of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text file using Lojban's phonetic spelling rules.

The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojban text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allows the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize such portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interference with the parsing algorithm.

Step 2 – Filtering

From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict:

1. If the Lojban word zoi (selma'o ZOI) is identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recurs after a pause, as grammatically a single token (labelled “ YACC rule #699” in this grammar). There is no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the closing delimiter.

2. If the Lojban word zo (selma'o ZO) is identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled “ YACC rule #698”, instead of lexing it by its normal grammatical function.

3. If the Lojban word lo'u (selma'o LOhU) is identified, search for the closing delimiter le'u (selma'o LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two steps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token “ YACC rule #697”.

4. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o category, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each word.

5. If the word si (selma'o SI) is identified, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been condensed into a single token by one of the above rules).

6. If the word sa (selma'o SA) is identified, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive further definition later.)

7. If the word su (selma'o SU) is identified, erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding token word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginning of a speaker's discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a speaker's discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two adjacent uses of su are required to erase the entire conversation.

Step 3 – Termination

If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and ignore everything that follows it.

Step 4 – Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens

In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption means that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following steps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after parsing is completed).

1. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where there may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIVLA.

2. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If they occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors).

3. Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabel the previous token as selma'o BY.

4. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token.

5. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and CAI into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted following any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word's grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpretation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text are explicitly handled by the grammar.

Step 5 – Insertion of Lexer Lexemes

Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YACC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either

1. are replaced by a single specified “lexer token” for step 6, or

2. the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to identify it uniquely.

The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generation of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The strings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with the lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been performed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented out, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer tokens without the strings of defining tokens. Two sets of lexer tokens are defined in the token set so as to be compatible with either option.

In this step, the strings must be labelled with the appropriate lexer tokens. Order of inserting lexer tokens IS significant, since some shorter strings that would be marked with a lexer token may be found inside longer strings. If the tokens are inserted before or in place of the shorter strings, the longer strings cannot be identified.

If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works correctly (it is not the only possible order): A, C, D, B, U, E, H, I, J, K, M, N, G, O, V, W, F, P, R, T, S, Y, L, Q . This ensures that the longest rules will be processed first; a PA+MAI will not be seen as a PA with a dangling MAI at the end, for example.

Step 6 – YACC Parsing

YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance with the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099 under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, and comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of lexer tokens numbered from 900 up.

*/

%token

A_501            /* eks; basic afterthought logical connectives */

%token

BAI_502          /* modal operators */

%token

BAhE_503         /* next word intensifier */

%token

BE_504           /* sumti link to attach sumti to a selbri */

%token

BEI_505          /* multiple sumti separator between BE, BEI */

%token

BEhO_506         /* terminates BE/BEI specified descriptors */

%token

BIhI_507         /* interval component of JOI */

%token

BO_508           /* joins two units with shortest scope */

%token

BRIVLA_509       /* any brivla */

%token

BU_511           /* turns any word into a BY lerfu word */

%token

BY_513           /* individual lerfu words */

%token

CAhA_514         /* specifies actuality/potentiality of tense */

%token

CAI_515          /* afterthought intensity marker */

%token

CEI_516          /* pro-bridi assignment operator */

%token

CEhE_517         /* afterthought term list connective */

%token

CMENE_518        /* names; require consonant end, then pause no

LA or DOI selma'o embedded, pause before if

vowel initial and preceded by a vowel */

%token

CO_519           /* tanru inversion  */

%token

COI_520          /* vocative marker permitted inside names; must

always be followed by pause or DOI */

%token

CU_521           /* separator between head sumti and selbri */

%token

CUhE_522         /* tense/modal question */

%token

DAhO_524         /* cancel anaphora/cataphora assignments */

%token

DOI_525          /* vocative marker */

%token

DOhU_526         /* terminator for DOI-marked vocatives */

%token

FA_527           /* modifier head generic case tag */

%token

FAhA_528         /* superdirections in space */

%token

FAhO_529         /* normally elided “done pause” to indicate end

of utterance string */

%token

FEhE_530         /* space interval mod flag */

%token

FEhU_531         /* ends bridi to modal conversion */

%token

FIhO_532         /* marks bridi to modal conversion */

%token

FOI_533          /* end compound lerfu */

%token

FUhE_535         /* open long scope for indicator */

%token

FUhO_536         /* close long scope for indicator */

%token

GA_537           /* geks; forethought logical connectives */

%token

GEhU_538         /* marker ending GOI relative clauses */

%token

GI_539           /* forethought medial marker */

%token

GIhA_541         /* logical connectives for bridi-tails */

%token

GOI_542          /* attaches a sumti modifier to a sumti */

%token

GOhA_543         /* pro-bridi */

%token

GUhA_544         /* GEK for tanru units, corresponds to JEKs */

%token

I_545            /* sentence link */

%token

JA_546           /* jeks; logical connectives within tanru */

%token

JAI_547          /* modal conversion flag */

%token

JOI_548          /* non-logical connectives */

%token

KEhE_550         /* right terminator for KE groups */

%token

KE_551           /* left long scope marker */

%token

KEI_552          /* right terminator, NU abstractions */

%token

KI_554           /* multiple utterance scope for tenses */

%token

KOhA_555         /* sumti anaphora */

%token

KU_556           /* right terminator for descriptions, etc. */

%token

KUhO_557         /* right terminator, NOI relative clauses */

%token

LA_558           /* name descriptors */

%token

LAU_559          /* lerfu prefixes */

%token

LAhE_561         /* sumti qualifiers */

%token

LE_562           /* sumti descriptors */

%token

LEhU_565         /* possibly ungrammatical text right quote */

%token

LI_566           /* convert number to sumti */

%token

LIhU_567         /* grammatical text right quote */

%token

LOhO_568         /* elidable terminator for LI */

%token

LOhU_569         /* possibly ungrammatical text left quote */

%token

LU_571           /* grammatical text left quote */

%token

LUhU_573         /* LAhE close delimiter */

%token

ME_574           /* converts a sumti into a tanru_unit */

%token

MEhU_575         /* terminator for ME */

%token

MOhI_577         /* motion tense marker */

%token

NA_578           /* bridi negation  */

%token

NAI_581          /* attached to words to negate them */

%token

NAhE_583         /* scalar negation  */

%token

NIhO_584         /* new paragraph; change of subject */

%token

NOI_585          /* attaches a subordinate clause to a sumti */

%token

NU_586           /* abstraction  */

%token

NUhI_587         /* marks the start of a termset */

%token

NUhU_588         /* marks the middle and end of a termset */

%token

PEhE_591         /* afterthought termset connective prefix */

%token

PU_592           /* directions in time */

%token

RAhO_593         /* flag for modified interpretation of GOhI */

%token

ROI_594          /* converts number to extensional tense */

%token

SA_595           /* metalinguistic eraser to the beginning of

the current utterance */

%token

SE_596           /* conversions */

%token

SEI_597          /* metalinguistic bridi insert marker */

%token

SEhU_598         /* metalinguistic bridi end marker */

%token

SI_601           /* metalinguistic single word eraser */

%token

SOI_602          /* reciprocal sumti marker */

%token

SU_603           /* metalinguistic eraser of the entire text */

%token

TAhE_604         /* tense interval properties */

%token

TEI_605          /* start compound lerfu */

%token

TO_606           /* left discursive parenthesis */

%token

TOI_607          /* right discursive parenthesis */

%token

TUhE_610         /* multiple utterance scope mark */

%token

TUhU_611         /* multiple utterance end scope mark */

%token

UI_612           /* attitudinals, observationals, discursives */

%token

VA_613           /* distance in space-time */

%token

VAU_614          /* end simple bridi or bridi-tail */

%token

VEhA_615         /* space-time interval size */

%token

VIhA_616         /* space-time dimensionality marker */

%token

VUhO_617         /* glue between logically connected sumti

and relative clauses */

%token

XI_618           /* subscripting operator */

%token

Y_619            /* hesitation */

%token

ZAhO_621         /* event properties – inchoative, etc. */

%token

ZEhA_622         /* time interval size tense */

%token

ZEI_623          /* lujvo glue */

%token

ZI_624           /* time distance tense */

%token

ZIhE_625         /* conjoins relative clauses */

%token

ZO_626           /* single word metalinguistic quote marker */

%token

ZOI_627          /* delimited quote marker */

%token

ZOhU_628         /* prenex terminator (not elidable) */

%token

BIhE_650         /* prefix for high-priority MEX operator */

%token

BOI_651          /* number or lerfu-string terminator */

%token

FUhA_655         /* reverse Polish flag */

%token

GAhO_656         /* open/closed interval markers for BIhI */

%token

JOhI_657         /* flags an array operand */

%token

KUhE_658         /* MEX forethought delimiter */

%token

MAI_661          /* change numbers to utterance ordinals */

%token

MAhO_662         /* change MEX expressions to MEX operators */

%token

MOI_663          /* change number to selbri */

%token

MOhE_664         /* change sumti to operand, inverse of LI */

%token

NAhU_665         /* change a selbri into an operator */

%token

NIhE_666         /* change selbri to operand; inverse of MOI */

%token

NUhA_667         /* change operator to selbri; inverse of MOhE */

%token

PA_672           /* numbers and numeric punctuation */

%token

PEhO_673         /* forethought (Polish) flag */

%token

TEhU_675         /* closing gap for MEX constructs */

%token

VEI_677          /* left MEX bracket */

%token

VEhO_678         /* right MEX bracket */

%token

VUhU_679         /* MEX operator */

%token

any_words_697    /* a string of lexable Lojban words */

%token

any_word_698     /* any single lexable Lojban words */

%token

anything_699     /* a possibly unlexable phoneme string */

/* The following tokens are the actual lexer tokens.  The _900 series

tokens are duplicates that allow limited testing of lexer rules in the

context of the total grammar.  They are used in the actual parser, where

the 900 series rules are found in the lexer.  */

%token lexer_

A_701      /* flags a MAI utterance ordinal */

%token lexer_

B_702      /* flags an EK unless EK_BO, EK_KE */

%token lexer_

C_703      /* flags an EK_BO */

%token lexer_

D_704      /* flags an EK_KE */

%token lexer_

E_705      /* flags a JEK */

%token lexer_

F_706      /* flags a JOIK */

%token lexer_

G_707      /* flags a GEK */

%token lexer_

H_708      /* flags a GUhEK */

%token lexer_

I_709      /* flags a NAhE_BO */

%token lexer_

J_710      /* flags a NA_KU */

%token lexer_

K_711      /* flags an I_BO (option. JOIK/JEK lexer tags)*/

%token lexer_

L_712      /* flags a PA, unless MAI (then lexer A) */

%token lexer_

M_713      /* flags a GIhEK_BO */

%token lexer_

N_714      /* flags a GIhEK_KE */

%token lexer_

O_715      /* flags a modal operator BAI or compound */

%token lexer_

P_716      /* flags a GIK */

%token lexer_

Q_717      /* flags a lerfu_string unless MAI (then lexer_A)*/

%token lexer_

R_718      /* flags a GIhEK, not BO or KE */

%token lexer_

S_719      /* flags simple I */

%token lexer_

T_720      /* flags I_JEK */

%token lexer_

U_721      /* flags a JEK_BO */

%token lexer_

V_722      /* flags a JOIK_BO */

%token lexer_

W_723      /* flags a JOIK_KE */

/* %token lexer_

X_724   /* null */

%token lexer_

Y_725      /* flags a PA_MOI */

/* %token lexer_A_905    /* :  lexer_A_701  utt_ordinal_root_906 */

/* %token lexer_B_910    /* :  lexer_B_702  EK_root_911 */

/* %token lexer_C_915    /* :  lexer_C_703  EK_root_911  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_D_916    /* :  lexer_D_704  EK_root_911  KE_551 */

/* %token lexer_E_925    /* :  lexer_E_705  JEK_root_926 */

/* %token lexer_F_930    /* :  lexer_F_706  JOIK_root_931 */

/* %token lexer_G_935    /* :  lexer_G_707  GA_537 */

/* %token lexer_H_940    /* :  lexer_H_708  GUhA_544 */

/* %token lexer_I_945    /* :  lexer_I_709  NAhE_583  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_J_950    /* :  lexer_J_710  NA_578  KU_556 */

/* %token lexer_K_955    /* :  lexer_K_711  I_432  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_L_960    /* :  lexer_L_712  number_root_961 */

/* %token lexer_M_965    /* :  lexer_M_713  GIhEK_root_991  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_N_966    /* :  lexer_N_714  GIhEK_root_991  KE_551 */

/* %token lexer_O_970    /* :  lexer_O_715  simple_tense_modal_972 */

/* %token lexer_P_980    /* :  lexer_P_716  GIK_root_981 */

/* %token lexer_Q_985    /* :  lexer_Q_717  lerfu_string_root_986 */

/* %token lexer_R_990    /* :  lexer_R_718  GIhEK_root_991 */

/* %token lexer_S_995    /* :  lexer_S_719  I_545 */

/* %token lexer_T_1000   /* :  lexer_T_720  I_545  simple_JOIK_JEK_957 */

/* %token lexer_U_1005   /* :  lexer_U_721  JEK_root_926  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_V_1010   /* :  lexer_V_722  JOIK_root_931  BO_508 */

/* %token lexer_W_1015   /* :  lexer_W_723  JOIK_root_931  KE_551 */

/* %token lexer_X_1020   /* null */

/* %token lexer_Y_1025   /* :  lexer_Y_725  number_root_961  MOI_663 */

%start

YACC rule #0

%%

text_0                  :

YACC rule #1

|

YACC rule #411

YACC rule #1

|

YACC rule #32

YACC rule #1

|

YACC rule #404

YACC rule #1

|

YACC rule #411

YACC rule #32

YACC rule #1

|

YACC rule #581

YACC rule #0

;

text_A_1                :

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #2

/* incomplete JOIK_JEK  without preceding I */

/* compare note on

YACC rule #10 */

|

YACC rule #2

;

text_B_2                :

YACC rule #819

YACC rule #2

|

YACC rule #820

YACC rule #2

|

YACC rule #811

YACC rule #2

|

YACC rule #410

YACC rule #3

|

YACC rule #3

;

text_C_3                :

YACC rule #4

/* Only indicators which follow certain selma'o:

cmene,

YACC rule #607,

YACC rule #571, and the lexer_K and lexer_S I_roots and compounds,

and at the start of text(_0), will survive the lexer; all other valid ones

will be absorbed.  The only strings for which indicators generate a

potential ambiguity are those which contain NAI.  An indicator cannot be

inserted in between a token and its negating NAI, else you can't tell

whether it is the indicator or the original token being negated. */

|  /* empty */

/* An empty text is legal; formerly this was handled by the explicit

appearance of

YACC rule #529, but this is now absorbed by the preparser. */

;

paragraphs_4            :

YACC rule #10

|

YACC rule #10

YACC rule #410

YACC rule #4

;

paragraph_10            :

YACC rule #11

|

YACC rule #20

|

YACC rule #10

YACC rule #819

YACC rule #11

|

YACC rule #10

YACC rule #819

YACC rule #20

|

YACC rule #10

YACC rule #819

/* this last fixes an erroneous start to a sentence,

and permits incomplete JOIK_JEK after I, as well

in answer to questions on those connectives  */

;

statement_11            :

YACC rule #12

|

YACC rule #30

YACC rule #11

;

statement_A_12          :

YACC rule #13

|

YACC rule #12

YACC rule #820

YACC rule #13

|

YACC rule #12

YACC rule #820

;

statement_B_13          :

YACC rule #14

|

YACC rule #14

YACC rule #811

YACC rule #13

|

YACC rule #14

YACC rule #811

;

statement_C_14          :

YACC rule #40

|

YACC rule #447

YACC rule #2

YACC rule #454

|

YACC rule #491

YACC rule #447

YACC rule #2

YACC rule #454

;

fragment_20             :

YACC rule #802

|

YACC rule #445

|

YACC rule #818

|

YACC rule #300

|

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #456        /* answer to ma */

/*

YACC rule #490 requires both

YACC rule #450 and

YACC rule #456

but needs no extra rule to accomplish this */

|

YACC rule #121

|

YACC rule #161

|

YACC rule #160

|

YACC rule #30

;

prenex_30               :

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #492

;

free_modifier_32        :

YACC rule #33

|

YACC rule #33

YACC rule #32

;

free_modifier_A_33      :

YACC rule #35

|

YACC rule #36

|

YACC rule #34

|

YACC rule #486

|

YACC rule #801

;

discursive_bridi_34     :

YACC rule #440

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #459

|

YACC rule #498

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #459

|

YACC rule #498

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #459

|

YACC rule #440

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #451

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #459

|

YACC rule #440

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #459

;

vocative_35             :

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #404

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #404

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #404

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #404

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #457

|

YACC rule #415

YACC rule #457

;

parenthetical_36        :

YACC rule #606

YACC rule #0

YACC rule #468

;

sentence_40             :

YACC rule #50  /* bare observative or mo answer */

|

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #451

YACC rule #50

|

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #50

;

subsentence_41          :

YACC rule #40

|

YACC rule #30

YACC rule #41

;

bridi_tail_50           :

YACC rule #51

|

YACC rule #51

YACC rule #814

YACC rule #50

YACC rule #466

YACC rule #71

;

bridi_tail_A_51         :

YACC rule #52

|

YACC rule #51

YACC rule #818

YACC rule #52

YACC rule #71

;

bridi_tail_B_52         :

YACC rule #53

|

YACC rule #53

YACC rule #813

YACC rule #52

YACC rule #71

;

bridi_tail_C_53         :

YACC rule #54

|

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #71

;

gek_sentence_54         :

YACC rule #807

YACC rule #41

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #41

YACC rule #71

|

YACC rule #491

YACC rule #493

YACC rule #54

YACC rule #466

|

YACC rule #445

YACC rule #54

;

tail_terms_71           :

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #456

|

YACC rule #456

;

terms_80                :

YACC rule #81

|

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #81

;

terms_A_81              :

YACC rule #82

|

YACC rule #81

YACC rule #494

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #82

;

terms_B_82              :

YACC rule #83

|

YACC rule #82

YACC rule #495

YACC rule #83

;

term_83                 :

YACC rule #90

|

YACC rule #84

|

YACC rule #85

|

YACC rule #810

;

modifier_84             :

YACC rule #490

YACC rule #450

|

YACC rule #490

YACC rule #90

;

term_set_85             :

YACC rule #496

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #460

|

YACC rule #496

YACC rule #807

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #460

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #80

YACC rule #460

;

sumti_90                :

YACC rule #91

|

YACC rule #91

YACC rule #497

YACC rule #121

;

sumti_A_91              :

YACC rule #92

|

YACC rule #92

YACC rule #804

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #466

|

YACC rule #92

YACC rule #823

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #466

;

sumti_B_92              :

YACC rule #93

|

YACC rule #92

YACC rule #421

YACC rule #93

;

sumti_C_93              :

YACC rule #94

|

YACC rule #94

YACC rule #803

YACC rule #93

|

YACC rule #94

YACC rule #822

YACC rule #93

;

sumti_D_94              :

YACC rule #95

|

YACC rule #807

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #94

;

sumti_E_95              :

YACC rule #96

|

YACC rule #96

YACC rule #121

/* indefinite sumti */

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #450

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #450

YACC rule #121

;

sumti_F_96              :

YACC rule #97

/* outer-quantified sumti */

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #97

;

sumti_G_97              :

YACC rule #483

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #463

|

YACC rule #483

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #463

/*sumti grouping, set/mass/individual conversion; also sumti scalar negation */

|

YACC rule #400

|

YACC rule #499

YACC rule #404

|

YACC rule #499

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #404

|

YACC rule #489

YACC rule #310

YACC rule #472

|

YACC rule #110

|

YACC rule #432

;

description_110         :

YACC rule #499

YACC rule #111

YACC rule #450

|

YACC rule #488

YACC rule #111

YACC rule #450

;

sumti_tail_111          :

YACC rule #112

/* inner-quantified sumti relative clause */

|

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #112

/* pseudo-possessive

(an abbreviated inner restriction);

note that sumti cannot be quantified */

|

YACC rule #97

YACC rule #112

/* pseudo-possessive with outer restriction */

|

YACC rule #97

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #112

;

sumti_tail_A_112        :

YACC rule #130

|

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #121

/* explicit inner quantifier */

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #130

/* quantifier both internal to a description,

and external to a sumti thereby made specific */

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #121

|

YACC rule #300

YACC rule #90

;

relative_clauses_121    :

YACC rule #122

|

YACC rule #121

YACC rule #487

YACC rule #122

;

relative_clause_122     :

YACC rule #485

YACC rule #83

YACC rule #464

|

YACC rule #484

YACC rule #41

YACC rule #469

;

selbri_130              :

YACC rule #491

YACC rule #131

|

YACC rule #131

;

selbri_A_131            :

YACC rule #132

|

YACC rule #445

YACC rule #130

;

selbri_B_132            :

YACC rule #133

|

YACC rule #133

YACC rule #443

YACC rule #132

;

selbri_C_133            :

YACC rule #134

|

YACC rule #133

YACC rule #134

;

selbri_D_134            :

YACC rule #135

|

YACC rule #134

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #135

|

YACC rule #134

YACC rule #823

YACC rule #133

YACC rule #466

;

selbri_E_135            :

YACC rule #136

|

YACC rule #136

YACC rule #821

YACC rule #135

|

YACC rule #136

YACC rule #822

YACC rule #135

;

selbri_F_136            :

YACC rule #150

|

YACC rule #150

YACC rule #479

YACC rule #136

|

YACC rule #137

|

YACC rule #482

YACC rule #137

;

GUhEK_selbri_137        :

YACC rule #808

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #136

;

tanru_unit_150          :

YACC rule #151

|

YACC rule #150

YACC rule #444

YACC rule #151

;

tanru_unit_A_151        :

YACC rule #152

|

YACC rule #152

YACC rule #160

;

tanru_unit_B_152        :

YACC rule #407

|

YACC rule #493

YACC rule #133

YACC rule #466

|

YACC rule #480

YACC rule #152

|

YACC rule #478

YACC rule #491

YACC rule #152

|

YACC rule #478

YACC rule #152

|

YACC rule #477

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #465

|

YACC rule #477

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #465

YACC rule #476

|

YACC rule #475

YACC rule #374

|

YACC rule #482

YACC rule #152

|

YACC rule #425

YACC rule #41

YACC rule #453

;

linkargs_160            :

YACC rule #446

YACC rule #83

YACC rule #467

|

YACC rule #446

YACC rule #83

YACC rule #161

YACC rule #467

;

links_161               :

YACC rule #442

YACC rule #83

|

YACC rule #442

YACC rule #83

YACC rule #161

;

/*  Main entry point for MEX; everything but a number must be in parens.   */

quantifier_300          :

YACC rule #812

YACC rule #461

|

YACC rule #470

YACC rule #310

YACC rule #471

;

/*  Entry point for MEX used after LI; no parens needed, but LI now has an

elidable terminator. (This allows us to express the difference between

“the expression a + b” and “the expression (a + b)” )   */

/*  This rule supports left-grouping infix expressions and reverse Polish

expressions. To handle infix monadic, use a null operand; to handle

infix with more than two operands (whatever that means) use an extra

operator or an array operand.   */

MEX_310                 :

YACC rule #311

|

YACC rule #310

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #311

|

YACC rule #441

YACC rule #330

;

/*  Support for right-grouping (short scope) infix expressions with BIhE.  */

MEX_A_311               :

YACC rule #312

|

YACC rule #312

YACC rule #439

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #311

;

/*  Support for forethought (Polish) expressions. These begin with a

forethought flag, then the operator and then the argument(s).  */

MEX_B_312               :

YACC rule #381

|

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #313

YACC rule #452

|

YACC rule #438

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #313

YACC rule #452

;

MEX_C_313               :

YACC rule #312

|

YACC rule #313

YACC rule #312

;

/*  Reverse Polish expressions always have exactly two operands.

To handle one operand, use a null operand;

to handle more than two operands, use a null operator.  */

rp_expression_330       :

YACC rule #332

YACC rule #332

YACC rule #370

;

rp_operand_332          :

YACC rule #381

|

YACC rule #330

;

/*  Operators may be joined by logical connectives. */

operator_370            :

YACC rule #371

|

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #371

|

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #823

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #466

;

operator_A_371          :

YACC rule #372

|

YACC rule #808

YACC rule #371

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #372

|

YACC rule #372

YACC rule #822

YACC rule #371

|

YACC rule #372

YACC rule #821

YACC rule #371

;

operator_B_372          :

YACC rule #374

|

YACC rule #493

YACC rule #370

YACC rule #466

;

MEX_operator_374        :

YACC rule #679

|

YACC rule #679

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #480

YACC rule #374

/* changes argument order */

|

YACC rule #482

YACC rule #374

/* scalar negation */

|

YACC rule #430

YACC rule #310

YACC rule #473

|

YACC rule #429

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #473

;

operand_381             :

YACC rule #382

|

YACC rule #382

YACC rule #804

YACC rule #381

YACC rule #466

|

YACC rule #382

YACC rule #823

YACC rule #381

YACC rule #466

;

operand_A_382           :

YACC rule #383

|

YACC rule #382

YACC rule #421

YACC rule #383

;

operand_B_383           :

YACC rule #385

|

YACC rule #385

YACC rule #803

YACC rule #383

|

YACC rule #385

YACC rule #822

YACC rule #383

;

operand_C_385           :

YACC rule #300

|

YACC rule #817

YACC rule #461

/* lerfu string as operand – classic math variable */

|

YACC rule #428

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #473

/* quantifies a bridi – inverse of -MOI */

|

YACC rule #427

YACC rule #90

YACC rule #473

/* quantifies a sumti – inverse of LI */

|

YACC rule #431

YACC rule #313

YACC rule #473

|

YACC rule #807

YACC rule #381

YACC rule #816

YACC rule #385

|

YACC rule #483

YACC rule #381

YACC rule #463

;

/* _400 series constructs are mostly specific strings, some of which may

also be used by the lexer; the lexer should not use any reference to

terminals numbered less than _400, as they have grammars composed on

non-deterministic strings of selma'o.  Some above _400 also are this

way, so care should be taken; this is especially true for those that

reference

YACC rule #32.  */

anaphora_400            :

YACC rule #555

|

YACC rule #555

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #817

YACC rule #461

;

cmene_404               :

YACC rule #405

|

YACC rule #405

YACC rule #32

;

cmene_A_405             :

YACC rule #518  /* pause */

|

YACC rule #405

YACC rule #518  /* pause*/

/* multiple CMENE are identified morphologically (by the lexer) -- separated by

consonant & pause */

;

bridi_valsi_407         :

YACC rule #408

|

YACC rule #408

YACC rule #32

;

bridi_valsi_A_408       :

YACC rule #509

|

YACC rule #824

|

YACC rule #543

|

YACC rule #543

YACC rule #593

;

para_mark_410           :

YACC rule #584

|

YACC rule #584

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #584

YACC rule #410

;

indicators_411          :

YACC rule #412

|

YACC rule #535

YACC rule #412

;

indicators_A_412        :

YACC rule #413

|

YACC rule #412

YACC rule #413

;

indicator_413           :

YACC rule #612

|

YACC rule #515

|

YACC rule #612

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #515

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #619

|

YACC rule #524

|

YACC rule #536

;

DOI_415                 :

YACC rule #525

|

YACC rule #416

|

YACC rule #416

YACC rule #525

;

COI_416                 :

YACC rule #417

|

YACC rule #416

YACC rule #417

;

COI_A_417               :

YACC rule #520

|

YACC rule #520

YACC rule #581

;

JOIK_EK_421             :

YACC rule #802

|

YACC rule #806

|

YACC rule #806

YACC rule #32

;

JOIK_JEK_422            :

YACC rule #806

|

YACC rule #806

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #805

|

YACC rule #805

YACC rule #32

;

XI_424                  :

YACC rule #618

|

YACC rule #618

YACC rule #32

;

NU_425                  :

YACC rule #426

|

YACC rule #425

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #426

;

NU_A_426                :

YACC rule #586

|

YACC rule #586

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #586

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #586

YACC rule #581

YACC rule #32

;

MOhE_427                :

YACC rule #664

|

YACC rule #664

YACC rule #32

;

NIhE_428                :

YACC rule #666

|

YACC rule #666

YACC rule #32

;

NAhU_429                :

YACC rule #665

|

YACC rule #665

YACC rule #32

;

MAhO_430                :

YACC rule #662

|

YACC rule #662

YACC rule #32

;

JOhI_431                :

YACC rule #657

|

YACC rule #657

YACC rule #32

;

quote_arg_432           :

YACC rule #433

|

YACC rule #433

YACC rule #32

;

quote_arg_A_433         :

YACC rule #434

|

YACC rule #435

|

YACC rule #436

|

YACC rule #571

YACC rule #0

YACC rule #448

;

/* The quoted material in the following three terminals must be identified by

the lexer, but no additional lexer processing is needed. */

ZOI_quote_434           :

YACC rule #627

YACC rule #698

/*pause*/

YACC rule #699  /*pause*/

YACC rule #698

;

/* “pause” is morphemic, represented by . The lexer assembles

YACC rule #699 */

ZO_quote_435            :

YACC rule #626

YACC rule #698

;

/* “word” may not be a compound; but it can be any valid Lojban selma'o value,

including ZO, ZOI, SI, SA, SU. The preparser will not lex the word per its

normal selma'o. */

LOhU_quote_436          :

YACC rule #569

YACC rule #697

YACC rule #565

;

/* “words” may be any Lojban words, with no claim of grammaticality; the

preparser will not lex the individual words per their normal selma'o;

used to quote ungrammatical Lojban, equivalent to the * or ? writing

convention for such text.  */

/* The preparser needs one bit of sophistication for this rule.  A

quoted string should be able to contain other quoted strings – this is

only a problem for a LOhU quote itself, since the LEhU clossing this

quote would otherwise close the outer quotes, which is incorrect.  For

this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since this

is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser).  Use ZO to

mark any nested quotation LOhU.  The preparser then will absorb it by

the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU.  This is obviously not the

standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a

sumti.  But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway,

it doesn't matter.  */

/* It may be seen that any of the ZO/ZOI/LOhU trio of quotation markers

may contain the powerful metalinguistic erasers.  Since these quotations

are not parsed internally, these operators are ignored within the quote.

To erase a ZO, then, two SI's are needed after giving a quoted word of

any type.  ZOI takes four SI's, with the ENTIRE BODY OF THE QUOTE

treated as a single “word” since it is one selma'o.  Thus one for the

quote body, two for the single word delimiters, and one for the ZOI.  In

LOhU, the entire body is treated as a single word, so three SI's can

erase it.  */

/* All rule terminator names with “gap” in them are potentially

elidable, where such elision does not cause an ambiguity.  This is

implemented through use of the YACC “error” token, which effectively

recovers from an elision.  */

FIhO_437                :

YACC rule #532

|

YACC rule #532

YACC rule #32

;

PEhO_438                :

YACC rule #673

|

YACC rule #673

YACC rule #32

;

BIhE_439                :

YACC rule #650

|

YACC rule #650

YACC rule #32

;

SEI_440                 :

YACC rule #597

|

YACC rule #597

YACC rule #32

;

FUhA_441                :

YACC rule #655

|

YACC rule #655

YACC rule #32

;

BEI_442                 :

YACC rule #505

|

YACC rule #505

YACC rule #32

;

CO_443                  :

YACC rule #519

|

YACC rule #519

YACC rule #32

;

CEI_444                 :

YACC rule #516

|

YACC rule #516

YACC rule #32

;

NA_445                  :

YACC rule #578

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #32

;

BE_446                  :

YACC rule #504

|

YACC rule #504

YACC rule #32

;

TUhE_447                :

YACC rule #610

|

YACC rule #610

YACC rule #32

;

LIhU_gap_448            :

YACC rule #567

|  error

;

gap_450                 :

YACC rule #556

|

YACC rule #556

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

front_gap_451           :

YACC rule #521

|

YACC rule #521

YACC rule #32

;

MEX_gap_452             :

YACC rule #658

|

YACC rule #658

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

KEI_gap_453             :

YACC rule #552

|

YACC rule #552

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

TUhU_gap_454            :

YACC rule #611

|

YACC rule #611

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

VAU_gap_456             :

YACC rule #614

|

YACC rule #614

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

/* redundant to attach a free modifier on the following */

DOhU_gap_457            :

YACC rule #526

|  error

;

FEhU_gap_458            :

YACC rule #531

|

YACC rule #531

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

SEhU_gap_459            :

YACC rule #598

|  error

/* a free modifier on a discursive should be somewhere within the discursive.

See

YACC rule #440 */

;

NUhU_gap_460            :

YACC rule #588

|

YACC rule #588

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

BOI_gap_461             :

YACC rule #651

|

YACC rule #651

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

sub_gap_462             :

YACC rule #651

|  error

;

LUhU_gap_463            :

YACC rule #573

|

YACC rule #573

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

GEhU_gap_464            :

YACC rule #538

|

YACC rule #538

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

MEhU_gap_465            :

YACC rule #575

|

YACC rule #575

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

KEhE_gap_466            :

YACC rule #550

|

YACC rule #550

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

BEhO_gap_467            :

YACC rule #506

|

YACC rule #506

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

TOI_gap_468             :

YACC rule #607

|  error

;

KUhO_gap_469            :

YACC rule #557

|

YACC rule #557

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

left_bracket_470        :

YACC rule #677

|

YACC rule #677

YACC rule #32

;

right_bracket_gap_471   :

YACC rule #678

|

YACC rule #678

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

LOhO_gap_472            :

YACC rule #568

|

YACC rule #568

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

TEhU_gap_473            :

YACC rule #675

|

YACC rule #675

YACC rule #32

|  error

;

right_br_no_free_474    :

YACC rule #678

|  error

;

NUhA_475                :

YACC rule #667

|

YACC rule #667

YACC rule #32

;

MOI_476                 :

YACC rule #663

|

YACC rule #663

YACC rule #32

;

ME_477                  :

YACC rule #574

|

YACC rule #574

YACC rule #32

;

JAI_478                 :

YACC rule #547

|

YACC rule #547

YACC rule #32

;

BO_479                  :

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #508

YACC rule #32

;

SE_480                  :

YACC rule #596

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #32

;

FA_481                  :

YACC rule #527

|

YACC rule #527

YACC rule #32

;

NAhE_482                :

YACC rule #583

|

YACC rule #583

YACC rule #32

;

qualifier_483           :

YACC rule #561

|

YACC rule #561

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #809

;

NOI_484                 :

YACC rule #585

|

YACC rule #585

YACC rule #32

;

GOI_485                 :

YACC rule #542

|

YACC rule #542

YACC rule #32

;

subscript_486           :

YACC rule #424

YACC rule #812

YACC rule #462

|

YACC rule #424

YACC rule #470

YACC rule #310

YACC rule #474

|

YACC rule #424

YACC rule #817

YACC rule #462

;

ZIhE_487                :

YACC rule #625

|

YACC rule #625

YACC rule #32

;

LE_488                  :

YACC rule #562

|

YACC rule #562

YACC rule #32

;

LI_489                  :

YACC rule #566

|

YACC rule #566

YACC rule #32

;

mod_head_490            :

YACC rule #491

|

YACC rule #481

;

tag_491                 :

YACC rule #815

|

YACC rule #491

YACC rule #422

YACC rule #815

;

ZOhU_492                :

YACC rule #628

|

YACC rule #628

YACC rule #32

;

KE_493                  :

YACC rule #551

|

YACC rule #551

YACC rule #32

;

PEhE_494                :

YACC rule #591

|

YACC rule #591

YACC rule #32

;

CEhE_495                :

YACC rule #517

|

YACC rule #517

YACC rule #32

;

NUhI_496                :

YACC rule #587

|

YACC rule #587

YACC rule #32

;

VUhO_497                :

YACC rule #617

|

YACC rule #617

YACC rule #32

;

SOI_498                 :

YACC rule #602

|

YACC rule #602

YACC rule #32

;

LA_499                  :

YACC rule #558

|

YACC rule #558

YACC rule #32

;

utterance_ordinal_801   :

YACC rule #905

;

EK_802                  :

YACC rule #910

|

YACC rule #910

YACC rule #32

;

EK_BO_803               :

YACC rule #915

|

YACC rule #915

YACC rule #32

;

EK_KE_804               :

YACC rule #916

|

YACC rule #916

YACC rule #32

;

JEK_805                 :

YACC rule #925

;

JOIK_806                :

YACC rule #930

;

GEK_807                 :

YACC rule #935

|

YACC rule #935

YACC rule #32

;

GUhEK_808               :

YACC rule #940

|

YACC rule #940

YACC rule #32

;

NAhE_BO_809             :

YACC rule #945

|

YACC rule #945

YACC rule #32

;

NA_KU_810               :

YACC rule #950

|

YACC rule #950

YACC rule #32

;

I_BO_811                :

YACC rule #955

|

YACC rule #955

YACC rule #32

;

number_812              :

YACC rule #960

;

GIhEK_BO_813            :

YACC rule #965

|

YACC rule #965

YACC rule #32

;

GIhEK_KE_814            :

YACC rule #966

|

YACC rule #966

YACC rule #32

;

tense_modal_815         :

YACC rule #970

|

YACC rule #970

YACC rule #32

|

YACC rule #437

YACC rule #130

YACC rule #458

;

GIK_816                 :

YACC rule #980

|

YACC rule #980

YACC rule #32

;

lerfu_string_817        :

YACC rule #985

;

GIhEK_818               :

YACC rule #990

|

YACC rule #990

YACC rule #32

;

I_819                   :

YACC rule #995

|

YACC rule #995

YACC rule #32

;

I_JEK_820               :

YACC rule #1000

|

YACC rule #1000

YACC rule #32

;

JEK_BO_821              :

YACC rule #1005

|

YACC rule #1005

YACC rule #32

;

JOIK_BO_822             :

YACC rule #1010

|

YACC rule #1010

YACC rule #32

;

JOIK_KE_823             :

YACC rule #1015

|

YACC rule #1015

YACC rule #32

;

PA_MOI_824              :

YACC rule #1025

;

/* The following rules are used only in lexer processing.  They have been

tested for ambiguity at various levels in the YACC grammar, but are in

the recursive descent lexer in the current parser.  The lexer inserts

the lexer tokens before the processed strings, but leaves the original

tokens.  */

lexer_A_905             :

YACC rule #701

YACC rule #906

;

utt_ordinal_root_906    :

YACC rule #986

YACC rule #661

|

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #661

;

lexer_B_910             :

YACC rule #702

YACC rule #911

;

EK_root_911             :

YACC rule #501

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #501

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #501

|

YACC rule #501

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #501

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #501

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #501

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #501

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_C_915             :

YACC rule #703

YACC rule #911

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #703

YACC rule #911

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #508

;

lexer_D_916             :

YACC rule #704

YACC rule #911

YACC rule #551

|

YACC rule #704

YACC rule #911

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #551

;

lexer_E_925             :

YACC rule #705

YACC rule #926

;

JEK_root_926            :

YACC rule #546

|

YACC rule #546

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #546

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #546

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #546

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #546

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #546

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #546

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_F_930             :

YACC rule #706

YACC rule #931

;

JOIK_root_931           :

YACC rule #548

|

YACC rule #548

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #548

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #548

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #932

|

YACC rule #656

YACC rule #932

YACC rule #656

;

interval_932            :

YACC rule #507

|

YACC rule #507

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #507

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #507

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_G_935             :

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #537

|

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #537

|

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #537

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #537

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #981

|

YACC rule #707

YACC rule #931

YACC rule #539

;

lexer_H_940             :

YACC rule #708

YACC rule #544

|

YACC rule #708

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #544

|

YACC rule #708

YACC rule #544

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #708

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #544

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_I_945             :

YACC rule #709

YACC rule #583

YACC rule #508

;

lexer_J_950             :

YACC rule #710

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #556

;

lexer_K_955             :

YACC rule #711

YACC rule #956

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #711

YACC rule #956

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #508

;

I_root_956              :

YACC rule #545

|

YACC rule #545

YACC rule #957

;

simple_JOIK_JEK_957     :

YACC rule #806

|

YACC rule #805

;

/* no freemod in this version; cf.

YACC rule #422 */

/* this reference to a version of JOIK and JEK

which already have the lexer tokens attached

prevents shift/reduce errors.  The problem is

resolved in a hard-coded parser implementation

which builds lexer_K, before lexer_S, before

lexer_E and lexer_F. */

lexer_L_960             :

YACC rule #712

YACC rule #961

;

number_root_961         :

YACC rule #672

|

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #672

|

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #987

;

lexer_M_965             :

YACC rule #713

YACC rule #991

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #713

YACC rule #991

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #508

;

lexer_N_966             :

YACC rule #714

YACC rule #991

YACC rule #551

|

YACC rule #714

YACC rule #991

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #551

;

lexer_O_970             :

YACC rule #715

YACC rule #972

;

/* the following rule is a lexer version of non-terminal_815 for compounding

PU/modals; it disallows the lexer picking out FIhO clauses, which would

require it to have knowledge of the main parser grammar */

simple_tag_971          :

YACC rule #972

|

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #957

YACC rule #972

;

simple_tense_modal_972  :

YACC rule #973

|

YACC rule #583

YACC rule #973

|

YACC rule #554

|

YACC rule #522

;

simple_tense_modal_A_973:

YACC rule #974

|

YACC rule #974

YACC rule #554

|

YACC rule #977

;

modal_974               :

YACC rule #975

|

YACC rule #975

YACC rule #581

;

modal_A_975             :

YACC rule #502

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #502

;

tense_A_977             :

YACC rule #978

|

YACC rule #978

YACC rule #554

;

tense_B_978             :

YACC rule #979

|

YACC rule #514

|

YACC rule #979

YACC rule #514

;

/* specifies actuality/potentiality of the bridi */

/* puca'a = actually was */

/* baca'a = actually will be */

/* bapu'i = can and will have */

/* banu'o = can, but won't have yet */

/* canu'ojebapu'i = can, hasn't yet, but will */

tense_C_979             :

YACC rule #1030

/* time-only */

/* space defaults to time-space reference space */

|

YACC rule #1040

/* can include time if specified with VIhA; otherwise time defaults to the

time-space reference time */

|

YACC rule #1030

YACC rule #1040

/* time and space – If

YACC rule #1040 is marked with

VIhA for space-time the tense may be self-contradictory */

/* interval prop before space_time is for time distribution */

|

YACC rule #1040

YACC rule #1030

;

lexer_P_980             :

YACC rule #716

YACC rule #981

;

GIK_root_981            :

YACC rule #539

|

YACC rule #539

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_Q_985             :

YACC rule #717

YACC rule #986

;

lerfu_string_root_986   :

YACC rule #987

|

YACC rule #986

YACC rule #987

|

YACC rule #986

YACC rule #672

;

lerfu_word_987          :

YACC rule #513

|

YACC rule #559

YACC rule #987

|

YACC rule #605

YACC rule #986

YACC rule #533

;

lexer_R_990             :

YACC rule #718

YACC rule #991

;

GIhEK_root_991          :

YACC rule #541

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #541

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #541

|

YACC rule #541

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #541

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #541

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #541

|

YACC rule #578

YACC rule #596

YACC rule #541

YACC rule #581

;

lexer_S_995             :

YACC rule #719

YACC rule #545

;

lexer_T_1000            :

YACC rule #720

YACC rule #545

YACC rule #957

;

lexer_U_1005            :

YACC rule #721

YACC rule #926

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #721

YACC rule #926

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #508

;

lexer_V_1010            :

YACC rule #722

YACC rule #931

YACC rule #508

|

YACC rule #722

YACC rule #931

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #508

;

lexer_W_1015            :

YACC rule #723

YACC rule #931

YACC rule #551

|

YACC rule #723

YACC rule #931

YACC rule #971

YACC rule #551

;

lexer_Y_1025            :

YACC rule #725

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #663

|

YACC rule #725

YACC rule #986

YACC rule #663

;

time_1030               :

YACC rule #624

|

YACC rule #624

YACC rule #1031

|

YACC rule #1031

;

time_A_1031             :

YACC rule #1032

|

YACC rule #1034

|

YACC rule #1032

YACC rule #1034

;

time_B_1032             :

YACC rule #1033

|

YACC rule #1032

YACC rule #1033

;

time_offset_1033        :

YACC rule #1035

|

YACC rule #1035

YACC rule #624

;

time_interval_1034      :

YACC rule #622

|

YACC rule #622

YACC rule #1035

|

YACC rule #1036

|

YACC rule #622

YACC rule #1036

|

YACC rule #622

YACC rule #1035

YACC rule #1036

;

time_direction_1035     :

YACC rule #592

|

YACC rule #592

YACC rule #581

;

time_int_props_1036     :

YACC rule #1051

|

YACC rule #1036

YACC rule #1051

;

space_1040              :

YACC rule #1042

|

YACC rule #1041

|

YACC rule #1042

YACC rule #1041

;

space_motion_1041       :

YACC rule #577

YACC rule #1045

;

space_A_1042            :

YACC rule #613

|

YACC rule #613

YACC rule #1043

|

YACC rule #1043

;

space_B_1043            :

YACC rule #1044

|

YACC rule #1046

|

YACC rule #1044

YACC rule #1046

;

space_C_1044            :

YACC rule #1045

|

YACC rule #1044

YACC rule #1045

;

space_offset_1045       :

YACC rule #1048

|

YACC rule #1048

YACC rule #613

;

space_intval_1046       :

YACC rule #1047

|

YACC rule #1047

YACC rule #1048

|

YACC rule #1049

|

YACC rule #1047

YACC rule #1049

|

YACC rule #1047

YACC rule #1048

YACC rule #1049

;

space_intval_A_1047     :

YACC rule #615

|

YACC rule #616

|

YACC rule #615

YACC rule #616

;

space_direction_1048    :

YACC rule #528

|

YACC rule #528

YACC rule #581

;

space_int_props_1049    :

YACC rule #1050

|

YACC rule #1049

YACC rule #1050

;

space_int_props_A_1050  :

YACC rule #530

YACC rule #1051

;

/* This terminal gives an interval size in space-time (VEhA), and possibly a

dimensionality of the interval.  The dimensionality may also be used

with the interval size left unspecified.  When this terminal is used for the

spacetime origin, then barring any overriding VIhA, a VIhA here defines

the dimensionality of the space-time being discussed.                 */

interval_property_1051  :

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #594

|

YACC rule #961

YACC rule #594

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #604

|

YACC rule #604

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #621

|

YACC rule #621

YACC rule #581

;

/* extensional/intensional interval parameters */

/* These may be appended to any defined interval, or may stand in place of

either time or space tenses.  If no other tense is present, this terminal

stands for the time-space interval parameter with an unspecified interval.*/

/* roroi = always and everywhere */

/* roroiku'avi = always here (ku'a = intersection) */

/* puroroi = always in the past

/* paroi = once upon a time (somewhere) */

/* paroiku'avi = once upon a time here */

/* The following are “Lexer-only rules”, covered by steps 1-4 described

at the beginning.  The grammar of these constructs is nonexistent,

except possibly in cases where they interact with each other.  Even

there, however, the effects are semantic rather than grammatical.  Where

it is believed possible that conflicts could exist, the grammar of these

constructs has been put in the above grammar, even though the

lexer/Preparser will actually prevent these from being passed thru to

the parse routine.  (Otherwise we have to put unacceptably fancy code in

the PreParser to determine just when these can be passed thru, and when

they can't.)  Constructs in this category include quotes and indicators

as defined above.  (The above grammar handles utterance scope

(free_modifier) and clause scope (gap) applications of the latter,

however, and indicators should be allowed to be absorbed into almost any

word without changing its grammar.

YACC rule #601,

YACC rule #595, and

YACC rule #603 are metalinguistic erasers.

token_1100              :

YACC rule #698

|

YACC rule #503

YACC rule #698

|

YACC rule #699

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #511

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #524

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #536

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #535

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #612

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #612

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #619

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #515

|

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #515

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #612

YACC rule #581

|

YACC rule #515

YACC rule #581

;

null_1101               :

YACC rule #698

YACC rule #601

|  possibly_unlexable_word  (PAUSE)

YACC rule #601

|

YACC rule #20

YACC rule #595

|  possibly unlexable string  (PAUSE)

YACC rule #595

erases back to the last individual token

I or NIhO or start of text, ignoring the

insides of ZOI, ZO, and LOhU/LEhU quotes.

Start of text is defined for SU below.

|

YACC rule #3

YACC rule #603

|  possibly unparsable text  (PAUSE)

YACC rule #603

erases back to start of text which is the

beginning of a speaker's statement,

a parenthesis (TO/TOI), a LU/LIhU quote,

or a TUhE/TUhU utterance string.

;

*/

%%

2. YACC Grammar Cross-Reference

A_501

YACC rule #911

anaphora_400

YACC rule #97

anything_699

YACC rule #1100, YACC rule #434

any_word_698

YACC rule #1101, YACC rule #1100, YACC rule #434, YACC rule #435

any_words_697

YACC rule #436

BAhE_503

YACC rule #1100

BAI_502

YACC rule #975

BE_446

YACC rule #160

BE_504

YACC rule #446

BEhO_506

YACC rule #467

BEhO_gap_467

YACC rule #160

BEI_442

YACC rule #161

BEI_505

YACC rule #442

BIhE_439

YACC rule #311

BIhE_650

YACC rule #439

BIhI_507

YACC rule #932

BO_479

YACC rule #136

BO_508

YACC rule #479, YACC rule #915, YACC rule #945, YACC rule #955, YACC rule #965, YACC rule #1005, YACC rule #1010

BOI_651

YACC rule #461, YACC rule #462

BOI_gap_461

YACC rule #400, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #300

bridi_tail_50

YACC rule #50, YACC rule #40

bridi_tail_A_51

YACC rule #50, YACC rule #51

bridi_tail_B_52

YACC rule #51, YACC rule #52

bridi_tail_C_53

YACC rule #52

bridi_valsi_407

YACC rule #152

bridi_valsi_A_408

YACC rule #407

BRIVLA_509

YACC rule #408

BU_511

YACC rule #1100

BY_513

YACC rule #987

CAhA_514

YACC rule #978

CAI_515

YACC rule #413, YACC rule #1100

CEhE_495

YACC rule #82

CEhE_517

YACC rule #495

CEI_444

YACC rule #150

CEI_516

YACC rule #444

cmene_404

YACC rule #97, YACC rule #0, YACC rule #35

CMENE_518

YACC rule #405

cmene_A_405

YACC rule #404, YACC rule #405

CO_443

YACC rule #132

CO_519

YACC rule #443

COI_416

YACC rule #416, YACC rule #415

COI_520

YACC rule #417

COI_A_417

YACC rule #416

CU_521

YACC rule #451

CUhE_522

YACC rule #972

DAhO_524

YACC rule #413, YACC rule #1100

description_110

YACC rule #97

discursive_bridi_34

YACC rule #33

DOhU_526

YACC rule #457

DOhU_gap_457

YACC rule #35

DOI_415

YACC rule #35

DOI_525

YACC rule #415

EK_802

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #421

EK_BO_803

YACC rule #383, YACC rule #93

EK_KE_804

YACC rule #381, YACC rule #91

EK_root_911

YACC rule #910, YACC rule #915, YACC rule #916

error

YACC rule #467, YACC rule #461, YACC rule #457, YACC rule #458, YACC rule #450, YACC rule #464, YACC rule #466, YACC rule #453, YACC rule #469, YACC rule #448, YACC rule #472, YACC rule #463, YACC rule #465, YACC rule #452, YACC rule #460, YACC rule #471, YACC rule #474, YACC rule #459, YACC rule #462, YACC rule #473, YACC rule #468, YACC rule #454, YACC rule #456

FA_481

YACC rule #490

FA_527

YACC rule #481

FAhA_528

YACC rule #1048

FEhE_530

YACC rule #1050

FEhU_531

YACC rule #458

FEhU_gap_458

YACC rule #815

FIhO_437

YACC rule #815

FIhO_532

YACC rule #437

FOI_533

YACC rule #987

fragment_20

YACC rule #10

free_modifier_32

YACC rule #400, YACC rule #446, YACC rule #467, YACC rule #442, YACC rule #439, YACC rule #479, YACC rule #461, YACC rule #407, YACC rule #495, YACC rule #444, YACC rule #404, YACC rule #443, YACC rule #802, YACC rule #803, YACC rule #804, YACC rule #481, YACC rule #458, YACC rule #437, YACC rule #32, YACC rule #451, YACC rule #441, YACC rule #450, YACC rule #464, YACC rule #807, YACC rule #818, YACC rule #813, YACC rule #814, YACC rule #816, YACC rule #485, YACC rule #808, YACC rule #819, YACC rule #811, YACC rule #820, YACC rule #478, YACC rule #821, YACC rule #431, YACC rule #822, YACC rule #421, YACC rule #422, YACC rule #823, YACC rule #493, YACC rule #466, YACC rule #453, YACC rule #469, YACC rule #499, YACC rule #488, YACC rule #470, YACC rule #489, YACC rule #472, YACC rule #463, YACC rule #430, YACC rule #477, YACC rule #465, YACC rule #452, YACC rule #374, YACC rule #427, YACC rule #476, YACC rule #445, YACC rule #482, YACC rule #809, YACC rule #429, YACC rule #810, YACC rule #428, YACC rule #484, YACC rule #426, YACC rule #475, YACC rule #496, YACC rule #460, YACC rule #410, YACC rule #494, YACC rule #438, YACC rule #483, YACC rule #432, YACC rule #471, YACC rule #480, YACC rule #440, YACC rule #498, YACC rule #473, YACC rule #815, YACC rule #0, YACC rule #447, YACC rule #454, YACC rule #456, YACC rule #497, YACC rule #424, YACC rule #487, YACC rule #492

free_modifier_A_33

YACC rule #32

front_gap_451

YACC rule #34, YACC rule #40

FUhA_441

YACC rule #310

FUhA_655

YACC rule #441

FUhE_535

YACC rule #411, YACC rule #1100

FUhO_536

YACC rule #413, YACC rule #1100

GA_537

YACC rule #935

GAhO_656

YACC rule #931

gap_450

YACC rule #110, YACC rule #84, YACC rule #95

GEhU_538

YACC rule #464

GEhU_gap_464

YACC rule #122

GEK_807

YACC rule #54, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #94, YACC rule #85

gek_sentence_54

YACC rule #53, YACC rule #54

GI_539

YACC rule #981, YACC rule #935

GIhA_541

YACC rule #991

GIhEK_818

YACC rule #51, YACC rule #20

GIhEK_BO_813

YACC rule #52

GIhEK_KE_814

YACC rule #50

GIhEK_root_991

YACC rule #965, YACC rule #966, YACC rule #990

GIK_816

YACC rule #54, YACC rule #137, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #371, YACC rule #94, YACC rule #85

GIK_root_981

YACC rule #935, YACC rule #980

GOhA_543

YACC rule #408

GOI_485

YACC rule #122

GOI_542

YACC rule #485

GUhA_544

YACC rule #940

GUhEK_808

YACC rule #137, YACC rule #371

GUhEK_selbri_137

YACC rule #136

I_545

YACC rule #956, YACC rule #995, YACC rule #1000

I_819

YACC rule #10, YACC rule #2

I_BO_811

YACC rule #13, YACC rule #2

I_JEK_820

YACC rule #12, YACC rule #2

indicator_413

YACC rule #412

indicators_411

YACC rule #0

indicators_A_412

YACC rule #411, YACC rule #412

interval_932

YACC rule #931

interval_property_1051

YACC rule #1050, YACC rule #1036

I_root_956

YACC rule #955

JA_546

YACC rule #926

JAI_478

YACC rule #152

JAI_547

YACC rule #478

JEK_805

YACC rule #422, YACC rule #957

JEK_BO_821

YACC rule #371, YACC rule #135

JEK_root_926

YACC rule #925, YACC rule #1005

JOhI_431

YACC rule #385

JOhI_657

YACC rule #431

JOI_548

YACC rule #931

JOIK_806

YACC rule #421, YACC rule #422, YACC rule #957

JOIK_BO_822

YACC rule #383, YACC rule #371, YACC rule #135, YACC rule #93

JOIK_EK_421

YACC rule #382, YACC rule #92

JOIK_JEK_422

YACC rule #425, YACC rule #370, YACC rule #134, YACC rule #491, YACC rule #81, YACC rule #1

JOIK_KE_823

YACC rule #381, YACC rule #370, YACC rule #134, YACC rule #91

JOIK_root_931

YACC rule #930, YACC rule #935, YACC rule #1010, YACC rule #1015

KE_493

YACC rule #54, YACC rule #372, YACC rule #152

KE_551

YACC rule #493, YACC rule #916, YACC rule #966, YACC rule #1015

KEhE_550

YACC rule #466

KEhE_gap_466

YACC rule #50, YACC rule #54, YACC rule #381, YACC rule #370, YACC rule #372, YACC rule #134, YACC rule #91, YACC rule #152

KEI_552

YACC rule #453

KEI_gap_453

YACC rule #152

KI_554

YACC rule #972, YACC rule #973, YACC rule #977

KOhA_555

YACC rule #400

KU_556

YACC rule #450, YACC rule #950

KUhE_658

YACC rule #452

KUhO_557

YACC rule #469

KUhO_gap_469

YACC rule #122

LA_499

YACC rule #110, YACC rule #97

LA_558

YACC rule #499

LAhE_561

YACC rule #483

LAU_559

YACC rule #987

LE_488

YACC rule #110

LE_562

YACC rule #488

left_bracket_470

YACC rule #300, YACC rule #486

LEhU_565

YACC rule #436

lerfu_string_817

YACC rule #400, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #486

lerfu_string_root_986

YACC rule #986, YACC rule #987, YACC rule #985, YACC rule #1025, YACC rule #906

lerfu_word_987

YACC rule #986, YACC rule #987, YACC rule #961

lexer_A_701

YACC rule #905

lexer_A_905

YACC rule #801

lexer_B_702

YACC rule #910

lexer_B_910

YACC rule #802

lexer_C_703

YACC rule #915

lexer_C_915

YACC rule #803

lexer_D_704

YACC rule #916

lexer_D_916

YACC rule #804

lexer_E_705

YACC rule #925

lexer_E_925

YACC rule #805

lexer_F_706

YACC rule #930

lexer_F_930

YACC rule #806

lexer_G_707

YACC rule #935

lexer_G_935

YACC rule #807

lexer_H_708

YACC rule #940

lexer_H_940

YACC rule #808

lexer_I_709

YACC rule #945

lexer_I_945

YACC rule #809

lexer_J_710

YACC rule #950

lexer_J_950

YACC rule #810

lexer_K_711

YACC rule #955

lexer_K_955

YACC rule #811

lexer_L_712

YACC rule #960

lexer_L_960

YACC rule #812

lexer_M_713

YACC rule #965

lexer_M_965

YACC rule #813

lexer_N_714

YACC rule #966

lexer_N_966

YACC rule #814

lexer_O_715

YACC rule #970

lexer_O_970

YACC rule #815

lexer_P_716

YACC rule #980

lexer_P_980

YACC rule #816

lexer_Q_717

YACC rule #985

lexer_Q_985

YACC rule #817

lexer_R_718

YACC rule #990

lexer_R_990

YACC rule #818

lexer_S_719

YACC rule #995

lexer_S_995

YACC rule #819

lexer_T_1000

YACC rule #820

lexer_T_720

YACC rule #1000

lexer_U_1005

YACC rule #821

lexer_U_721

YACC rule #1005

lexer_V_1010

YACC rule #822

lexer_V_722

YACC rule #1010

lexer_W_1015

YACC rule #823

lexer_W_723

YACC rule #1015

lexer_Y_1025

YACC rule #824

lexer_Y_725

YACC rule #1025

LI_489

YACC rule #97

LI_566

YACC rule #489

LIhU_567

YACC rule #448

LIhU_gap_448

YACC rule #433

linkargs_160

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #151

links_161

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #160, YACC rule #161

LOhO_568

YACC rule #472

LOhO_gap_472

YACC rule #97

LOhU_569

YACC rule #436

LOhU_quote_436

YACC rule #433

LU_571

YACC rule #433

LUhU_573

YACC rule #463

LUhU_gap_463

YACC rule #385, YACC rule #97

MAhO_430

YACC rule #374

MAhO_662

YACC rule #430

MAI_661

YACC rule #906

ME_477

YACC rule #152

ME_574

YACC rule #477

MEhU_575

YACC rule #465

MEhU_gap_465

YACC rule #152

MEX_310

YACC rule #310, YACC rule #374, YACC rule #300, YACC rule #486, YACC rule #97

MEX_A_311

YACC rule #310, YACC rule #311

MEX_B_312

YACC rule #311, YACC rule #313

MEX_C_313

YACC rule #312, YACC rule #313, YACC rule #385

MEX_gap_452

YACC rule #312

MEX_operator_374

YACC rule #374, YACC rule #372, YACC rule #152

modal_974

YACC rule #973

modal_A_975

YACC rule #974

mod_head_490

YACC rule #84

modifier_84

YACC rule #83

MOhE_427

YACC rule #385

MOhE_664

YACC rule #427

MOhI_577

YACC rule #1041

MOI_476

YACC rule #152

MOI_663

YACC rule #1025, YACC rule #476

NA_445

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #54, YACC rule #131

NA_578

YACC rule #911, YACC rule #991, YACC rule #926, YACC rule #950, YACC rule #445

NAhE_482

YACC rule #374, YACC rule #136, YACC rule #152

NAhE_583

YACC rule #945, YACC rule #482, YACC rule #972

NAhE_BO_809

YACC rule #483

NAhU_429

YACC rule #374

NAhU_665

YACC rule #429

NAI_581

YACC rule #417, YACC rule #911, YACC rule #991, YACC rule #981, YACC rule #413, YACC rule #932, YACC rule #1051, YACC rule #926, YACC rule #931, YACC rule #935, YACC rule #940, YACC rule #974, YACC rule #426, YACC rule #1048, YACC rule #0, YACC rule #1035, YACC rule #1100

NA_KU_810

YACC rule #83

NIhE_428

YACC rule #385

NIhE_666

YACC rule #428

NIhO_584

YACC rule #410

NOI_484

YACC rule #122

NOI_585

YACC rule #484

NU_425

YACC rule #425, YACC rule #152

NU_586

YACC rule #426

NU_A_426

YACC rule #425

NUhA_475

YACC rule #152

NUhA_667

YACC rule #475

NUhI_496

YACC rule #85

NUhI_587

YACC rule #496

NUhU_588

YACC rule #460

NUhU_gap_460

YACC rule #85

number_812

YACC rule #300, YACC rule #486

number_root_961

YACC rule #1051, YACC rule #960, YACC rule #1025, YACC rule #961, YACC rule #906

operand_381

YACC rule #312, YACC rule #381, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #332

operand_A_382

YACC rule #381, YACC rule #382

operand_B_383

YACC rule #382, YACC rule #383

operand_C_385

YACC rule #383, YACC rule #385

operator_370

YACC rule #310, YACC rule #311, YACC rule #312, YACC rule #370, YACC rule #372, YACC rule #330

operator_A_371

YACC rule #370, YACC rule #371

operator_B_372

YACC rule #371

PA_672

YACC rule #986, YACC rule #961

PA_MOI_824

YACC rule #408

paragraph_10

YACC rule #10, YACC rule #4

paragraphs_4

YACC rule #4, YACC rule #3

para_mark_410

YACC rule #4, YACC rule #410, YACC rule #2

parenthetical_36

YACC rule #33

PEhE_494

YACC rule #81

PEhE_591

YACC rule #494

PEhO_438

YACC rule #312

PEhO_673

YACC rule #438

prenex_30

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #11, YACC rule #41

PU_592

YACC rule #1035

qualifier_483

YACC rule #385, YACC rule #97

quantifier_300

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #95, YACC rule #96, YACC rule #112

quote_arg_432

YACC rule #97

quote_arg_A_433

YACC rule #432

RAhO_593

YACC rule #408

relative_clause_122

YACC rule #121

relative_clauses_121

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #121, YACC rule #90, YACC rule #95, YACC rule #97, YACC rule #111, YACC rule #112, YACC rule #35

right_bracket_gap_471

YACC rule #300

right_br_no_free_474

YACC rule #486

ROI_594

YACC rule #1051

rp_expression_330

YACC rule #310, YACC rule #332

rp_operand_332

YACC rule #330

SA_595

YACC rule #1101

SE_480

YACC rule #374, YACC rule #152

SE_596

YACC rule #911, YACC rule #991, YACC rule #932, YACC rule #926, YACC rule #931, YACC rule #935, YACC rule #940, YACC rule #975, YACC rule #480

SEhU_598

YACC rule #459

SEhU_gap_459

YACC rule #34

SEI_440

YACC rule #34

SEI_597

YACC rule #440

selbri_130

YACC rule #53, YACC rule #34, YACC rule #137, YACC rule #374, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #131, YACC rule #95, YACC rule #112, YACC rule #815, YACC rule #35

selbri_A_131

YACC rule #130

selbri_B_132

YACC rule #131, YACC rule #132

selbri_C_133

YACC rule #132, YACC rule #133, YACC rule #134, YACC rule #152

selbri_D_134

YACC rule #133, YACC rule #134

selbri_E_135

YACC rule #134, YACC rule #135

selbri_F_136

YACC rule #137, YACC rule #135, YACC rule #136

sentence_40

YACC rule #14, YACC rule #41

SI_601

YACC rule #1101

simple_JOIK_JEK_957

YACC rule #956, YACC rule #1000, YACC rule #971

simple_tag_971

YACC rule #915, YACC rule #916, YACC rule #935, YACC rule #955, YACC rule #965, YACC rule #966, YACC rule #1005, YACC rule #1010, YACC rule #1015, YACC rule #971

simple_tense_modal_972

YACC rule #970, YACC rule #971

simple_tense_modal_A_973

YACC rule #972

SOI_498

YACC rule #34

SOI_602

YACC rule #498

space_1040

YACC rule #979

space_A_1042

YACC rule #1040

space_B_1043

YACC rule #1042

space_C_1044

YACC rule #1043, YACC rule #1044

space_direction_1048

YACC rule #1046, YACC rule #1045

space_int_props_1049

YACC rule #1049, YACC rule #1046

space_int_props_A_1050

YACC rule #1049

space_intval_1046

YACC rule #1043

space_intval_A_1047

YACC rule #1046

space_motion_1041

YACC rule #1040

space_offset_1045

YACC rule #1044, YACC rule #1041

statement_11

YACC rule #10, YACC rule #11

statement_A_12

YACC rule #11, YACC rule #12

statement_B_13

YACC rule #12, YACC rule #13

statement_C_14

YACC rule #13

SU_603

YACC rule #1101

sub_gap_462

YACC rule #486

subscript_486

YACC rule #33

subsentence_41

YACC rule #54, YACC rule #122, YACC rule #41, YACC rule #152

sumti_90

YACC rule #34, YACC rule #84, YACC rule #385, YACC rule #91, YACC rule #94, YACC rule #97, YACC rule #112, YACC rule #152, YACC rule #83, YACC rule #35

sumti_A_91

YACC rule #90

sumti_B_92

YACC rule #91, YACC rule #92

sumti_C_93

YACC rule #92, YACC rule #93

sumti_D_94

YACC rule #93, YACC rule #94

sumti_E_95

YACC rule #94

sumti_F_96

YACC rule #95

sumti_G_97

YACC rule #96, YACC rule #111

sumti_tail_111

YACC rule #110

sumti_tail_A_112

YACC rule #111

tag_491

YACC rule #54, YACC rule #490, YACC rule #130, YACC rule #14, YACC rule #491, YACC rule #152

TAhE_604

YACC rule #1051

tail_terms_71

YACC rule #50, YACC rule #51, YACC rule #52, YACC rule #53, YACC rule #54

tanru_unit_150

YACC rule #136, YACC rule #150

tanru_unit_A_151

YACC rule #150

tanru_unit_B_152

YACC rule #151, YACC rule #152

TEhU_675

YACC rule #473

TEhU_gap_473

YACC rule #374, YACC rule #385

TEI_605

YACC rule #987

tense_A_977

YACC rule #973

tense_B_978

YACC rule #977

tense_C_979

YACC rule #978

tense_modal_815

YACC rule #491

term_83

YACC rule #160, YACC rule #161, YACC rule #122, YACC rule #82

terms_80

YACC rule #34, YACC rule #20, YACC rule #30, YACC rule #40, YACC rule #71, YACC rule #80, YACC rule #85

terms_A_81

YACC rule #80, YACC rule #81

terms_B_82

YACC rule #81, YACC rule #82

term_set_85

YACC rule #83

text_0

YACC rule #36, YACC rule #433, YACC rule #0

text_A_1

YACC rule #0

text_B_2

YACC rule #14, YACC rule #1, YACC rule #2

text_C_3

YACC rule #1101, YACC rule #2

time_1030

YACC rule #979

time_A_1031

YACC rule #1030

time_B_1032

YACC rule #1031, YACC rule #1032

time_direction_1035

YACC rule #1034, YACC rule #1033

time_interval_1034

YACC rule #1031

time_int_props_1036

YACC rule #1034, YACC rule #1036

time_offset_1033

YACC rule #1032

TO_606

YACC rule #36

TOI_607

YACC rule #468

TOI_gap_468

YACC rule #36

TUhE_447

YACC rule #14

TUhE_610

YACC rule #447

TUhU_611

YACC rule #454

TUhU_gap_454

YACC rule #14

UI_612

YACC rule #413, YACC rule #1100

utterance_20

YACC rule #1101

utterance_ordinal_801

YACC rule #33

utt_ordinal_root_906

YACC rule #905

VA_613

YACC rule #1042, YACC rule #1045

VAU_614

YACC rule #456

VAU_gap_456

YACC rule #20, YACC rule #71

VEhA_615

YACC rule #1047

VEhO_678

YACC rule #471, YACC rule #474

VEI_677

YACC rule #470

VIhA_616

YACC rule #1047

vocative_35

YACC rule #33

VUhO_497

YACC rule #90

VUhO_617

YACC rule #497

VUhU_679

YACC rule #374

XI_424

YACC rule #486

XI_618

YACC rule #424

Y_619

YACC rule #413, YACC rule #1100

ZAhO_621

YACC rule #1051

ZEhA_622

YACC rule #1034

ZI_624

YACC rule #1030, YACC rule #1033

ZIhE_487

YACC rule #121

ZIhE_625

YACC rule #487

ZO_626

YACC rule #435

ZOhU_492

YACC rule #30

ZOhU_628

YACC rule #492

ZOI_627

YACC rule #434

ZOI_quote_434

YACC rule #433

ZO_quote_435

YACC rule #433

EBNF Grammar of Lojban

Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline

This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)

Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:

name number= bnf-expression

which means that the grammatical construct “name” is defined by “bnf-expression”. The number cross-references this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In addition, rule 971 is “simple_tag” in the YACC grammar but “stag” in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance.

1. Names in lower case are grammatical constructs.

2. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are terminals.

3. Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator symbol.

4. | represents alternation (choice).

5. [] represents an optional element.

6. & represents and/or (“A & B” is the same as “A | B | A B”).

7. ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the left. Left-grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-referential recursion with no “...”

8. () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. Otherwise, “...” binds closer than &, which binds closer than |.

9. # is shorthand for “[free ...]”, a construct which appears in many places.

10. // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (without change of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results.

YACC rule #0 text 0=

[NAI ...] [CMENE ... # | (indicators & free ...)] [joik-jek] text-1 YACC rule #2

text-1 2=

[(I [jek | joik] [[stag] BO] #) ... | NIhO ... #] [paragraphs] YACC rule #4

paragraphs 4=

paragraph [NIhO ... # paragraphs] YACC rule #10

paragraph 10=

(statement | fragment) [I # [statement | fragment]] ... YACC rule #11

statement 11=

statement-1 | prenex statement YACC rule #12

statement-1 12=

statement-2 [I joik-jek [statement-2]] ... YACC rule #13

statement-2 13=

statement-3 [I [jek | joik] [stag] BO # [statement-2]] YACC rule #14

statement-3 14=

sentence | [tag] TUhE # text-1 /TUhU#/ YACC rule #20

fragment 20=

ek # | gihek # | quantifier | NA # | terms /VAU#/ | prenex | relative-clauses | links | linkargs YACC rule #30

prenex 30=

terms ZOhU # YACC rule #40

sentence 40=

[terms [CU #]] bridi-tail YACC rule #41

subsentence 41=

sentence | prenex subsentence YACC rule #50

bridi-tail 50=

bridi-tail-1 [gihek [stag] KE # bridi-tail /KEhE#/ tail-terms] YACC rule #51

bridi-tail-1 51=

bridi-tail-2 [gihek # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] ... YACC rule #52

bridi-tail-2 52=

bridi-tail-3 [gihek [stag] BO # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] YACC rule #53

bridi-tail-3 53=

selbri tail-terms | gek-sentence YACC rule #54

gek-sentence 54=

gek subsentence gik subsentence tail-terms | [tag] KE # gek-sentence /KEhE#/ | NA # gek-sentence YACC rule #71

tail-terms 71=

[terms] /VAU#/ YACC rule #80

terms 80=

terms-1 ... YACC rule #81

terms-1 81=

terms-2 [PEhE # joik-jek terms-2] ... YACC rule #82

terms-2 82=

term [CEhE # term] ... YACC rule #83

term 83=

sumti | (tag | FA #) (sumti | /KU#/) | termset | NA KU # YACC rule #85

termset 85=

NUhI # gek terms /NUhU#/ gik terms /NUhU#/ | NUhI # terms /NUhU#/ YACC rule #90

sumti 90=

sumti-1 [VUhO # relative-clauses] YACC rule #91

sumti-1 91=

sumti-2 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # sumti /KEhE#/] YACC rule #92

sumti-2 92=

sumti-3 [joik-ek sumti-3] ... YACC rule #93

sumti-3 93=

sumti-4 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # sumti-3] YACC rule #94

sumti-4 94=

sumti-5 | gek sumti gik sumti-4 YACC rule #95

sumti-5 95=

[quantifier] sumti-6 [relative-clauses] | quantifier selbri /KU#/ [relative-clauses] YACC rule #97

sumti-6 97=

(LAhE # | NAhE BO #) [relative-clauses] sumti /LUhU#/ | KOhA # | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | LA # [relative-clauses] CMENE ... # | (LA | LE) # sumti-tail /KU#/ | LI # mex /LOhO#/ | ZO any-word # | LU text /LIhU#/ | LOhU any-word ... LEhU # | ZOI any-word anything any-word # YACC rule #111

sumti-tail 111=

[sumti-6 [relative-clauses]] sumti-tail-1 | relative-clauses sumti-tail-1 YACC rule #112

sumti-tail-1 112=

[quantifier] selbri [relative-clauses] | quantifier sumti YACC rule #121

relative-clauses 121=

relative-clause [ZIhE # relative-clause] ... YACC rule #122

relative-clause 122=

GOI # term /GEhU#/ | NOI # subsentence /KUhO#/ YACC rule #130

selbri 130=

[tag] selbri-1 YACC rule #131

selbri-1 131=

selbri-2 | NA # selbri YACC rule #132

selbri-2 132=

selbri-3 [CO # selbri-2] YACC rule #133

selbri-3 133=

selbri-4 ... YACC rule #134

selbri-4 134=

selbri-5 [joik-jek selbri-5 | joik [stag] KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/] ... YACC rule #135

selbri-5 135=

selbri-6 [(jek | joik) [stag] BO # selbri-5] YACC rule #136

selbri-6 136=

tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6] | [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik selbri-6 YACC rule #150

tanru-unit 150=

tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ... YACC rule #151

tanru-unit-1 151=

tanru-unit-2 [linkargs] YACC rule #152

tanru-unit-2 152=

BRIVLA # | GOhA [RAhO] # | KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/ | ME # sumti /MEhU#/ [MOI #] | (number | lerfu-string) MOI # | NUhA # mex-operator | SE # tanru-unit-2 | JAI # [tag] tanru-unit-2 | any-word (ZEI any-word) ... | NAhE # tanru-unit-2 | NU [NAI] # [joik-jek NU [NAI] #] ... subsentence /KEI#/ YACC rule #160

linkargs 160=

BE # term [links] /BEhO#/ YACC rule #161

links 161=

BEI # term [links] YACC rule #300

quantifier 300=

number /BOI#/ | VEI # mex /VEhO#/ YACC rule #310

mex 310=

mex-1 [operator mex-1] ... | FUhA # rp-expression YACC rule #311

mex-1 311=

mex-2 [BIhE # operator mex-1] YACC rule #312

mex-2 312=

operand | [PEhO #] operator mex-2 ... /KUhE#/ YACC rule #330

rp-expression 330=

rp-operand rp-operand operator YACC rule #332

rp-operand 332=

operand | rp-expression YACC rule #370

operator 370=

operator-1 [joik-jek operator-1 | joik [stag] KE # operator /KEhE#/] ... YACC rule #371

operator-1 371=

operator-2 | guhek operator-1 gik operator-2 | operator-2 (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1 YACC rule #372

operator-2 372=

mex-operator | KE # operator /KEhE#/ YACC rule #374

mex-operator 374=

SE # mex-operator | NAhE # mex-operator | MAhO # mex /TEhU#/ | NAhU # selbri /TEhU#/ | VUhU # YACC rule #381

operand 381=

operand-1 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # operand /KEhE#/] YACC rule #382

operand-1 382=

operand-2 [joik-ek operand-2] ... YACC rule #383

operand-2 383=

operand-3 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # operand-2] YACC rule #385

operand-3 385=

quantifier | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | NIhE # selbri /TEhU#/ | MOhE # sumti /TEhU#/ | JOhI # mex-2 ... /TEhU#/ | gek operand gik operand-3 | (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) operand /LUhU#/ YACC rule #812

number 812=

PA [PA | lerfu-word] ... YACC rule #817

lerfu-string 817=

lerfu-word [PA | lerfu-word] ... YACC rule #987

lerfu-word 987=

BY | any-word BU | LAU lerfu-word | TEI lerfu-string FOI YACC rule #802

ek 802=

[NA] [SE] A [NAI] YACC rule #818

gihek 818=

[NA] [SE] GIhA [NAI] YACC rule #805

jek 805=

[NA] [SE] JA [NAI] YACC rule #806

joik 806=

[SE] JOI [NAI] | interval | GAhO interval GAhO YACC rule #932

interval 932=

[SE] BIhI [NAI] YACC rule #421

joik-ek 421=

joik # | ek # YACC rule #422

joik-jek 422=

joik # | jek # YACC rule #807

gek 807=

[SE] GA [NAI] # | joik GI # | stag gik YACC rule #808

guhek 808=

[SE] GUhA [NAI] # YACC rule #816

gik 816=

GI [NAI] # YACC rule #491

tag 491=

tense-modal [joik-jek tense-modal] ... YACC rule #971

stag 971=

simple-tense-modal [(jek | joik) simple-tense-modal] ... YACC rule #815

tense-modal 815=

simple-tense-modal # | FIhO # selbri /FEhU#/ YACC rule #972

simple-tense-modal 972=

[NAhE] [SE] BAI [NAI] [KI] | [NAhE] (time [space] | space [time]) & CAhA [KI] | KI | CUhE YACC rule #1030

time 1030=

ZI & time-offset ... & ZEhA [PU [NAI]] & interval-property ... YACC rule #1033

time-offset 1033=

PU [NAI] [ZI] YACC rule #1040

space 1040=

VA & space-offset ... & space-interval & (MOhI space-offset) YACC rule #1045

space-offset 1045=

FAhA [NAI] [VA] YACC rule #1046

space-interval 1046=

((VEhA & VIhA) [FAhA [NAI]]) & space-int-props YACC rule #1049

space-int-props 1049=

(FEhE interval-property) ... YACC rule #1051

interval-property 1051=

number ROI [NAI] | TAhE [NAI] | ZAhO [NAI] YACC rule #32

free 32=

SEI # [terms [CU #]] selbri /SEhU/ | SOI # sumti [sumti] /SEhU/ | vocative [relative-clauses] selbri [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | vocative [relative-clauses] CMENE ... # [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | vocative [sumti] /DOhU/ | (number | lerfu-string) MAI | TO text /TOI/ | XI # (number | lerfu-string) /BOI/ | XI # VEI # mex /VEhO/ YACC rule #415

vocative 415=

(COI [NAI]) ... & DOI YACC rule #411

indicators 411=

[FUhE] indicator ... YACC rule #413

indicator 413=

(UI | CAI) [NAI] | Y | DAhO | FUhO

The following rules are non-formal:

YACC rule #1100 word 1100=

[BAhE] any-word [indicators]

any-word =

“any single word (no compound cmavo)”

anything =

“any text at all, whether Lojban or not” YACC rule #1101

null 1101=

any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU

FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable input.

EBNF Cross-Reference

A

BNF rule #802 802

BAI

BNF rule #972 972

BAhE

BNF rule #1100 1100

BE

BNF rule #160 160

BEI

BNF rule #161 161

BEhO

BNF rule #160 160

BIhE

BNF rule #311 311

BIhI

BNF rule #932 932

BO

BNF rule #52 52, BNF rule #383 383, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #135 135, BNF rule #136 136, BNF rule #13 13, BNF rule #93 93, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #2 2

BOI

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #300 300, BNF rule #97 97

BRIVLA

BNF rule #152 152

BU

BNF rule #987 987

BY

BNF rule #987 987

CAI

BNF rule #413 413

CAhA

BNF rule #972 972

CEI

BNF rule #150 150

CEhE

BNF rule #82 82

CMENE

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #0 0

CO

BNF rule #132 132

COI

BNF rule #415 415

CU

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #40 40

CUhE

BNF rule #972 972

DAhO

BNF rule #413 413

DOI

BNF rule #415 415

DOhU

BNF rule #32 32

FA

BNF rule #83 83

FAhA

BNF rule #1046 1046, BNF rule #1045 1045

FEhE

BNF rule #1049 1049

FEhU

BNF rule #815 815

FIhO

BNF rule #815 815

FOI

BNF rule #987 987

FUhA

BNF rule #310 310

FUhE

BNF rule #411 411

FUhO

BNF rule #413 413

GA

BNF rule #807 807

GAhO

BNF rule #806 806

GEhU

BNF rule #122 122

GI

BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #816 816

GIhA

BNF rule #818 818

GOI

BNF rule #122 122

GOhA

BNF rule #152 152

GUhA

BNF rule #808 808

I

BNF rule #10 10, BNF rule #12 12, BNF rule #13 13, BNF rule #2 2

JA

BNF rule #805 805

JAI

BNF rule #152 152

JOI

BNF rule #806 806

JOhI

BNF rule #385 385

KE

BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #372 372, BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #152 152

KEI

BNF rule #152 152

KEhE

BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #372 372, BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #152 152

KI

BNF rule #972 972

KOhA

BNF rule #97 97

KU

BNF rule #95 95, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #83 83

KUhE

BNF rule #312 312

KUhO

BNF rule #122 122

LA

BNF rule #97 97

LAU

BNF rule #987 987

LAhE

BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #97 97

LE

BNF rule #97 97

LEhU

BNF rule #97 97

LI

BNF rule #97 97

LIhU

BNF rule #97 97

LOhO

BNF rule #97 97

LOhU

BNF rule #97 97

LU

BNF rule #97 97

LUhU

BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #97 97

MAI

BNF rule #32 32

MAhO

BNF rule #374 374

ME

BNF rule #152 152

MEhU

BNF rule #152 152

MOI

BNF rule #152 152

MOhE

BNF rule #385 385

MOhI

BNF rule #1040 1040

NA

BNF rule #802 802, BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #818 818, BNF rule #805 805, BNF rule #131 131, BNF rule #83 83

NAI

BNF rule #802 802, BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #818 818, BNF rule #816 816, BNF rule #808 808, BNF rule #413 413, BNF rule #1051 1051, BNF rule #932 932, BNF rule #805 805, BNF rule #806 806, BNF rule #972 972, BNF rule #1046 1046, BNF rule #1045 1045, BNF rule #152 152, BNF rule #0 0, BNF rule #1033 1033, BNF rule #1030 1030, BNF rule #415 415

NAhE

BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #136 136, BNF rule #972 972, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #152 152

NAhU

BNF rule #374 374

NIhE

BNF rule #385 385

NIhO

BNF rule #4 4, BNF rule #2 2

NOI

BNF rule #122 122

NU

BNF rule #152 152

NUhA

BNF rule #152 152

NUhI

BNF rule #85 85

NUhU

BNF rule #85 85

PA

BNF rule #817 817, BNF rule #812 812

PEhE

BNF rule #81 81

PEhO

BNF rule #312 312

PU

BNF rule #1033 1033, BNF rule #1030 1030

RAhO

BNF rule #152 152

ROI

BNF rule #1051 1051

SA

BNF rule #1101 1101

SE

BNF rule #802 802, BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #818 818, BNF rule #808 808, BNF rule #932 932, BNF rule #805 805, BNF rule #806 806, BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #972 972, BNF rule #152 152

SEI

BNF rule #32 32

SEhU

BNF rule #32 32

SI

BNF rule #1101 1101

SOI

BNF rule #32 32

SU

BNF rule #1101 1101

TAhE

BNF rule #1051 1051

TEI

BNF rule #987 987

TEhU

BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #385 385

TO

BNF rule #32 32

TOI

BNF rule #32 32

TUhE

BNF rule #14 14

TUhU

BNF rule #14 14

UI

BNF rule #413 413

VA

BNF rule #1045 1045, BNF rule #1040 1040

VAU

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #71 71

VEI

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #300 300

VEhA

BNF rule #1046 1046

VEhO

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #300 300

VIhA

BNF rule #1046 1046

VUhO

BNF rule #90 90

VUhU

BNF rule #374 374

XI

BNF rule #32 32

Y

BNF rule #413 413

ZAhO

BNF rule #1051 1051

ZEI

BNF rule #152 152

ZEhA

BNF rule #1030 1030

ZI

BNF rule #1033 1033, BNF rule #1030 1030

ZIhE

BNF rule #121 121

ZO

BNF rule #97 97

ZOI

BNF rule #97 97

ZOhU

BNF rule #30 30

any-word

BNF rule #987 987, BNF rule #1101 1101, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #152 152, BNF rule #1100 1100

anything

BNF rule #97 97

bridi-tail

BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #40 40

bridi-tail-1

BNF rule #50 50

bridi-tail-2

BNF rule #51 51, BNF rule #52 52

bridi-tail-3

BNF rule #52 52

ek

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #421 421, BNF rule #383 383, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #93 93

fragment

BNF rule #10 10

free

BNF rule #0 0

gek

BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #94 94, BNF rule #85 85

gek-sentence

BNF rule #53 53, BNF rule #54 54

gihek

BNF rule #51 51, BNF rule #52 52, BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #20 20

gik

BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #136 136, BNF rule #94 94, BNF rule #85 85

guhek

BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #136 136

indicator

BNF rule #411 411

indicators

BNF rule #0 0, BNF rule #1100 1100

interval

BNF rule #806 806

interval-property

BNF rule #1049 1049, BNF rule #1030 1030

jek

BNF rule #422 422, BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #135 135, BNF rule #971 971, BNF rule #13 13, BNF rule #2 2

joik

BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #421 421, BNF rule #422 422, BNF rule #383 383, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #135 135, BNF rule #971 971, BNF rule #13 13, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #93 93, BNF rule #2 2

joik-ek

BNF rule #382 382, BNF rule #92 92

joik-jek

BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #12 12, BNF rule #491 491, BNF rule #152 152, BNF rule #81 81, BNF rule #0 0

lerfu-string

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #987 987, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #152 152

lerfu-word

BNF rule #817 817, BNF rule #987 987, BNF rule #812 812

linkargs

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #151 151

links

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #160 160, BNF rule #161 161

mex

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #300 300, BNF rule #97 97

mex-1

BNF rule #311 311, BNF rule #310 310

mex-2

BNF rule #311 311, BNF rule #312 312, BNF rule #385 385

mex-operator

BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #372 372, BNF rule #152 152

number

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #1051 1051, BNF rule #300 300, BNF rule #152 152

operand

BNF rule #312 312, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #332 332

operand-1

BNF rule #381 381

operand-2

BNF rule #382 382, BNF rule #383 383

operand-3

BNF rule #383 383, BNF rule #385 385

operator

BNF rule #311 311, BNF rule #312 312, BNF rule #310 310, BNF rule #372 372, BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #330 330

operator-1

BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #370 370

operator-2

BNF rule #371 371

paragraph

BNF rule #4 4

paragraphs

BNF rule #4 4, BNF rule #2 2

prenex

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #11 11, BNF rule #41 41

quantifier

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #95 95, BNF rule #112 112

relative-clause

BNF rule #121 121

relative-clauses

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #95 95, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #112 112, BNF rule #111 111, BNF rule #90 90

rp-expression

BNF rule #310 310, BNF rule #332 332

rp-operand

BNF rule #330 330

selbri

BNF rule #53 53, BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #374 374, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #131 131, BNF rule #136 136, BNF rule #95 95, BNF rule #112 112, BNF rule #815 815

selbri-1

BNF rule #130 130

selbri-2

BNF rule #131 131, BNF rule #132 132

selbri-3

BNF rule #132 132, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #152 152

selbri-4

BNF rule #133 133

selbri-5

BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #135 135

selbri-6

BNF rule #135 135, BNF rule #136 136

sentence

BNF rule #14 14, BNF rule #41 41

simple-tense-modal

BNF rule #971 971, BNF rule #815 815

space

BNF rule #972 972

space-int-props

BNF rule #1046 1046

space-interval

BNF rule #1040 1040

space-offset

BNF rule #1040 1040

stag

BNF rule #52 52, BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #807 807, BNF rule #383 383, BNF rule #381 381, BNF rule #371 371, BNF rule #370 370, BNF rule #134 134, BNF rule #135 135, BNF rule #13 13, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #93 93, BNF rule #2 2

statement

BNF rule #10 10, BNF rule #11 11

statement-1

BNF rule #11 11

statement-2

BNF rule #12 12, BNF rule #13 13

statement-3

BNF rule #13 13

subsentence

BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #122 122, BNF rule #41 41, BNF rule #152 152

sumti

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #385 385, BNF rule #91 91, BNF rule #94 94, BNF rule #97 97, BNF rule #112 112, BNF rule #152 152, BNF rule #83 83

sumti-1

BNF rule #90 90

sumti-2

BNF rule #91 91

sumti-3

BNF rule #92 92, BNF rule #93 93

sumti-4

BNF rule #93 93, BNF rule #94 94

sumti-5

BNF rule #94 94

sumti-6

BNF rule #95 95, BNF rule #111 111

sumti-tail

BNF rule #97 97

sumti-tail-1

BNF rule #111 111

tag

BNF rule #54 54, BNF rule #130 130, BNF rule #14 14, BNF rule #152 152, BNF rule #83 83

tail-terms

BNF rule #51 51, BNF rule #52 52, BNF rule #53 53, BNF rule #50 50, BNF rule #54 54

tanru-unit

BNF rule #136 136

tanru-unit-1

BNF rule #150 150

tanru-unit-2

BNF rule #151 151, BNF rule #152 152

tense-modal

BNF rule #491 491

term

BNF rule #160 160, BNF rule #161 161, BNF rule #122 122, BNF rule #82 82

terms

BNF rule #20 20, BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #30 30, BNF rule #40 40, BNF rule #71 71, BNF rule #85 85

terms-1

BNF rule #80 80

terms-2

BNF rule #81 81

termset

BNF rule #83 83

text

BNF rule #32 32, BNF rule #1101 1101, BNF rule #97 97

text-1

BNF rule #14 14, BNF rule #0 0

time

BNF rule #972 972

time-offset

BNF rule #1030 1030

utterance

BNF rule #1101 1101

vocative

BNF rule #32 32

Lojban Word Glossary

All definitions in this glossary are brief and unofficial. Only the published dictionary is a truly official reference for word definitions. These definitions are here simply as a quick reference.

a

a

<val i word="a" type="cmavo">

abu

<val i word="abu" type="bu-letteral">

a'u

<val i word="a'u" type="cmavo">

ai

<val i word="ai" type="cmavo">

au

<val i word="au" type="cmavo">

e

e

<val i word="e" type="cmavo">

ebu

<val i word="ebu" type="bu-letteral">

ei

<val i word="ei" type="cmavo">

i

i

<val i word="i" type="cmavo">

ia

<val i word="ia" type="cmavo">

ianai

<val i word="ianai" type="cmavo-compound">

ibu

<val i word="ibu" type="bu-letteral">

ie

<val i word="ie" type="cmavo">

ienai

<val i word="ienai" type="cmavo-compound">

i'inai

<val i word="i'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

ii

<val i word="ii" type="cmavo">

ija

<val i word="ija" type="cmavo-compound">

ije

<val i word="ije" type="cmavo-compound">

io

<val i word="io" type="cmavo">

iu

<val i word="iu" type="cmavo">

o

o

<val i word="o" type="cmavo">

obu

<val i word="obu" type="bu-letteral">

oi

<val i word="oi" type="cmavo">

oinai

<val i word="oinai" type="cmavo-compound">

onai

<val i word="onai" type="cmavo-compound">

u

u

<val i word="u" type="cmavo">

ua

<val i word="ua" type="cmavo">

uanai

<val i word="uanai" type="cmavo-compound">

ubu

<val i word="ubu" type="bu-letteral">

ue

<val i word="ue" type="cmavo">

u'u

<val i word="u'u" type="cmavo">

u'unai

<val i word="u'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

ui

<val i word="ui" type="cmavo">

uinai

<val i word="uinai" type="cmavo-compound">

uo

<val i word="uo" type="cmavo">

uu

<val i word="uu" type="cmavo">

y

y

<val i word="y" type="cmavo">

ybu

<val i word="ybu" type="bu-letteral">

ybu

<val i word="ybu" type="bu-letteral">

y'y

<val i word="y'y" type="cmavo">

y'y

<val i word="y'y" type="cmavo">

a

a

<val i word="a" type="cmavo">

a'e

<val i word="a'e" type="cmavo">

ai

<val i word="ai" type="cmavo">

au

<val i word="au" type="cmavo">

b

ba

<val i word="ba" type="cmavo">

ba'a

<val i word="ba'a" type="cmavo">

ba'acu'i

<val i word="ba'acu'i" type="cmavo-compound">

ba'anai

<val i word="ba'anai" type="cmavo-compound">

ba'e

<val i word="ba'e" type="cmavo">

ba'o

<val i word="ba'o" type="cmavo">

bai

<val i word="bai" type="cmavo">

bajra

<val i word="bajra" type="gi mu">

bakrecpa'o

<val i word="bakrecpa'o" type="lujvo">

bakri

<val i word="bakri" type="gi mu">

balsoi

<val i word="bal oi" type="lujvo">

balvi

<val i word="balvi" type="gi mu">

bangu

<val i word="bangu" type="gi mu">

banli

<val i word="banli" type="gi mu">

bapu

<val i word="bapu" type="cmavo-compound">

barda

<val i word="barda" type="gi mu">

basti

<val i word="ba ti" type="gi mu">

basygau

<val i word="ba ygau" type="lujvo">

batci

<val i word="batci" type="gi mu">

bau

<val i word="bau" type="cmavo">

bavla'i

<val i word="bavla'i" type="lujvo">

bavlamdei

<val i word="bavlamdei" type="lujvo">

baxso

<val i word="bax o" type="gi mu">

be

<val i word="be" type="cmavo">

be'a

<val i word="be'a" type="cmavo">

be'o

<val i word="be'o" type="cmavo">

be'u

<val i word="be'u" type="cmavo">

bei

<val i word="bei" type="cmavo">

bemro

<val i word="bemro" type="gi mu">

bengo

<val i word="bengo" type="gi mu">

bi'e

<val i word="bi'e" type="cmavo">

bi'i

<val i word="bi'i" type="cmavo">

bi'o

<val i word="bi'o" type="cmavo">

bi'u

<val i word="bi'u" type="cmavo">

bi'unai

<val i word="bi'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

bilma

<val i word="bilma" type="gi mu">

bindo

<val i word="bindo" type="gi mu">

birka

<val i word="birka" type="gi mu">

bisycla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "bisycla" FOUND!

blabi

<val i word="blabi" type="gi mu">

blaci

<val i word="blaci" type="gi mu">

blakanla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "blakanla" FOUND!

blanu

<val i word="blanu" type="gi mu">

blari'o

<val i word="blari'o" type="lujvo">

blaselkanla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "blaselkanla" FOUND!

blokle

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "blokle" FOUND!

blolei

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "blolei" FOUND!

bloti

<val i word="bloti" type="gi mu">

bo

<val i word="bo" type="cmavo">

boi

<val i word="boi" type="cmavo">

bradi

<val i word="bradi" type="gi mu">

brazo

<val i word="brazo" type="gi mu">

bredi

<val i word="bredi" type="gi mu">

bridi

<val i word="bridi" type="gi mu">

bridyvalsi

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "bridyvalsi" FOUND!

bridyvla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "bridyvla" FOUND!

brito

<val i word="brito" type="gi mu">

brivalsi

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "brivalsi" FOUND!

brivla

<val i word="brivla" type="lujvo">

broda

<val i word="broda" type="gi mu">

brode

<val i word="brode" type="gi mu">

brodi

<val i word="brodi" type="gi mu">

brodo

<val i word="brodo" type="gi mu">

brodu

<val i word="brodu" type="gi mu">

brudi

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "brudi" FOUND!

bu

<val i word="bu" type="cmavo">

budjo

<val i word="budjo" type="gi mu">

bu'a

<val i word="bu'a" type="cmavo">

bu'e

<val i word="bu'e" type="cmavo">

bu'i

<val i word="bu'i" type="cmavo">

bu'o

<val i word="bu'o" type="cmavo">

bu'ocu'i

<val i word="bu'ocu'i" type="cmavo-compound">

bu'onai

<val i word="bu'onai" type="cmavo-compound">

bu'u

<val i word="bu'u" type="cmavo">

by

<val i word="by" type="cmavo">

by

<val i word="by" type="cmavo">

c

ca

<val i word="ca" type="cmavo">

cabna

<val i word="cabna" type="gi mu">

cadzu

<val i word="cadzu" type="gi mu">

cafne

<val i word="cafne" type="gi mu">

cagyce'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cagyce'u" FOUND!

ca'a

<val i word="ca'a" type="cmavo">

ca'e

<val i word="ca'e" type="cmavo">

ca'o

<val i word="ca'o" type="cmavo">

cai

<val i word="cai" type="cmavo">

cakcinki

<val i word="cakcinki" type="lujvo">

calku

<val i word="calku" type="gi mu">

calkyguzme

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "calkyguzme" FOUND!

casnu

<val i word="ca nu" type="gi mu">

ce

<val i word="ce" type="cmavo">

ce'a

<val i word="ce'a" type="cmavo">

ce'e

<val i word="ce'e" type="cmavo">

ce'i

<val i word="ce'i" type="cmavo">

ce'o

<val i word="ce'o" type="cmavo">

ce'u

<val i word="ce'u" type="cmavo">

cei

<val i word="cei" type="cmavo">

centi

<val i word="centi" type="gi mu">

ci

<val i word="ci" type="cmavo">

cidja

<val i word="cidja" type="gi mu">

cidjrspageti

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cidjrspageti" FOUND!

ci'ajbu

<val i word="ci'ajbu" type="lujvo">

ci'e

<val i word="ci'e" type="cmavo">

ci'u

<val i word="ci'u" type="cmavo">

cinctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cinctu" FOUND!

cinfo

<val i word="cinfo" type="gi mu">

cinki

<val i word="cinki" type="gi mu">

cipnrstrigi

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cipnrstrigi" FOUND!

cirla

<val i word="cirla" type="gi mu">

ciste

<val i word="ci te" type="gi mu">

citka

<val i word="citka" type="gi mu">

citmau

<val i word="citmau" type="lujvo">

citno

<val i word="citno" type="gi mu">

ckule

<val i word="ckule" type="gi mu">

cladakfu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cladakfu" FOUND!

cladakyxa'i

<val i word="cladakyxa'i" type="lujvo">

clani

<val i word="clani" type="gi mu">

cliva

<val i word="cliva" type="gi mu">

cmaci

<val i word="cmaci" type="gi mu">

cmacrnintegrale

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cmacrnintegrale" FOUND!

cmacrntegrale

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "cmacrntegrale" FOUND!

cmalu

<val i word="cmalu" type="gi mu">

cmaro'i

<val i word="cmaro'i" type="lujvo">

cmavo

<val i word="cmavo" type="gi mu">

cmene

<val i word="cmene" type="gi mu">

cmima

<val i word="cmima" type="gi mu">

co

<val i word="co" type="cmavo">

co'a

<val i word="co'a" type="cmavo">

co'e

<val i word="co'e" type="cmavo">

co'i

<val i word="co'i" type="cmavo">

co'o

<val i word="co'o" type="cmavo">

co'u

<val i word="co'u" type="cmavo">

coi

<val i word="coi" type="cmavo">

coico'o

<val i word="coico'o" type="cmavo-compound">

cpumi'i

<val i word="cpumi'i" type="lujvo">

cribe

<val i word="cribe" type="gi mu">

ctigau

<val i word="ctigau" type="lujvo">

cu

<val i word="cu" type="cmavo">

cu'e

<val i word="cu'e" type="cmavo">

cu'i

<val i word="cu'i" type="cmavo">

cu'o

<val i word="cu'o" type="cmavo">

cu'u

<val i word="cu'u" type="cmavo">

cunso

<val i word="cun o" type="gi mu">

cusku

<val i word="cu ku" type="gi mu">

cutci

<val i word="cutci" type="gi mu">

cuxna

<val i word="cuxna" type="gi mu">

cy

<val i word="cy" type="cmavo">

cy

<val i word="cy" type="cmavo">

d

da

<val i word="da" type="cmavo">

dadgreku

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "dadgreku" FOUND!

dadjo

<val i word="dadjo" type="gi mu">

dadysli

<val i word="dady li" type="lujvo">

da'a

<val i word="da'a" type="cmavo">

da'e

<val i word="da'e" type="cmavo">

da'i

<val i word="da'i" type="cmavo">

da'inai

<val i word="da'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

da'o

<val i word="da'o" type="cmavo">

da'u

<val i word="da'u" type="cmavo">

dai

<val i word="dai" type="cmavo">

dakfu

<val i word="dakfu" type="gi mu">

dalmikce

<val i word="dalmikce" type="lujvo">

danlu

<val i word="danlu" type="gi mu">

de

<val i word="de" type="cmavo">

decti

<val i word="decti" type="gi mu">

de'a

<val i word="de'a" type="cmavo">

de'e

<val i word="de'e" type="cmavo">

de'i

<val i word="de'i" type="cmavo">

de'u

<val i word="de'u" type="cmavo">

dei

<val i word="dei" type="cmavo">

dejni

<val i word="dejni" type="gi mu">

dekto

<val i word="dekto" type="gi mu">

delno

<val i word="delno" type="gi mu">

denci

<val i word="denci" type="gi mu">

denpa

<val i word="denpa" type="gi mu">

di

<val i word="di" type="cmavo">

di'a

<val i word="di'a" type="cmavo">

di'e

<val i word="di'e" type="cmavo">

di'i

<val i word="di'i" type="cmavo">

di'inai

<val i word="di'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

di'u

<val i word="di'u" type="cmavo">

dinju

<val i word="dinju" type="gi mu">

djedi

<val i word="djedi" type="gi mu">

djica

<val i word="djica" type="gi mu">

djine

<val i word="djine" type="gi mu">

djinrnintegrale

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "djinrnintegrale" FOUND!

djuno

<val i word="djuno" type="gi mu">

do

<val i word="do" type="cmavo">

do'a

<val i word="do'a" type="cmavo">

do'anai

<val i word="do'anai" type="cmavo-compound">

do'e

<val i word="do'e" type="cmavo">

do'i

<val i word="do'i" type="cmavo">

do'o

<val i word="do'o" type="cmavo">

do'u

<val i word="do'u" type="cmavo">

doi

<val i word="doi" type="cmavo">

donma'o

<val i word="donma'o" type="lujvo">

donta'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "donta'a" FOUND!

dotco

<val i word="dotco" type="gi mu">

du

<val i word="du" type="cmavo">

dubjavmau

<val i word="dubjavmau" type="lujvo">

dubjavme'a

<val i word="dubjavme'a" type="lujvo">

du'e

<val i word="du'e" type="cmavo">

du'i

<val i word="du'i" type="cmavo">

du'u

<val i word="du'u" type="cmavo">

dunda

<val i word="dunda" type="gi mu">

dunli

<val i word="dunli" type="gi mu">

dy

<val i word="dy" type="cmavo">

dy

<val i word="dy" type="cmavo">

dzipo

<val i word="dzipo" type="gi mu">

dzukla

<val i word="dzukla" type="lujvo">

e

e

<val i word="e" type="cmavo">

e'e

<val i word="e'e" type="cmavo">

e'o

<val i word="e'o" type="cmavo">

e'u

<val i word="e'u" type="cmavo">

ei

<val i word="ei" type="cmavo">

f

fa

<val i word="fa" type="cmavo">

fadni

<val i word="fadni" type="gi mu">

fagri

<val i word="fagri" type="gi mu">

fagyfesti

<val i word="fagyfe ti" type="lujvo">

fa'a

<val i word="fa'a" type="cmavo">

fa'o

<val i word="fa'o" type="cmavo">

fa'u

<val i word="fa'u" type="cmavo">

fai

<val i word="fai" type="cmavo">

fasnu

<val i word="fa nu" type="gi mu">

fau

<val i word="fau" type="cmavo">

fe

<val i word="fe" type="cmavo">

fe'a

<val i word="fe'a" type="cmavo">

fe'e

<val i word="fe'e" type="cmavo">

fe'o

<val i word="fe'o" type="cmavo">

fe'u

<val i word="fe'u" type="cmavo">

femti

<val i word="femti" type="gi mu">

festi

<val i word="fe ti" type="gi mu">

fetsygau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "fetsygau" FOUND!

fi

<val i word="fi" type="cmavo">

fi'a

<val i word="fi'a" type="cmavo">

fi'e

<val i word="fi'e" type="cmavo">

fi'i

<val i word="fi'i" type="cmavo">

fi'o

<val i word="fi'o" type="cmavo">

fi'u

<val i word="fi'u" type="cmavo">

filso

<val i word="fil o" type="gi mu">

finti

<val i word="finti" type="gi mu">

firgai

<val i word="firgai" type="lujvo">

flalu

<val i word="flalu" type="gi mu">

fo

<val i word="fo" type="cmavo">

fo'a

<val i word="fo'a" type="cmavo">

fo'e

<val i word="fo'e" type="cmavo">

fo'i

<val i word="fo'i" type="cmavo">

fo'o

<val i word="fo'o" type="cmavo">

fo'u

<val i word="fo'u" type="cmavo">

foi

<val i word="foi" type="cmavo">

fraso

<val i word="fra o" type="gi mu">

friko

<val i word="friko" type="gi mu">

frinu

<val i word="frinu" type="gi mu">

fu

<val i word="fu" type="cmavo">

fu'a

<val i word="fu'a" type="cmavo">

fu'e

<val i word="fu'e" type="cmavo">

fu'i

<val i word="fu'i" type="cmavo">

fu'o

<val i word="fu'o" type="cmavo">

fy

<val i word="fy" type="cmavo">

fy

<val i word="fy" type="cmavo">

g

ga

<val i word="ga" type="cmavo">

gadri

<val i word="gadri" type="gi mu">

ga'e

<val i word="ga'e" type="cmavo">

ga'i

<val i word="ga'i" type="cmavo">

ga'icu'i

<val i word="ga'icu'i" type="cmavo-compound">

ga'inai

<val i word="ga'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

ga'o

<val i word="ga'o" type="cmavo">

galfi

<val i word="galfi" type="gi mu">

galtu

<val i word="galtu" type="gi mu">

ganai

<val i word="ganai" type="cmavo-compound">

ganlo

<val i word="ganlo" type="gi mu">

gapru

<val i word="gapru" type="gi mu">

gasnu

<val i word="ga nu" type="gi mu">

gau

<val i word="gau" type="cmavo">

ge

<val i word="ge" type="cmavo">

ge'a

<val i word="ge'a" type="cmavo">

ge'e

<val i word="ge'e" type="cmavo">

ge'i

<val i word="ge'i" type="cmavo">

ge'o

<val i word="ge'o" type="cmavo">

ge'u

<val i word="ge'u" type="cmavo">

ge'u-zdani

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ge'u-zdani" FOUND!

ge'urzdani

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ge'urzdani" FOUND!

ge'uzda

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ge'uzda" FOUND!

gei

<val i word="gei" type="cmavo">

gekmau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gekmau" FOUND!

gento

<val i word="gento" type="gi mu">

gerku

<val i word="gerku" type="gi mu">

gerkyzda

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gerkyzda" FOUND!

gerkyzdani

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gerkyzdani" FOUND!

gerselzda

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gerselzda" FOUND!

gerzda

<val i word="gerzda" type="lujvo">

gerzdani

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gerzdani" FOUND!

gi

<val i word="gi" type="cmavo">

gicmu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gicmu" FOUND!

gigdo

<val i word="gigdo" type="gi mu">

gi'a

<val i word="gi'a" type="cmavo">

gi'e

<val i word="gi'e" type="cmavo">

gi'i

<val i word="gi'i" type="cmavo">

gi'o

<val i word="gi'o" type="cmavo">

gi'u

<val i word="gi'u" type="cmavo">

girzu

<val i word="girzu" type="gi mu">

gismu

<val i word="gi mu" type="gi mu">

gisnu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gisnu" FOUND!

gizmu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gizmu" FOUND!

gleki

<val i word="gleki" type="gi mu">

glico

<val i word="glico" type="gi mu">

go

<val i word="go" type="cmavo">

gocti

<val i word="gocti" type="gi mu">

go'a

<val i word="go'a" type="cmavo">

go'e

<val i word="go'e" type="cmavo">

go'i

<val i word="go'i" type="cmavo">

go'o

<val i word="go'o" type="cmavo">

go'u

<val i word="go'u" type="cmavo">

goi

<val i word="goi" type="cmavo">

gotro

<val i word="gotro" type="gi mu">

gripau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "gripau" FOUND!

grutrceraso

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "grutrceraso" FOUND!

gu

<val i word="gu" type="cmavo">

gu'a

<val i word="gu'a" type="cmavo">

gu'e

<val i word="gu'e" type="cmavo">

gu'i

<val i word="gu'i" type="cmavo">

gu'o

<val i word="gu'o" type="cmavo">

gu'u

<val i word="gu'u" type="cmavo">

gy

<val i word="gy" type="cmavo">

gy

<val i word="gy" type="cmavo">

i

i

<val i word="i" type="cmavo">

i'a

<val i word="i'a" type="cmavo">

i'e

<val i word="i'e" type="cmavo">

integrale

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "integrale" FOUND!

j

ja

<val i word="ja" type="cmavo">

ja'a

<val i word="ja'a" type="cmavo">

ja'e

<val i word="ja'e" type="cmavo">

ja'o

<val i word="ja'o" type="cmavo">

jai

<val i word="jai" type="cmavo">

jbena

<val i word="jbena" type="gi mu">

jdaselsku

<val i word="jda el ku" type="lujvo">

jdika

<val i word="jdika" type="gi mu">

je

<val i word="je" type="cmavo">

jegvo

<val i word="jegvo" type="gi mu">

je'a

<val i word="je'a" type="cmavo">

je'e

<val i word="je'e" type="cmavo">

je'enai

<val i word="je'enai" type="cmavo-compound">

je'i

<val i word="je'i" type="cmavo">

je'o

<val i word="je'o" type="cmavo">

je'u

<val i word="je'u" type="cmavo">

je'unai

<val i word="je'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

jei

<val i word="jei" type="cmavo">

jelca

<val i word="jelca" type="gi mu">

jenai

<val i word="jenai" type="cmavo-compound">

jerxo

<val i word="jerxo" type="gi mu">

ji

<val i word="ji" type="cmavo">

jibni

<val i word="jibni" type="gi mu">

ji'a

<val i word="ji'a" type="cmavo">

ji'i

<val i word="ji'i" type="cmavo">

ji'u

<val i word="ji'u" type="cmavo">

jinvi

<val i word="jinvi" type="gi mu">

jitro

<val i word="jitro" type="gi mu">

jo

<val i word="jo" type="cmavo">

jo'a

<val i word="jo'a" type="cmavo">

jo'e

<val i word="jo'e" type="cmavo">

jo'i

<val i word="jo'i" type="cmavo">

jo'o

<val i word="jo'o" type="cmavo">

jo'u

<val i word="jo'u" type="cmavo">

joi

<val i word="joi" type="cmavo">

jordo

<val i word="jordo" type="gi mu">

ju

<val i word="ju" type="cmavo">

ju'a

<val i word="ju'a" type="cmavo">

ju'o

<val i word="ju'o" type="cmavo">

ju'u

<val i word="ju'u" type="cmavo">

jundi

<val i word="jundi" type="gi mu">

jungo

<val i word="jungo" type="gi mu">

jy

<val i word="jy" type="cmavo">

jy

<val i word="jy" type="cmavo">

k

ka

<val i word="ka" type="cmavo">

kadno

<val i word="kadno" type="gi mu">

ka'a

<val i word="ka'a" type="cmavo">

ka'e

<val i word="ka'e" type="cmavo">

ka'o

<val i word="ka'o" type="cmavo">

ka'u

<val i word="ka'u" type="cmavo">

kai

<val i word="kai" type="cmavo">

kalri

<val i word="kalri" type="gi mu">

kalselvi'i

<val i word="kal elvi'i" type="lujvo">

kambla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "kambla" FOUND!

kanji

<val i word="kanji" type="gi mu">

kanla

<val i word="kanla" type="gi mu">

kanro

<val i word="kanro" type="gi mu">

karce

<val i word="karce" type="gi mu">

karcykla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "karcykla" FOUND!

kau

<val i word="kau" type="cmavo">

ke

<val i word="ke" type="cmavo">

ke'a

<val i word="ke'a" type="cmavo">

ke'e

<val i word="ke'e" type="cmavo">

ke'i

<val i word="ke'i" type="cmavo">

ke'o

<val i word="ke'o" type="cmavo">

ke'u

<val i word="ke'u" type="cmavo">

ke'unai

<val i word="ke'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

kei

<val i word="kei" type="cmavo">

kelvo

<val i word="kelvo" type="gi mu">

ketco

<val i word="ketco" type="gi mu">

ki

<val i word="ki" type="cmavo">

ki'a

<val i word="ki'a" type="cmavo">

ki'o

<val i word="ki'o" type="cmavo">

ki'u

<val i word="ki'u" type="cmavo">

kilto

<val i word="kilto" type="gi mu">

kismu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "kismu" FOUND!

kisto

<val i word="ki to" type="gi mu">

klama

<val i word="klama" type="gi mu">

klamau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "klamau" FOUND!

klesi

<val i word="kle i" type="gi mu">

ko

<val i word="ko" type="cmavo">

kobra

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "kobra" FOUND!

ko'a

<val i word="ko'a" type="cmavo">

ko'e

<val i word="ko'e" type="cmavo">

ko'i

<val i word="ko'i" type="cmavo">

ko'o

<val i word="ko'o" type="cmavo">

ko'u

<val i word="ko'u" type="cmavo">

krasi

<val i word="kra i" type="gi mu">

krecau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "krecau" FOUND!

krici

<val i word="krici" type="gi mu">

krinu

<val i word="krinu" type="gi mu">

ktraile

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ktraile" FOUND!

ku

<val i word="ku" type="cmavo">

kuarka

<val i word="kuarka" type="fu'ivla">

ku'a

<val i word="ku'a" type="cmavo">

ku'e

<val i word="ku'e" type="cmavo">

ku'i

<val i word="ku'i" type="cmavo">

ku'o

<val i word="ku'o" type="cmavo">

kuldi'u

<val i word="kuldi'u" type="lujvo">

kurji

<val i word="kurji" type="gi mu">

ky

<val i word="ky" type="cmavo">

ky

<val i word="ky" type="cmavo">

l

la

<val i word="la" type="cmavo">

labmau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "labmau" FOUND!

ladru

<val i word="ladru" type="gi mu">

la'e

<val i word="la'e" type="cmavo">

la'edi'u

<val i word="la'edi'u" type="cmavo-compound">

la'i

<val i word="la'i" type="cmavo">

la'o

<val i word="la'o" type="cmavo">

la'u

<val i word="la'u" type="cmavo">

lai

<val i word="lai" type="cmavo">

lamgri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lamgri" FOUND!

lange'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lange'u" FOUND!

lanme

<val i word="lanme" type="gi mu">

lantro

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lantro" FOUND!

latmo

<val i word="latmo" type="gi mu">

lau

<val i word="lau" type="cmavo">

le

<val i word="le" type="cmavo">

lebna

<val i word="lebna" type="gi mu">

le'a

<val i word="le'a" type="cmavo">

le'e

<val i word="le'e" type="cmavo">

le'i

<val i word="le'i" type="cmavo">

le'o

<val i word="le'o" type="cmavo">

le'u

<val i word="le'u" type="cmavo">

lei

<val i word="lei" type="cmavo">

lerfu

<val i word="lerfu" type="gi mu">

lervla

<val i word="lervla" type="lujvo">

li

<val i word="li" type="cmavo">

libjo

<val i word="libjo" type="gi mu">

li'i

<val i word="li'i" type="cmavo">

li'o

<val i word="li'o" type="cmavo">

li'u

<val i word="li'u" type="cmavo">

lijda

<val i word="lijda" type="gi mu">

lijgri

<val i word="lijgri" type="lujvo">

likygau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "likygau" FOUND!

likyri'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "likyri'a" FOUND!

liste

<val i word="li te" type="gi mu">

litki

<val i word="litki" type="gi mu">

litru

<val i word="litru" type="gi mu">

livgyterbilma

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "livgyterbilma" FOUND!

lo

<val i word="lo" type="cmavo">

logji

<val i word="logji" type="gi mu">

logjybangir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangir" FOUND!

logjybangirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangirz" FOUND!

logjybangirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangirzu" FOUND!

logjybangri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangri" FOUND!

logjybangygir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangygir" FOUND!

logjybangygirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangygirz" FOUND!

logjybangygirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangygirzu" FOUND!

logjybangygri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybangygri" FOUND!

logjybaugir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybaugir" FOUND!

logjybaugirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybaugirz" FOUND!

logjybaugirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybaugirzu" FOUND!

logjybaugri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "logjybaugri" FOUND!

lo'a

<val i word="lo'a" type="cmavo">

lo'e

<val i word="lo'e" type="cmavo">

lo'i

<val i word="lo'i" type="cmavo">

lo'ikle

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lo'ikle" FOUND!

lo'irlei

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lo'irlei" FOUND!

lo'o

<val i word="lo'o" type="cmavo">

lo'u

<val i word="lo'u" type="cmavo">

loi

<val i word="loi" type="cmavo">

lojban

<val i word="lojban" type="cmene">

lojbangir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangir" FOUND!

lojbangirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangirz" FOUND!

lojbangirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangirzu" FOUND!

lojbangri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangri" FOUND!

lojbangygir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangygir" FOUND!

lojbangygirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangygirz" FOUND!

lojbangygirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangygirzu" FOUND!

lojbangygri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbangygri" FOUND!

lojbaugir

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbaugir" FOUND!

lojbaugirz

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbaugirz" FOUND!

lojbaugirzu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbaugirzu" FOUND!

lojbaugri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lojbaugri" FOUND!

lojbo

<val i word="lojbo" type="gi mu">

lotkle

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lotkle" FOUND!

lotlei

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "lotlei" FOUND!

lu

<val i word="lu" type="cmavo">

lubno

<val i word="lubno" type="gi mu">

lu'a

<val i word="lu'a" type="cmavo">

lu'e

<val i word="lu'e" type="cmavo">

lu'i

<val i word="lu'i" type="cmavo">

lu'o

<val i word="lu'o" type="cmavo">

lu'u

<val i word="lu'u" type="cmavo">

lujvo

<val i word="lujvo" type="gi mu">

ly

<val i word="ly" type="cmavo">

ly

<val i word="ly" type="cmavo">

m

ma

<val i word="ma" type="cmavo">

mabla

<val i word="mabla" type="gi mu">

ma'a

<val i word="ma'a" type="cmavo">

ma'i

<val i word="ma'i" type="cmavo">

ma'o

<val i word="ma'o" type="cmavo">

ma'u

<val i word="ma'u" type="cmavo">

mai

<val i word="mai" type="cmavo">

mampa'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "mampa'u" FOUND!

mamta

<val i word="mamta" type="gi mu">

manskapi

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "manskapi" FOUND!

matne

<val i word="matne" type="gi mu">

mau

<val i word="mau" type="cmavo">

me

<val i word="me" type="cmavo">

megdo

<val i word="megdo" type="gi mu">

me'a

<val i word="me'a" type="cmavo">

me'i

<val i word="me'i" type="cmavo">

me'o

<val i word="me'o" type="cmavo">

me'u

<val i word="me'u" type="cmavo">

mei

<val i word="mei" type="cmavo">

mekso

<val i word="mek o" type="gi mu">

melbi

<val i word="melbi" type="gi mu">

meljo

<val i word="meljo" type="gi mu">

merko

<val i word="merko" type="gi mu">

mexno

<val i word="mexno" type="gi mu">

mi

<val i word="mi" type="cmavo">

midju

<val i word="midju" type="gi mu">

mi'a

<val i word="mi'a" type="cmavo">

mi'e

<val i word="mi'e" type="cmavo">

mi'erxanpli

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "mi'erxanpli" FOUND!

mi'i

<val i word="mi'i" type="cmavo">

mi'o

<val i word="mi'o" type="cmavo">

mi'u

<val i word="mi'u" type="cmavo">

mikce

<val i word="mikce" type="gi mu">

mikri

<val i word="mikri" type="gi mu">

milti

<val i word="milti" type="gi mu">

minde

<val i word="minde" type="gi mu">

minkemxanpli

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "minkemxanpli" FOUND!

misro

<val i word="mi ro" type="gi mu">

mlatu

<val i word="mlatu" type="gi mu">

mleca

<val i word="mleca" type="gi mu">

mo

<val i word="mo" type="cmavo">

mo'a

<val i word="mo'a" type="cmavo">

mo'e

<val i word="mo'e" type="cmavo">

mo'i

<val i word="mo'i" type="cmavo">

mo'o

<val i word="mo'o" type="cmavo">

mo'u

<val i word="mo'u" type="cmavo">

moi

<val i word="moi" type="cmavo">

mojysu'a

<val i word="mojy u'a" type="lujvo">

mokca

<val i word="mokca" type="gi mu">

molro

<val i word="molro" type="gi mu">

morko

<val i word="morko" type="gi mu">

mrostu

<val i word="mro tu" type="lujvo">

mu

<val i word="mu" type="cmavo">

mudsiclu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "mudsiclu" FOUND!

mudysiclu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "mudysiclu" FOUND!

mu'e

<val i word="mu'e" type="cmavo">

mu'i

<val i word="mu'i" type="cmavo">

mu'onai

<val i word="mu'onai" type="cmavo-compound">

mukti

<val i word="mukti" type="gi mu">

mulgri

<val i word="mulgri" type="lujvo">

muslo

<val i word="mu lo" type="gi mu">

my

<val i word="my" type="cmavo">

my

<val i word="my" type="cmavo">

n

na

<val i word="na" type="cmavo">

na'a

<val i word="na'a" type="cmavo">

na'e

<val i word="na'e" type="cmavo">

na'i

<val i word="na'i" type="cmavo">

na'o

<val i word="na'o" type="cmavo">

na'u

<val i word="na'u" type="cmavo">

na'ujbi

<val i word="na'ujbi" type="lujvo">

nai

<val i word="nai" type="cmavo">

naja

<val i word="naja" type="cmavo-compound">

naknykemcinctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "naknykemcinctu" FOUND!

naknykemcinctuca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "naknykemcinctuca" FOUND!

naknykemcinsyctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "naknykemcinsyctu" FOUND!

naknykemcinsyctuca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "naknykemcinsyctuca" FOUND!

nakykemcinctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nakykemcinctu" FOUND!

nakykemcinctuca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nakykemcinctuca" FOUND!

nakykemcinsyctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nakykemcinsyctu" FOUND!

nakykemcinsyctuca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nakykemcinsyctuca" FOUND!

nalbrablo

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nalbrablo" FOUND!

nalmle

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nalmle" FOUND!

namcu

<val i word="namcu" type="gi mu">

nanmu

<val i word="nanmu" type="gi mu">

nanvi

<val i word="nanvi" type="gi mu">

nau

<val i word="nau" type="cmavo">

ne

<val i word="ne" type="cmavo">

nei

<val i word="nei" type="cmavo">

nelcymau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nelcymau" FOUND!

ni

<val i word="ni" type="cmavo">

nibli

<val i word="nibli" type="gi mu">

ni'e

<val i word="ni'e" type="cmavo">

ni'i

<val i word="ni'i" type="cmavo">

ni'o

<val i word="ni'o" type="cmavo">

ni'u

<val i word="ni'u" type="cmavo">

nilkla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nilkla" FOUND!

nimre

<val i word="nimre" type="gi mu">

ninmu

<val i word="ninmu" type="gi mu">

nitcu

<val i word="nitcu" type="gi mu">

nixli

<val i word="nixli" type="gi mu">

no

<val i word="no" type="cmavo">

nobli

<val i word="nobli" type="gi mu">

noda

<val i word="noda" type="cmavo-compound">

no'a

<val i word="no'a" type="cmavo">

no'e

<val i word="no'e" type="cmavo">

no'i

<val i word="no'i" type="cmavo">

no'o

<val i word="no'o" type="cmavo">

no'u

<val i word="no'u" type="cmavo">

noi

<val i word="noi" type="cmavo">

nolraitru

<val i word="nolraitru" type="lujvo">

normle

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "normle" FOUND!

nu

<val i word="nu" type="cmavo">

nu'a

<val i word="nu'a" type="cmavo">

nu'e

<val i word="nu'e" type="cmavo">

nu'i

<val i word="nu'i" type="cmavo">

nu'o

<val i word="nu'o" type="cmavo">

nu'u

<val i word="nu'u" type="cmavo">

nuncti

<val i word="nuncti" type="lujvo">

nunctikezgau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunctikezgau" FOUND!

nunctu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunctu" FOUND!

nunji'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunji'a" FOUND!

nunkalte

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunkalte" FOUND!

nunkilbra

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunkilbra" FOUND!

nunkla

<val i word="nunkla" type="lujvo">

nunklama

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunklama" FOUND!

nunpinxe

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunpinxe" FOUND!

nunsoidji

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunsoidji" FOUND!

nunte'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunte'a" FOUND!

nunterji'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "nunterji'a" FOUND!

ny

<val i word="ny" type="cmavo">

ny

<val i word="ny" type="cmavo">

o

o

<val i word="o" type="cmavo">

o'u

<val i word="o'u" type="cmavo">

p

pa

<val i word="pa" type="cmavo">

pacraistu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "pacraistu" FOUND!

pacru'i

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "pacru'i" FOUND!

pagbu

<val i word="pagbu" type="gi mu">

pa'e

<val i word="pa'e" type="cmavo">

pa'enai

<val i word="pa'enai" type="cmavo-compound">

pai

<val i word="pai" type="cmavo">

pamoi

<val i word="pamoi" type="cmavo-compound">

paso

<val i word="pa o" type="cmavo-compound">

patta'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "patta'a" FOUND!

patyta'a

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "patyta'a" FOUND!

pau

<val i word="pau" type="cmavo">

paunai

<val i word="paunai" type="cmavo-compound">

pe

<val i word="pe" type="cmavo">

pe'a

<val i word="pe'a" type="cmavo">

pe'e

<val i word="pe'e" type="cmavo">

pe'i

<val i word="pe'i" type="cmavo">

pe'o

<val i word="pe'o" type="cmavo">

pei

<val i word="pei" type="cmavo">

pelnimre

<val i word="pelnimre" type="lujvo">

pelxu

<val i word="pelxu" type="gi mu">

petso

<val i word="pet o" type="gi mu">

pevrisnyjelca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "pevrisnyjelca" FOUND!

pi

<val i word="pi" type="cmavo">

picti

<val i word="picti" type="gi mu">

pi'a

<val i word="pi'a" type="cmavo">

pi'e

<val i word="pi'e" type="cmavo">

pi'i

<val i word="pi'i" type="cmavo">

pi'o

<val i word="pi'o" type="cmavo">

pi'u

<val i word="pi'u" type="cmavo">

pilno

<val i word="pilno" type="gi mu">

piro

<val i word="piro" type="cmavo-compound">

piso'a

<val i word="pi o'a" type="cmavo-compound">

piso'u

<val i word="pi o'u" type="cmavo-compound">

pisu'o

<val i word="pi u'o" type="cmavo-compound">

pluka

<val i word="pluka" type="gi mu">

po

<val i word="po" type="cmavo">

po'e

<val i word="po'e" type="cmavo">

po'o

<val i word="po'o" type="cmavo">

po'u

<val i word="po'u" type="cmavo">

poi

<val i word="poi" type="cmavo">

polno

<val i word="polno" type="gi mu">

ponjo

<val i word="ponjo" type="gi mu">

ponse

<val i word="pon e" type="gi mu">

porto

<val i word="porto" type="gi mu">

posydji

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "posydji" FOUND!

prenu

<val i word="prenu" type="gi mu">

pritu

<val i word="pritu" type="gi mu">

pu

<val i word="pu" type="cmavo">

puba

<val i word="puba" type="cmavo-compound">

pu'i

<val i word="pu'i" type="cmavo">

pu'o

<val i word="pu'o" type="cmavo">

pu'u

<val i word="pu'u" type="cmavo">

purci

<val i word="purci" type="gi mu">

py

<val i word="py" type="cmavo">

py

<val i word="py" type="cmavo">

r

ra

<val i word="ra" type="cmavo">

radno

<val i word="radno" type="gi mu">

rafsi

<val i word="raf i" type="gi mu">

ra'a

<val i word="ra'a" type="cmavo">

ra'e

<val i word="ra'e" type="cmavo">

ra'i

<val i word="ra'i" type="cmavo">

ra'o

<val i word="ra'o" type="cmavo">

ra'u

<val i word="ra'u" type="cmavo">

ra'ucu'i

<val i word="ra'ucu'i" type="cmavo-compound">

ra'unai

<val i word="ra'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

rairgugde

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "rairgugde" FOUND!

rakso

<val i word="rak o" type="gi mu">

ralju

<val i word="ralju" type="gi mu">

rau

<val i word="rau" type="cmavo">

re

<val i word="re" type="cmavo">

re'i

<val i word="re'i" type="cmavo">

re'inai

<val i word="re'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

re'u

<val i word="re'u" type="cmavo">

reroi

<val i word="reroi" type="cmavo-compound">

ri

<val i word="ri" type="cmavo">

ricfu

<val i word="ricfu" type="gi mu">

ricrxaceru

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ricrxaceru" FOUND!

ri'a

<val i word="ri'a" type="cmavo">

ri'e

<val i word="ri'e" type="cmavo">

rinka

<val i word="rinka" type="gi mu">

risna

<val i word="ri na" type="gi mu">

risnyjelca

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "risnyjelca" FOUND!

ro

<val i word="ro" type="cmavo">

ro'anai

<val i word="ro'anai" type="cmavo-compound">

ro'e

<val i word="ro'e" type="cmavo">

ro'inre'o

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ro'inre'o" FOUND!

ro'o

<val i word="ro'o" type="cmavo">

ro'u

<val i word="ro'u" type="cmavo">

roi

<val i word="roi" type="cmavo">

rokre'o

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "rokre'o" FOUND!

romai

<val i word="romai" type="cmavo-compound">

ropno

<val i word="ropno" type="gi mu">

ru

<val i word="ru" type="cmavo">

ru'a

<val i word="ru'a" type="cmavo">

ru'e

<val i word="ru'e" type="cmavo">

ru'i

<val i word="ru'i" type="cmavo">

ru'inai

<val i word="ru'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

ru'o

<val i word="ru'o" type="cmavo">

rusko

<val i word="ru ko" type="gi mu">

ry

<val i word="ry" type="cmavo">

ry

<val i word="ry" type="cmavo">

s

sa

<val i word=" a" type="cmavo">

sadjo

<val i word=" adjo" type="gi mu">

sa'a

<val i word=" a'a" type="cmavo">

sa'enai

<val i word=" a'enai" type="cmavo-compound">

sa'i

<val i word=" a'i" type="cmavo">

sa'unai

<val i word=" a'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

sai

<val i word=" ai" type="cmavo">

sakli

<val i word=" akli" type="gi mu">

saktrxaceru

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "saktrxaceru" FOUND!

salci

<val i word=" alci" type="gi mu">

sanli

<val i word=" anli" type="gi mu">

saske

<val i word=" a ke" type="gi mu">

se

<val i word=" e" type="cmavo">

seu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "seu" FOUND!

seba'i

<val i word=" eba'i" type="cmavo-compound">

segi'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "segi'u" FOUND!

segu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "segu" FOUND!

segu'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "segu'u" FOUND!

se'a

<val i word=" e'a" type="cmavo">

se'e

<val i word=" e'e" type="cmavo">

se'i

<val i word=" e'i" type="cmavo">

se'o

<val i word=" e'o" type="cmavo">

se'u

<val i word=" e'u" type="cmavo">

sei

<val i word=" ei" type="cmavo">

seja'e

<val i word=" eja'e" type="cmavo-compound">

seju

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "seju" FOUND!

seka'a

<val i word=" eka'a" type="cmavo-compound">

selbri

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selbri" FOUND!

seldzukla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "seldzukla" FOUND!

selgekmau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selgekmau" FOUND!

seljdasku

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "seljdasku" FOUND!

selkanla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selkanla" FOUND!

selkemdzukla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selkemdzukla" FOUND!

selkla

<val i word=" elkla" type="lujvo">

selklamau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selklamau" FOUND!

selma'o

<val i word=" elma'o" type="lujvo">

selnelcymau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selnelcymau" FOUND!

selselgekmau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selselgekmau" FOUND!

selseljdasku

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selseljdasku" FOUND!

selsku

<val i word=" el ku" type="lujvo">

seltau

<val i word=" eltau" type="lujvo">

selti'i

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selti'i" FOUND!

selti'ifla

<val i word=" elti'ifla" type="lujvo">

selzda

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "selzda" FOUND!

semau

<val i word=" emau" type="cmavo-compound">

seme'a

<val i word=" eme'a" type="cmavo-compound">

semto

<val i word=" emto" type="gi mu">

sepi'o

<val i word=" epi'o" type="cmavo-compound">

seri'a

<val i word=" eri'a" type="cmavo-compound">

sfofa

<val i word=" fofa" type="gi mu">

sfofy

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "sfofy" FOUND!

si

<val i word=" i" type="cmavo">

si'a

<val i word=" i'a" type="cmavo">

si'e

<val i word=" i'e" type="cmavo">

si'o

<val i word=" i'o" type="cmavo">

sikcurnu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "sikcurnu" FOUND!

since

<val i word=" ince" type="gi mu">

sinso

<val i word=" in o" type="gi mu">

sinxa

<val i word=" inxa" type="gi mu">

sirxo

<val i word=" irxo" type="gi mu">

sisti

<val i word=" i ti" type="gi mu">

skari

<val i word=" kari" type="gi mu">

skoto

<val i word=" koto" type="gi mu">

slaka

<val i word=" laka" type="gi mu">

slovo

<val i word=" lovo" type="gi mu">

softo

<val i word=" ofto" type="gi mu">

so'a

<val i word=" o'a" type="cmavo">

so'e

<val i word=" o'e" type="cmavo">

so'i

<val i word=" o'i" type="cmavo">

so'imei

<val i word=" o'imei" type="cmavo-compound">

so'o

<val i word=" o'o" type="cmavo">

so'u

<val i word=" o'u" type="cmavo">

soi

<val i word=" oi" type="cmavo">

soidji

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "soidji" FOUND!

solri

<val i word=" olri" type="gi mu">

solxrula

<val i word=" olxrula" type="lujvo">

sonci

<val i word=" onci" type="gi mu">

spageti

<val i word=" pageti" type="fu'ivla">

spano

<val i word=" pano" type="gi mu">

spatrkoka

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "spatrkoka" FOUND!

speranto

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "speranto" FOUND!

spraile

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "spraile" FOUND!

sralo

<val i word=" ralo" type="gi mu">

srana

<val i word=" rana" type="gi mu">

srito

<val i word=" rito" type="gi mu">

stali

<val i word=" tali" type="gi mu">

steci

<val i word=" teci" type="gi mu">

stero

<val i word=" tero" type="gi mu">

stidi

<val i word=" tidi" type="gi mu">

stura

<val i word=" tura" type="gi mu">

su

<val i word=" u" type="cmavo">

sudysrasu

<val i word=" udy ra u" type="lujvo">

su'a

<val i word=" u'a" type="cmavo">

su'anai

<val i word=" u'anai" type="cmavo-compound">

su'e

<val i word=" u'e" type="cmavo">

su'i

<val i word=" u'i" type="cmavo">

su'o

<val i word=" u'o" type="cmavo">

su'u

<val i word=" u'u" type="cmavo">

sumti

<val i word=" umti" type="gi mu">

sutra

<val i word=" utra" type="gi mu">

sy

<val i word=" y" type="cmavo">

sy

<val i word=" y" type="cmavo">

t

ta

<val i word="ta" type="cmavo">

ta'e

<val i word="ta'e" type="cmavo">

ta'onai

<val i word="ta'onai" type="cmavo-compound">

ta'u

<val i word="ta'u" type="cmavo">

ta'unai

<val i word="ta'unai" type="cmavo-compound">

tai

<val i word="tai" type="cmavo">

tamdu'i

<val i word="tamdu'i" type="lujvo">

tamsmi

<val i word="tam mi" type="lujvo">

tanjo

<val i word="tanjo" type="gi mu">

tanru

<val i word="tanru" type="gi mu">

tarmi

<val i word="tarmi" type="gi mu">

tarmrnintegrale

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "tarmrnintegrale" FOUND!

tau

<val i word="tau" type="cmavo">

tavla

<val i word="tavla" type="gi mu">

te

<val i word="te" type="cmavo">

teci'e

<val i word="teci'e" type="cmavo-compound">

te'a

<val i word="te'a" type="cmavo">

te'o

<val i word="te'o" type="cmavo">

te'u

<val i word="te'u" type="cmavo">

tei

<val i word="tei" type="cmavo">

teka'a

<val i word="teka'a" type="cmavo-compound">

terbi'a

<val i word="terbi'a" type="lujvo">

terci'e

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "terci'e" FOUND!

tergu'i

<val i word="tergu'i" type="lujvo">

tergusni

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "tergusni" FOUND!

terkakpa

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "terkakpa" FOUND!

terkavbu

<val i word="terkavbu" type="lujvo">

terklamau

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "terklamau" FOUND!

terlantroge'u

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "terlantroge'u" FOUND!

tertau

<val i word="tertau" type="lujvo">

terto

<val i word="terto" type="gi mu">

tezu'e

<val i word="tezu'e" type="cmavo-compound">

ti

<val i word="ti" type="cmavo">

ti'e

<val i word="ti'e" type="cmavo">

ti'ifla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ti'ifla" FOUND!

ti'o

<val i word="ti'o" type="cmavo">

ti'otci

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "ti'otci" FOUND!

tinju'i

<val i word="tinju'i" type="lujvo">

tirna

<val i word="tirna" type="gi mu">

to

<val i word="to" type="cmavo">

to'a

<val i word="to'a" type="cmavo">

to'e

<val i word="to'e" type="cmavo">

to'i

<val i word="to'i" type="cmavo">

to'o

<val i word="to'o" type="cmavo">

to'u

<val i word="to'u" type="cmavo">

toi

<val i word="toi" type="cmavo">

tolmle

<val i word="tolmle" type="lujvo">

tolvri

<val i word="tolvri" type="lujvo">

traji

<val i word="traji" type="gi mu">

tricrxaceru

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "tricrxaceru" FOUND!

tricu

<val i word="tricu" type="gi mu">

trkaile

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "trkaile" FOUND!

troci

<val i word="troci" type="gi mu">

tu

<val i word="tu" type="cmavo">

tu'a

<val i word="tu'a" type="cmavo">

tu'e

<val i word="tu'e" type="cmavo">

tu'o

<val i word="tu'o" type="cmavo">

tu'u

<val i word="tu'u" type="cmavo">

turdu'i

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "turdu'i" FOUND!

ty

<val i word="ty" type="cmavo">

ty

<val i word="ty" type="cmavo">

u

u

<val i word="u" type="cmavo">

u'e

<val i word="u'e" type="cmavo">

u'u

<val i word="u'u" type="cmavo">

v

va

<val i word="va" type="cmavo">

va'a

<val i word="va'a" type="cmavo">

va'e

<val i word="va'e" type="cmavo">

va'i

<val i word="va'i" type="cmavo">

va'inai

<val i word="va'inai" type="cmavo-compound">

vau

<val i word="vau" type="cmavo">

ve

<val i word="ve" type="cmavo">

vecnu

<val i word="vecnu" type="gi mu">

ve'e

<val i word="ve'e" type="cmavo">

ve'o

<val i word="ve'o" type="cmavo">

vei

<val i word="vei" type="cmavo">

veka'a

<val i word="veka'a" type="cmavo-compound">

veljvo

<val i word="veljvo" type="lujvo">

velmikce

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "velmikce" FOUND!

vemau

<val i word="vemau" type="cmavo-compound">

veme'a

<val i word="veme'a" type="cmavo-compound">

vi

<val i word="vi" type="cmavo">

vi'a

<val i word="vi'a" type="cmavo">

vi'e

<val i word="vi'e" type="cmavo">

vi'u

<val i word="vi'u" type="cmavo">

viska

<val i word="vi ka" type="gi mu">

vo

<val i word="vo" type="cmavo">

vo'a

<val i word="vo'a" type="cmavo">

vo'e

<val i word="vo'e" type="cmavo">

vo'i

<val i word="vo'i" type="cmavo">

vo'o

<val i word="vo'o" type="cmavo">

vo'u

<val i word="vo'u" type="cmavo">

voi

<val i word="voi" type="cmavo">

vorme

<val i word="vorme" type="gi mu">

vu

<val i word="vu" type="cmavo">

vu'e

<val i word="vu'e" type="cmavo">

vu'i

<val i word="vu'i" type="cmavo">

vu'o

<val i word="vu'o" type="cmavo">

vu'u

<val i word="vu'u" type="cmavo">

vukro

<val i word="vukro" type="gi mu">

vy

<val i word="vy" type="cmavo">

vy

<val i word="vy" type="cmavo">

x

xaceru

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xaceru" FOUND!

xagmau

<val i word="xagmau" type="lujvo">

xagrai

<val i word="xagrai" type="lujvo">

xamgu

<val i word="xamgu" type="gi mu">

xampo

<val i word="xampo" type="gi mu">

xance

<val i word="xance" type="gi mu">

xancypliminde

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xancypliminde" FOUND!

xanmi'e

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xanmi'e" FOUND!

xanplimi'e

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xanplimi'e" FOUND!

xarci

<val i word="xarci" type="gi mu">

xaskemcakcurnu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xaskemcakcurnu" FOUND!

xasycakcurnu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xasycakcurnu" FOUND!

xatsi

<val i word="xat i" type="gi mu">

xazdo

<val i word="xazdo" type="gi mu">

xe

<val i word="xe" type="cmavo">

xebro

<val i word="xebro" type="gi mu">

xecto

<val i word="xecto" type="gi mu">

xeka'a

<val i word="xeka'a" type="cmavo-compound">

xekri

<val i word="xekri" type="gi mu">

xelklama

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xelklama" FOUND!

xelso

<val i word="xel o" type="gi mu">

xexso

<val i word="xex o" type="gi mu">

xi

<val i word="xi" type="cmavo">

xindo

<val i word="xindo" type="gi mu">

xismu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "xismu" FOUND!

xispo

<val i word="xi po" type="gi mu">

xo

<val i word="xo" type="cmavo">

xrabo

<val i word="xrabo" type="gi mu">

xriso

<val i word="xri o" type="gi mu">

xu

<val i word="xu" type="cmavo">

xunre

<val i word="xunre" type="gi mu">

xurdo

<val i word="xurdo" type="gi mu">

xy

<val i word="xy" type="cmavo">

xy

<val i word="xy" type="cmavo">

z

zabna

<val i word="zabna" type="gi mu">

za'a

<val i word="za'a" type="cmavo">

za'e

<val i word="za'e" type="cmavo">

za'i

<val i word="za'i" type="cmavo">

za'o

<val i word="za'o" type="cmavo">

za'u

<val i word="za'u" type="cmavo">

zai

<val i word="zai" type="cmavo">

zarci

<val i word="zarci" type="gi mu">

zbasu

<val i word="zba u" type="gi mu">

zdani

<val i word="zdani" type="gi mu">

ze'e

<val i word="ze'e" type="cmavo">

ze'i

<val i word="ze'i" type="cmavo">

ze'o

<val i word="ze'o" type="cmavo">

zei

<val i word="zei" type="cmavo">

zenba

<val i word="zenba" type="gi mu">

zepti

<val i word="zepti" type="gi mu">

zerle'a

<val i word="zerle'a" type="lujvo">

zernerkla

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zernerkla" FOUND!

zetro

<val i word="zetro" type="gi mu">

zi

<val i word="zi" type="cmavo">

zi'e

<val i word="zi'e" type="cmavo">

zi'o

<val i word="zi'o" type="cmavo">

zilpavypinxe

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zilpavypinxe" FOUND!

zilrelselpinxe

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zilrelselpinxe" FOUND!

zmadu

<val i word="zmadu" type="gi mu">

zo

<val i word="zo" type="cmavo">

zo'e

<val i word="zo'e" type="cmavo">

zo'i

<val i word="zo'i" type="cmavo">

zo'o

<val i word="zo'o" type="cmavo">

zo'u

<val i word="zo'u" type="cmavo">

zoi

<val i word="zoi" type="cmavo">

zu'a

<val i word="zu'a" type="cmavo">

zu'i

<val i word="zu'i" type="cmavo">

zu'o

<val i word="zu'o" type="cmavo">

zukte

<val i word="zukte" type="gi mu">

zuljamfu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zuljamfu" FOUND!

zuljma

<val i word="zuljma" type="lujvo">

zunle

<val i word="zunle" type="gi mu">

zunlyjamfu

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zunlyjamfu" FOUND!

zunlyjma

NO JBOVLASTE DEFINITION FOR "zunlyjma" FOUND!

zy

<val i word="zy" type="cmavo">

zy

<val i word="zy" type="cmavo">

General Index

Symbols

"

"

word for, The universal bu

"&"

word for, The universal bu

"."

word for, The universal bu

"a" is letteral

example, References to lerfu

"because"

English word

four varieties of, Modal sentence connection: the causals

"la"

contrasted with vocatives, Vocative scales

"less"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"me"

effect of MOI on, Special mekso selbri

"more"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"no" quantifier

expanding, Negation boundaries

"of"

in English

compared with do'e, Modal tags: BAI

"or"

"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both", Logical connection and truth tables

"there is a Y"

expression

notation convention, Negation boundaries

"z" instead of "'"

in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

$, Computerized character codes

' symbol

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

definition (see also apostrophe), The Special Lojban Characters

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

(n+1)-th rat

example, Special mekso selbri

* ... le zarci fa'u le briju, Questions and answers

*gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

*reboi ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

+1 + -1 = 0

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

-1

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

-cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?

-ek

in name for logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives

-er

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

-hood, Abstract lujvo

-ity, Property abstractions

-mei, Special mekso selbri

-nai, Modal negation, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation, What are attitudinal indicators?, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

-ness, Property abstractions

-ng

Lojban contrasted with English, Syllabication And Stress

-roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

-to'e-, Expressing scales in selbri negation

... lo gerku, Quantified descriptions

.a, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.a'abu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.a'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.a'o, What are attitudinal indicators?

.a'u, More about non-logical connectives

.a'ucu'i, Propositional attitude indicators

.abu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.abu by. cy., Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

.abubu, The universal bu

.ai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Vocative scales

.ai,in bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.akut. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.alef. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.alfas., Alien alphabets

.alfas. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.au, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.azys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.bet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.betas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.bravos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.brevis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.bukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.cas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.cin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cirkumfleks. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.ctas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.curuk. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cyVAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daled. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.dasei,as. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.deltas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.dobros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.e, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

contrasted with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

.e speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

.e'ebu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.ebu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ecarn. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ei, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.eibu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.eicai, Attitudes as scales

.eicu'i, Attitudes as scales

.einai, Attitudes as scales

.eiro'u, Emotional categories

.eiru'e, Attitudes as scales

.eisai, Attitudes as scales

.ekos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.eksreis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.Epsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.etas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fokstrot. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.friytys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.gamas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.gapmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gapyjin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gimel. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.glagolis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.golf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.grav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.i, cmavo, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.i la nas., cmene

.i'anai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'inai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.ia, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.iabu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ianai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives

.iankis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ibaubo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.ibu, cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ie, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Vocative scales

.ie ge'eru'e, Compound indicators

.iecu'i, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ienai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ier. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieriys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieru'e, Compound indicators

.ierys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iestys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ii, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales

.ii.iinai, The space of emotions

.iige'e, Miscellaneous indicators

.ija, bridi negation and logical connectives

.ije, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables

.ije seri'a, Mixed modal connection

.ije,is. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ijebabo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.ijeseri'abo, Mixed modal connection

.indias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.io, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.iotas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.iri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.iseri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.itord. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.iubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iucai, Propositional attitude indicators

.iud. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ius. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.izu'abo, Tense relations between sentences

.jivet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.juliet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kaf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kakos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.kamats. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kapas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.keBEK. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kilos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.kubuts. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kuf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.limas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.liudi,ies. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.lymdas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.LYmed. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.maik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.makron. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.midgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.myslites. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.naciys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.novembr. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.nun. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.nus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.o'obu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o'ufu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.o'unairo'a, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'i, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'o, Emotional categories

.obu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ogoniek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.oi, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators

.oicai, Propositional attitude indicators

.oinai, Compound indicators

.oinaicu'i ro'ucai, Compound indicators

.omegas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.Omikron. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.onai, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

.onys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.oskar. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.paPAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.patax. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.pokois. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.pritygal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.psiles. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.re'akut. bu [re akut.], Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.rec. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.relmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.riytsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.romios. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.seDIlys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.seGOL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.sieras. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.sigmas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.sin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.slovos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.taf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tangos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.taus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tcriyviys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tildes. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tseirex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tyvriydos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.u, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.u'u, Pure emotion indicators

.u'ubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.u'unai, Attitudinal modifiers

.ua, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.uanai, Miscellaneous indicators

.ubu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ue, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.ui, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

.ui .ui .ui, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uibu, The universal bu

.uicai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.uiskis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.Uniform. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.uo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.Upsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.uu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.uuse'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.uuse'inai, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.vav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.vedis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.viktas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.xatcek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.xerys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.xet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xirik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.xolem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xoTEL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.y'y, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.y'y., Vowel Pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.y'y.bu, Alien alphabets

.y., cmavo, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions

.y.bu, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ybu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.zai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.zemlias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.zetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.zulgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.zulus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

1 + 1 = 2

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

10^20

example, Infix operators revisited

12-point

example, Alien alphabets

123

example, Lojban numbers

2 + 2

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

2/7

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

3 * 10^8

example, Infix operators revisited

3 grams

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

3.1415

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

4-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

5-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

9 out of ten

example, Special mekso selbri

A

a, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

example, Miscellaneous indicators

A

selma'o catalog,

A gives B to C

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A gives BC

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A loves B

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A selma'o, sumti connection, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

a'e, Propositional attitude indicators

a/an

contrasted with the, Miscellaneous indicators

abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ABC base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

abduction

example, Evidentials

Abraham Lincoln

example, Truth questions and connective questions

absolute laws, Why have lujvo?

abstract description, Lojban sumti raising

abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo

abstraction bridi

contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, Other kinds of simple selbri

effect on claim of bridi, Modal sentence connection: the causals

abstraction conversion, Lojban sumti raising

abstraction of sentences

contrasted with quotation, Predication/sentence abstraction

abstractions

achievement, Types of event abstractions

activity, Types of event abstractions

concept, Minor abstraction types

creating new types, Minor abstraction types

event, Event abstraction

experience, Minor abstraction types

forethought connection in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

grammatical uses, The syntax of abstraction

grouping of connectives in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

idea, Minor abstraction types

implicit in sumti, Event abstraction

logical connection of, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

making concrete, Lojban sumti raising

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

place structure, The syntax of abstraction

point-event, Types of event abstractions

process, Types of event abstractions

simplification to sumti with jai, Lojban sumti raising

simplification to sumti with tu'a, Lojban sumti raising

speaking

writing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

state, Types of event abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Event abstraction

truth-value and fuzzy logic, Truth-value abstraction: jei

vague, Minor abstraction types

with knowing

believing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

with wonder

doubt, etc., Indirect questions

accent mark

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

accent marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

accented letters

considered as distinct from unaccented, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Acer

example, fu'ivla

achievative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

achievement abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

achievement event

described, Types of event abstractions

acronym

definition, Acronyms

acronym names from lerfu words

assigning final consonant, Acronyms

acronyms

as lerfu strings using "me", Acronyms

using names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

acronyms names based on lerfu words

omitting bu, Acronyms

using "z" instead of "'" in, Acronyms

activity abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

activity abstractor, Types of event abstractions

activity event

described, Types of event abstractions

actual events

explicitly expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

actual stop

contrasted with natural end, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

actuality

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implying, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

addition

a mathematical operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition operator

contrasted with positive sign, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition problems

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

adjective ordering, Logical connection within tanru

adjective-noun combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adjectives

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

adverb-verb combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adverbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

affirmative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

afraid of horse

example, Relative clauses and descriptors

after sleep

example, Propositional attitude indicators

afterthought bridi connectives

contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought connection

contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

afterthought connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with forethought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought sentence connection

modal contrasted with tense, Tenses versus modals

afterthought tense connection

contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

ai, Quotation summary, Non-decimal and compound bases

ailment, Ordering lujvo places.

akut. bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

aleph null

example, Special numbers

Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

algebra of functions

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

alienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

aliens

communication with, Tentative conclusion

all-th

example, Special mekso selbri

allowable diphthongs

in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo, fu'ivla

in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

alpha

example, Alien alphabets

alphabet

Latin used for Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Lojban, Orthography

words for letters in

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alphabetic order, Orthography

alphabets

words for non-Lojban letters

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alternative guidelines, Why have lujvo?

always and everywhere

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ambiguity of tanru, Simple tanru

American dollars, Computerized character codes

American Indian languages and evidentials, Evidentials

Amharic writing, What about Chinese characters?

ampersand

example, The universal bu

ampersand character

word for, The universal bu

Amsterdam

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

an

example, Miscellaneous indicators

anaphora

definition, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-bridi go'i-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti ri-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti vo'a-series as, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

anaphoric pro-bridi

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

anaphoric pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

and

as non-logical connective, Non-logical connectives

compared with but, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with cross-product, More about non-logical connectives

and earlier

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and then, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

example, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

animal doctor

example, Ordering lujvo places.

animal patient, Ordering lujvo places.

animals

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

anomalous ordering of lujvo places, lujvo with more than two parts.

answers

go'i for yes/no questions, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to operator questions, Other uses of mekso

to place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

to tense-or-modal questions, Tense questions: cu'e

antecedent

for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

for pro-bridi as full bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

antecedent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

antecedent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

anticipated

example, Evidentials

any

as a restricted universal claim, The problem of “any”

as a translation problem, The problem of “any”

as a universal claim

later restricted, The problem of “any”

as an existential claim, The problem of “any”

expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, The problem of “any”

any box, The problem of “any”

anyone

contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

anyone who goes

walks

example, The problem of “any”

aorist

definition, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

apostrophe

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

as not a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

as preferable over comma in names, The Special Lojban Characters

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

purpose of, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

type of letter in word-formation, The Special Lojban Characters

use in vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

Appassionata

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

approximate numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

expressing some exactness of, Approximation and inexact numbers

approximately 40

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Arabian Nights, Paragraphs: NIhO

Arabic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

argument tags

based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), Tenses as sumti tcita

Armstrong

example, Syllabication And Stress

Arnold

example, cmene

arthropod, Dependent places

article

number, Simple infix expressions and equations

articles

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

Artur Rubenstein

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

ASCII

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

aspect

expressing, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

natural languages compared with respect to, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

assignable pro-sumti

explicit cancellation of by rebinding, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

assumption

example, Evidentials

asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

definition, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

asymmetrical tanru types

activity + implement-used, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cause + effect, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic-time + event, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic/detail + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

effect + causative agent, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

elements-in-set + set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

energy-source + powered, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

general-class + sub-class, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

inhabitant + habitat, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

locus-of-application + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

miscellaneous, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + component/detail, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + place-sold, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + usual-container, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-giving-characteristic + other-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-measured + standard-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-action + action, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

possessor + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + producer, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + source, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

set + element-of-set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

similar-appearance-object + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source + product, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source-material + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

typical-place + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

undesired-object + protection-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

whole + part, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

at least

contrasted with more than

less than, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at least two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most

contrasted with more than

at least, less than, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Athens, Types of event abstractions

attend school

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

attitude

avoidance of expression, Miscellaneous indicators

scalar, Attitudes as scales

attitudes

beginning, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

ceasing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

continuing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

empathy contrasted with sympathy, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

expressing changes in, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal

example of scale effect, Attitudes as scales

signaling as non-propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

attitudinal answers

plausibility, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal categories, Emotional categories

example of effect, Emotional categories

mnemonic for, Emotional categories

rationale, Emotional categories

attitudinal indicator

unspecified, Compound indicators

attitudinal indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

conventions of interpretation, Compound indicators

placement of "nai" in, Compound indicators

placement of scale in, Compound indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers

attitudinal questions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking about specific attitude, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking intensity, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal scale

as axis in emotion-space, The space of emotions

neutral compared with positive + negative, The space of emotions

seven-position, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone usage, Attitudes as scales

usage, Attitudes as scales

attitudinal scales

rationale for assignment, Attitudes as scales

attitudinals

a- series, Propositional attitude indicators

affecting whole grammatical structures, The uses of indicators

and logic, What's wrong with this picture?

at beginning of text, The uses of indicators

attributing emotion to others, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

benefit in written expression, The uses of indicators

categories with nai, Emotional categories

categories with scale markers, Emotional categories

complexity, Attitudinal modifiers

compound, What are attitudinal indicators?

contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

contrasted with bridi, Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions

contrasted with discursives, Discursives

contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, The space of emotions

design benefit, The space of emotions

e- series, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional contrasted with propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional/propositional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

exceptions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

external grammar, The uses of indicators

grammar of internal compounding, Compound indicators

grammar of placement in bridi, The uses of indicators

i- series, Propositional attitude indicators

internal grammar

complete, Compound indicators

logical language and, Propositional attitude indicators

negative, Attitudes as scales

neutral, Attitudes as scales

non-speaker attitudes, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

order of, The space of emotions

placement for prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

placement in sentences with "nai", Compound indicators

positive, Attitudes as scales

prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

propositional contrasted with emotional, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional effect on claim, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional/emotional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

rationale for, Propositional attitude indicators

referent uncertainty, The uses of indicators

scale of, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone categories, Emotional categories

word-form for primary, What are attitudinal indicators?

au, Non-decimal and compound bases

audio-visual isomorphism, Orthography

audio-visually isomorphic, Sentences: I

auditoriums, Dependent places

author of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

Avon

example, Modal tags: BAI

B

ba, Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

ba'a, Evidentials

ba'acu'i, Evidentials

ba'anai, Evidentials

ba'e, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

ba'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as futureward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

back-counting pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

background noise, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

BAhE

selma'o catalog,

bai, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection

BAI

selma'o catalog,

BAI cmavo

rationale for selection, Modal tags: BAI

bai ke, Modal selbri

BAI ki ku, Sticky modals

BAI modal tags

rationale for, Modal tags: BAI

BAI selma'o, Modal conversion: JAI

as short forms for fi'o constructs, Modal tags: BAI

effect of conversion on, Modal tags: BAI

form of cmavo in, Modal tags: BAI

bai tavla, Modal selbri

bai'ai, cmavo

bajra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

bakni rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakni verba, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakrecpa'o, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bakri, rafsi

balsoi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo

balvi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals

bangu, Lojban names

banli, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

banli sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

bapli tavla, Modal selbri

bapu, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

barda, Simple tanru

base

assumed, Non-decimal and compound bases

changing permanently, Non-decimal and compound bases

non-constant, Non-decimal and compound bases

specifying, Non-decimal and compound bases

vague, Non-decimal and compound bases

base greater than 16

compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing numbers in, Non-decimal and compound bases

two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

base point

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

base varying for each digit

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

base-20 arithmetic

remnants of, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

basis

example, Evidentials

basti, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

basygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

batci, Dropping the prenex

bau, Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals

bavla'i, lujvo with more than two parts.

bavlamdei, lujvo with more than two parts.

baxso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

be, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

be lo, Minor abstraction types

be'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?

effect of ku on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect of relative clauses on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

be'u, Attitudinal modifiers

beach

example, Property abstractions

bear wrote story

example, The three basic description types

Bears wrote book

example, Individuals and masses

beautiful dog

example, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

beefsteak, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Beethoven

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

beetle

example, Dependent places

beetles, Dependent places

begin

contrasted with resume, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

beginning point

spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

bei, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

being alive

example, Types of event abstractions

bemro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bengo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bersa tixnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

berti merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

better

example, Comparatives and superlatives

between Dresden and Frankfurt

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

beverage

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect on following operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

bi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'u, Miscellaneous indicators

bi'unai, Miscellaneous indicators

bibliography, Informal Bibliography

bicycle race

example, Minor abstraction types

bifce jisra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce lakse, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

big boat

example, lujvo

big nose

example, What are you pointing at?

big nose-pores

example, What are you pointing at?

big person

example, What are you pointing at?

big red dog

example, Logical connection within tanru

BIhI selma'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Bill Clinton

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

bilma, rafsi

binary system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

bindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

birka, Relative phrases

bisycla, brivla

blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

blabi karce, Incidental relative clauses

blaci, rafsi

blaci kanla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo sidju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blakanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

blanu bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je zdani, Logical connection within tanru

blanu kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu zdani, Logical connection within tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blanu zdani ponse, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blari'o, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti

blaselkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blokle, lujvo-making examples

blolei, lujvo-making examples

bloti, lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

bloti klesi, lujvo-making examples

blue

as sad

example, Miscellaneous indicators

blue and red

example, Non-logical connectives

blue house

example, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru

blue-eyed

example, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for right-grouping in tanru, Complex tanru grouping

in jeks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in joiks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

right-grouping, Grouping of afterthought connectives

bo and forethought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

BO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

boat class

example, lujvo-making examples

boat sailed

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

boi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI

effect on elidability of me'u, Special mekso selbri

eliding from lerfu strings, lerfu words as pro-sumti

exception before MAI, Other uses of mekso

exception before MOI, Special mekso selbri

exception before ROI, Other uses of mekso

required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, lerfu words as pro-sumti

bold

example, Alien alphabets

bomb destroyed fifty miles

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

bone bread

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

books about Lojban, Informal Bibliography

borrowing

four stages of, fu'ivla

borrowing from other language

fu'ivla as, brivla

borrowings

fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

most common form for, fu'ivla

Stage 1, fu'ivla

Stage 2, fu'ivla

Stage 3, fu'ivla

Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, fu'ivla

Stage 4, fu'ivla

using foreign-language name, fu'ivla

using lojbanized name, fu'ivla

Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

both dogs

example, Indefinite numbers

bound variable pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

bovine

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bracketed remark, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

brackets

use in IPA notation, Basic Phonetics

bradi, The gismu creation algorithm

brazo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

breathe

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

bredi, The gismu creation algorithm

bridi, The concept of the bridi, Syllabication And Stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions

building from selbri and sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with predication, The concept of the bridi

concept of, The concept of the bridi

definition, Lojban content words: brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

effect of alternate form on sumti order, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of using non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

exception to sumti place structure in, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving end sumti places unspecified in, Standard bridi form: cu

logical connection with negation, Logical connection of bridi

logical connective for, Logical connection of bridi

non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

omitting the first sumti place, Standard bridi form: cu

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

relation to selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

selbri-first as exceptional, Standard bridi form: cu

standard form of, Standard bridi form: cu

bridi cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

bridi connection

use of imperatives in, Truth questions and connective questions

use of truth questions in, Truth questions and connective questions

bridi logical connection

compared with sumti logical connections, sumti connection

bridi negation

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

compared with negation between sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, Negation boundaries

naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, Negation boundaries

relative order with tense, Tenses and bridi negation

two forms of, Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

bridi questions

quick-tour version, Questions

bridi valsi, lujvo, rafsi

bridi-based comparison

contrasted with comparison with relative phrase

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

bridi-tail

definition, Compound bridi

bridi-tail logical connection

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

bridi-tails

eliding vau in, Compound bridi

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

bridyvalsi, lujvo

bridyvla, lujvo

brie

example, fu'ivla

brife molki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

briju ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

brito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

brivalsi, lujvo

brivla, Examples of brivla, Syllabication And Stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

consonant pairs in, brivla

definition, brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

from tanru, lujvo

properties of, brivla

recognition of, brivla

relation to bridi, The concept of the bridi

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

subtypes of, brivla

types, Lojban content words: brivla

types of

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

brivla as selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

brivla equivalents, Other kinds of simple selbri

brivla form

contrasted with cmavo form, brivla

contrasted with cmene form, brivla

broda, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

broda-series for pro-bridi

compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as abstract pattern, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as sample gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with no assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

word-form rationale, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

brode, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

brodi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodo, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodu, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

Brooklyn

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

brothers

example, Non-logical connectives

Brown

James Cooke, Acknowledgements and Credits

and "letteral", What's a letteral, anyway?

John

example, cmene

brudi, The gismu creation algorithm

bu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions

and compound cmavo, The universal bu

effect of multiple, The universal bu

effect on preceding word, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for extension of lerfu word set, The universal bu

grammar of, The universal bu

interaction with ba'e, The universal bu

interaction with language shift, Alien alphabets

omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

bu'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'a zo'u, selbri variables

bu'a-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

bu'e, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'i, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'o, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'ocu'i, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'onai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compared with ca, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

bubu, The universal bu

budjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

buffer vowel, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

and stress, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

shortening of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

bukpu spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Bulgarian

example, fu'ivla

but

compared with and, Truth questions and connective questions

example, Discursives

but/and equivalence, Indicators

butter is soft

example, Individuals and masses

butterfly

social

example, tanru

by, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

by., rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti

by. cy., lerfu words as pro-sumti

C

C string

as a symbol for a single consonant, Introductory

C/C string

as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, Introductory

C/CC string

as a symbol for a consonant triple, Introductory

ca, Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

compared with bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

rational for, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ca ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca'e, Evidentials

ca'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cabna, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

cadzu, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu cipni, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cadzu klama, Conversion of simple selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu le bisli, Modal selbri

cafne, Lojban sumti raising

cagyce'u, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cagyce'u zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

CAhA selma'o

making sticky, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

order in tense construct, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

cai, Attitudes as scales

cakcinki, Dependent places

calculator mathematics

as default in Lojban, Simple infix expressions and equations

calku, Dependent places

calku cinki, Dependent places

calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

can see

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

canceling letter shifts, Alien alphabets

cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment

with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

capital letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

use of, Orthography

capitalization

for unusual stress in names, cmene

use in names, cmene

use of, cmene

car goer

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

cardinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

cardinality

definition, Masses and sets

property of sets, Masses and sets

carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

carried piano

example, Non-logical connectives

carry sack

example, Mixed modal connection

carry sack and dog

example, Tensed logical connectives

carry the piano

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Cartesian product

with tenses, Sub-events

Carthage destroyed

example, Evidentials

carvi dirgo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi taxfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

case

upper/lower specification, Upper and lower cases

casnu, More about non-logical connectives

cat of plastic

example, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Catherine

example, cmene

Cathy

example, cmene

causals

claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, Modal sentence connection: the causals

gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

cause death

example, Lojban sumti raising

cave

example, Story time

CC string

as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, Introductory

CCVVCV fu'ivla

and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ce, cmavo, Non-logical connectives

ce'a, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

ce'e, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

ce'i, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

ce'o, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Amount abstractions

use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

cedilla

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

cei for broda-series assignment

compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

centi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cerni bumru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cessitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cevni jenmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni prenu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni zekri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ch-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

chapter numbering, Other uses of mekso

chapter titles

intent of, What is this book?

character codes

definition, Computerized character codes

character encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

characters

definition, Computerized character codes

special, The Special Lojban Characters

Chelsea Clinton, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

chemical elements

use of single-letter shift for, Upper and lower cases

Chief

example, cmene

child on ice

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Chilean desert

example, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

Chinese characters

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on pinyin spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

choose from

example, Non-logical connectives

Chrysler

example, selbri based on sumti: me

ci, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation

ci da, A few notes on variables

ci gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci lo gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ci'e, Metalinguistic negation forms

ci'u, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

CIA

example, Acronyms

cidja, fu'ivla

cidja barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cidjrspageti, fu'ivla

cifi'uxa, Special mekso selbri

cifnu degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinctu, lujvo-making examples

cinfo, Notes on gismu place structures

cinfo jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinfo kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinki, Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures

cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

cipnrstrigi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

circumflex

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cirla, fu'ivla

ciste, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

citmau, Comparatives and superlatives

citno, Comparatives and superlatives

citno zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

ckana boxfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Dependent places

ckule dinju, Dependent places

ckunu tricu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cladakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakfu xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

clamshells, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

clani, lujvo with more than two parts.

clarity of sounds, Basic Phonetics

Classical Greek aorist tense

compared with Lojban tense, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

cliva, Dependent places

closed interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

closings

letter, Vocative scales

cmaci, fu'ivla

cmacrnintegrale, fu'ivla

cmacrntegrale, fu'ivla

cmalu, Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

cmalu bo nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, Complex tanru grouping

cmalu nixli ckule, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

cmalu valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cmaro'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmaro'i dargu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmavo, Variant bridi structure, Syllabication And Stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

compound, cmavo

contrasted with rafsi in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, lujvo

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, cmavo

experimental, cmavo

for experimental use, cmavo

lack of relation of form to grammatical use, cmavo

rules for pause after Cy-form, Rules for inserting pauses

simple, cmavo

stress on, Syllabication And Stress, cmavo

structure of, cmavo

cmavo and gismu

major, gismu

cmavo as selbri

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

cmavo be zo do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

cmavo form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmavo without rafsi

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

cmene, cmene

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

and analyzability of speech stream, cmene

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

authority for, cmene

avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, cmene

consonant clusters permitted in, cmene

definition, cmene

examples of, cmene

final letter in, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

proscribed syllables in, cmene

purpose of, cmene

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

rules for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

stress in, cmene

unusual stress in, cmene

cmene form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmima, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation

co'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

as selbri place-holder, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

rationale for word form, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'e-series pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'i, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'o, Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

co'o la xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'o le xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

cobra

example, fu'ivla

coffee mixed with tea

example, More about non-logical connectives

coffee or tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

coi, Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases

coi doi djan., Vocative scales

COI selma'o, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Relative clauses in vocative phrases, Vocative scales

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

effect on referent of "do", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

effect on referent of "mi", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ordering multiple with mi'e, Vocative scales

coico'o, Vocative scales

coin heads

example, Special mekso selbri

coinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Coleoptera, Dependent places

color standards, Notes on gismu place structures

comma

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

effect on relative clause in English, Incidental relative clauses

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

main use of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

command

contrasted with observative form, Standard bridi form: cu

commands

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

commas in numbers

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of other notation conventions, Signs and numerical punctuation

with elided digits, Signs and numerical punctuation

common abstractor, Event abstraction

commutative truth functions, The Four basic vowels

comparative lujvo

against former state, Comparatives and superlatives

and seltau presupposition, Comparatives and superlatives

potential ambiguity in, Comparatives and superlatives

standardized meanings, Comparatives and superlatives

comparatives

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

comparison

claims related to based on form, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

comparison with relative phrase

contrasted with bridi-based comparison

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

completitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

complex logical connection

grouping strategies contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex logical connectives

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex movements

expressing, Movement in space: MOhI

complex negation

examples, Scalar negation of selbri

complex numbers

expressing, Special numbers

components contrasted with mass

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

compound base

definition, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing digits in, Non-decimal and compound bases

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

compound bridi

definition, Compound bridi

logical connection of, Compound bridi

more than one sumti in common, Compound bridi

multiple with bo, Multiple compound bridi

multiple with ke…ke'e, Multiple compound bridi

one sumti in common, Compound bridi

separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

compound bridi with more than one sumti in common

with common sumti first, Compound bridi

with vau, Compound bridi

compound cmavo

compared with sequence of simple cmavo, cmavo

definition, cmavo

recognition of, cmavo

compound emotions, The space of emotions

compound letters

native language

representing as distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

compound logical connectives

components, The six types of logical connectives

naming convention, The six types of logical connectives

compound of gismu

lujvo as, brivla

compound spatial tense

as direction with-or-without distance, Compound spatial tenses

beginning with distance only, Compound spatial tenses

effect of different ordering, Compound spatial tenses

explanation of, Compound spatial tenses

with direction and distance, Compound spatial tenses

compound subscript, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

compound temporal tense

beginning with distance only, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compound tense

compared with multiple tenses in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Compound spatial tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, Compound spatial tenses

compound tense ordering

Lojban contrasted with English, Compound spatial tenses

computer interaction, No more to say: FAhO

concept abstraction, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractor, Minor abstraction types

concrete terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

condescension

example, Attitudinal modifiers

confusion

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

confusion about what was said, Miscellaneous indicators

conjunctions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

connected tenses

negation of compared with negation in connective, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

connecting operands

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting operators

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection

non-distributed, Non-logical connectives

of sumti

selma'o catalog,

simultaneously modal and logical, Mixed modal connection

connection of operands

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

precedence over operator, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection of operators

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connective answers

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connective question answers

contrasted with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

connective question cmavo

departure from regularity of, Truth questions and connective questions

connective questions

answering, Truth questions and connective questions

compared with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

table by constructs connected, Constructs and appropriate connectives

consonant

definition, Consonant Clusters

effect on syllable count, Consonant Clusters

consonant clusters

buffering of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

definition of, Consonant Clusters

more than three consonants in, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant pairs

in brivla, brivla

initial, Initial Consonant Pairs

letter y within, brivla

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

consonant triples, Initial Consonant Pairs

restrictions on, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant-final words

necessity for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

consonants

contrasted with vowels, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final, Consonant Clusters

position of, Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

syllabic, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

voiced/unvoiced equivalents, Consonant Clusters

voicing of, Consonant Clusters

continents

gismu for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

continues

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuous

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

contradictory negation

using naku before selbri, Using naku outside a prenex

contradictory negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

contradictory negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

contributors to this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

conversion

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

definition, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on BAI, Modal tags: BAI

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

modal, Modal conversion: JAI

of BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

of operator places, Miscellany

scope of, Conversion: SE

swapping non-first places, Conversion: SE

swapping with modal place, Modal conversion: JAI

conversion and tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion into sumti from mekso, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of operand into operator, Miscellany

conversion of operator into operand, Miscellany

conversion of operator into selbri, Other uses of mekso

conversion of selbri into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of selbri into operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sentence with quantified variables

technique, Using naku outside a prenex

conversion of sumti into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

conversion with ke, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion with se

effect of naku negation boundary on, Using naku outside a prenex

converted selbri

as different selbri from unconverted, Conversion: SE

as resetting standard order, Conversion: SE

compared with selbri with FA in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted with other similar selbri, Conversion: SE

contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, Conversion: SE

definition, Conversion: SE

forming with SE, Conversion: SE

in descriptions, Conversion: SE

place structure of, Conversion: SE

retention of basic meaning in, Conversion: SE

to access non-first place in description, Conversion: SE

cpina rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

creative understanding, Why have lujvo?

credits for pictures, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

cribe, The three basic description types

cribe rectu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

crisa citsi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

critu lunra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cross product

with tenses, Sub-events

cross-dependency, Dependent places

cross-product

contrasted with and, More about non-logical connectives

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

ctcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ctigau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

ctile jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cu, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions

as selbri separator, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of selbri-first bridi on, Tagging places: FA

effect of tense specification, Introductory

effect on elidability of ku, The three basic description types

effect on elidable terminators, Standard bridi form: cu

necessity of, Standard bridi form: cu

need for

quick-tour version, Description sumti

omission of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

use of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

usefulness of, Standard bridi form: cu

cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers

combining with other tense cmavo, Tense questions: cu'e

cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions

cu'o, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

cu'u, cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

cukta barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cukta vasru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cultural knowledge

example, Evidentials

cultural words

rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

culturally dependent lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

cunso, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cup's friend

example, Relative phrases

curious, Predication/sentence abstraction

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

curnu jalra, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

cutci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

cuxna, Non-logical connectives

cy, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Cy-form cmavo

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

cy., cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

cycles, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Cyrillic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da, Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with zo'e, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da poi, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi

da poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

DA selma'o, Subscripts: XI

da viska mi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da zo'u, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

default number for, Indefinite numbers

da'amei, brivla

da'amoi terbasna, Syllabication And Stress

da'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

da'i, Discursives

da'inai, Discursives

da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions

for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

syntax of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

da'u, Pro-sumti summary

da-series

after third, Subscripts: XI

da-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadysli junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dai, cmene, Lojban names, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

dakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

dalmikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daxivo, Subscripts: XI

de, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

de'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

de'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

de'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

de'u, Pro-sumti summary

decimal point

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of different notations, Signs and numerical punctuation

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

decti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

deduction

example, Evidentials

default operator precedence

contrasted with mekso goal, Simple infix expressions and equations

deference

example, Attitudinal modifiers

definable pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

sequences of lerfu words as, Pro-sumti summary

definite numbers

combined with indefinite, Indefinite numbers

dei, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

dejni, Multiple compound bridi

dekto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

delno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

demonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

demonstrative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

DeMorgan's Law

and bridi-tail logical connection, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and internal naku negations, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and logically connected sentences, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

sample applications, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci genja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci pesxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denpa, The universal bu

denpa bu, The universal bu

denpabu, The universal bu

denPAbu, The universal bu

dereferencing a pointer

with la'e, sumti qualifiers

derivational morphology

definition, Introductory

derogatory terms, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

descriptions

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

as based on first place of following selbri, Conversion: SE

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

components of, The three basic description types

importance of selbri first place in, The three basic description types

non-specific, The three basic description types

quick-tour version, Description sumti

specific, The three basic description types

types of, The three basic description types

use of SE in, Conversion: SE

descriptions with lo

teddy bear contrasted with real bear, The three basic description types

descriptor

as part of description, The three basic description types

descriptors

implicit quantifiers for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

purpose of, The three basic description types

Devanagari

example, Alien alphabets

dexivo, Subscripts: XI

di, cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

di'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

di'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives

effect of tu'e/tu'u on, More about non-logical connectives

di'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with la'edi'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with ta, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

diacritic marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

diacritical marks

as lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

considered as forming distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

order of specification within tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem of position, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem with multiple on one lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

specifying with tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

dictionary

superior authority of, Disclaimers

die after living

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

digit questions, Number questions

digit string

definition of, Other uses of mekso

digits

cmavo for, Lojban numbers

names from, Miscellany

rafsi for, Miscellany

rationale for having 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

digits beyond 9

word pattern, Non-decimal and compound bases

dikca tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dimension

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

dimensionality

of walking, Dimensionality: VIhA

order with size in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensionality of interval

as subjective, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensioned numbers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

dinju, fu'ivla

diphthongs

classification of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

contrasted with vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

English analogues of, English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

IPA for, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

list of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

specific to cmene, cmene

specific to names, cmene

direct address, Vocative scales

direction

following interval in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interaction with movement specification in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

reference frame for, Movement in space: MOhI

specification with FAhA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

directions

multiple with movement, Movement in space: MOhI

disambiguated instance, The meaning of lujvo

disclaimers, Disclaimers

discourse

commentary on, Discursives

expressing utterance relation to, Discursives

gesture markers, Discursives

tone of voice markers, Discursives

discrete

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

discursive indicator, Paragraphs: NIhO

discursives

as metalinguistic claims, Discursives

contrasted with attitudinals, Discursives

definition, Discursives

discourse commentary, Discursives

discourse management, Discursives

embedded, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

expressing how things are said, Discursives

knowledge, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

quick-tour version, Indicators

su'a as, Evidentials

word-level, Discursives

discursives for consecutive discourse, Discursives

contrasted, Discursives

discursives for managing discourse flow, Discursives

discuss in language

example, More about non-logical connectives

distance

order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

specification with VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

distribution of quantified sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

ditto

example, Discursives

diversified species, Notes on gismu place structures

djacu barna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu dertu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

djacu dunda, Modal sentence connection: the causals

djedi, lujvo with more than two parts.

djica, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

djine, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

djinrnintegrale, fu'ivla

djuno, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

DNA

example, Acronyms

do, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

do brode, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

do klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do nelci mi, Tenses versus modals

do'a, Discursives

do'anai, Discursives

do'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

compared with English "of", Modal tags: BAI

do'i, cmene, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

do'o, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

do'u, The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales

doctor and then rich

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

dog bites

example, Dropping the prenex

dog breathes, Restricted claims: da poi

dog house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

dog or cat

example, Truth questions and connective questions

doghouse

example, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo

dogs bite

example, Grouping of quantifiers

doi, Vocatives and commands, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, The syntax of vocative phrases, Lojban names, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

doi .io, Vocative scales

doi .ionai, Vocative scales

doi frank., Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

doi ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

DOI selma'o, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

doinai, Vocative scales

Dong

example, Ordering lujvo places.

donma'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

donri nicte, Some types of symmetrical tanru

donta'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dotco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

double negation

and naku, Using naku outside a prenex

double negatives

effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, Negation boundaries

double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

doubled consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

Doyle

example, Lojban names

dream

example, Evidentials

du, Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary

as an exception within GOhA selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

compared with me in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

contrasted with dunli, The identity predicate: du

contrasted with mintu, The identity predicate: du

derivation of, The identity predicate: du

grammar of, Simple infix expressions and equations

meaning of, The identity predicate: du

rationale for selection of selma'o for, The identity predicate: du

with complex mekso on both sides, Simple infix expressions and equations

du'e, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

du'e ratcu, Special mekso selbri

du'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

du-, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dubjavmau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

dubjavme'a, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

ducks swim

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

dunda, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

dunda gi'abo lebna, Multiple compound bridi

dunli, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

dunra nicte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

dy.bu, Alien alphabets

dzipo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

E

e, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

contrasted with pi'u, More about non-logical connectives

e'e, Attitudinal modifiers

e'o, Vocative scales

contrasted with pe'u, Vocative scales

e'u, Syllabication And Stress, Evidentials

compared with ru'a, Evidentials

Earl

example, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

eat in airplane

example, Movement in space: MOhI

eat themselves

example, Indefinite numbers

editorial commentary, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

with "sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

ei, Non-decimal and compound bases

Einsteinian

space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, Dimensionality: VIhA

ek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

eks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in sumti forethought logical connection, sumti connection

elementary schools, Dependent places

Elgin

Suzette Haden and evidentials, Evidentials

elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

elided tense

meaning of, Introductory

elimination process, Ordering lujvo places.

ellipsis

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

elliptical pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical value

contrasted with typical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

embarrassment

example, Emotional categories

embedded bridi tenses

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

emotional categories, Emotional categories

emotional indicators

noticeable effects of, Tentative conclusion

emotional scale, Attitudes as scales

emotions

compound, The space of emotions

cultural bias of expression, Tentative conclusion

insights, The space of emotions

recording using indicators, Tentative conclusion

research using indicators, Tentative conclusion

when expressed, The space of emotions

empathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

emphasis

changing by using non-standard form of bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

marking

selma'o catalog,

end of file, No more to say: FAhO

endpoints

inclusion in interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

engineering

example, Some simple Lojban bridi

English "we"

contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

English prepositions

contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

Englishman in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

enough currency

example, Indefinite numbers

enough-th

example, Special mekso selbri

equivalents to brivla, Other kinds of simple selbri

erasure

multiple word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

names, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

quotes, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

total, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

error marking

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

ete, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

event abstractions, Event abstraction

types, Types of event abstractions

event contours

achievative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as characteristic portions of events, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

as timeless in perspective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cessative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

completitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

definition, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

division of the event into, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

inchoative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

initiative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

interruption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

order with respect to TAhE and ROI, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pausative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

points associated with, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

strings of, Sub-events

superfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

syntax of, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

temporal contrasted with spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

event contours as sumti tcita

contrasted with direction and distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

event types

described, Types of event abstractions

event-relative viewpoint

contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

events

considered as a process, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

duration, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

everybody loves something

example, Negation boundaries

everyone

contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

everyone bitten by dog, Dropping the prenex

everything

expressing with "ro da", Universal claims

everything breathes

example, Restricted claims: da poi

everything loves everything

example, Universal claims

everything sees me

example, Universal claims

everything sees something

example, Universal claims

evidentials

ba'a scale, Evidentials

definition, Evidentials

grammar, Evidentials

in English, Evidentials

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

inspiration for, Evidentials

ja'o contrasted with su'a, Evidentials

ka'u contrasted with se'o, Evidentials

placement in bridi, Evidentials

quick-tour version, Indicators

rhetorical flavor, Evidentials

scales, Evidentials

se'o contrasted with ka'u, Evidentials

su'a contrasted with ja'o, Evidentials

exact number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

example of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples

structure of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples in this book, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

except from 10 to 12

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

existential

mixed claim with universal, Universal claims

existential claims

definition, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

existential variable

in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, The problem of “any”

in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, The problem of “any”

expanding "no" quantifier, Negation boundaries

experience abstraction, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractor, Minor abstraction types

experienced

example, Evidentials

experimental cmavo

definition, cmavo

forms for, cmavo

exponential notation

with base other than 10, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

exporting negation to prenex

"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, Using naku outside a prenex

internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", Using naku outside a prenex

external bridi negation

compared to internal bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

extrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

fa, Tagging places: FA

FA in selbri

compared with converted selbri in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted converted selbri with in structure, Conversion: SE

FA selma'o

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

as a reminder of place in place structure, Tagging places: FA

avoidance of complex usage of, Tagging places: FA

compared with zo'e for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure order, Tagging places: FA

effect on subsequent non-tagged places, Tagging places: FA

for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, Tagging places: FA

for putting more than one sumti in a single place, Tagging places: FA

syntax of, Tagging places: FA

FA tags and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

fa'a, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

fa'o, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

fa'u, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

compared to termsets, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, Non-logical connectives

face

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

fadni, Masses and sets

fagri, Why have lujvo?

fagri dapma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fagri festi, Why have lujvo?

fagyfesti, Why have lujvo?

FAhA selma'o, Tense negation

and direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

use in specifying space/time mapping direction, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fai, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo

as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

effect on numbering of place structure places, Modal conversion: JAI

false statement

implications of, Logical connection of bridi

fancy A

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy E

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy O

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy U

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

far away from the nearby park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

fasnu, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

fast talker

example, tanru

fast-talker shoe

example, tanru

father

example, The concept of the bridi

father mother

example, lujvo

fau, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

faxixa, Subscripts: XI

fe, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fe'a, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

fe'e, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fe'omi'e, Vocative scales

fe'u, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri

femti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

fenki litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

festi, Why have lujvo?

festi lante, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fetsygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

fewsome

example, Special mekso selbri

fi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi

fi'a, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers

effect on subsequent untagged sumti, Tagging places: FA

fi'a do, Tagging places: FA

fi'e, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'i, Vocative scales

fi'o, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals

and modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

as modal tag, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on following selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

mixed modal connection with, Mixed modal connection

proscribed for sticky modals, Sticky modals

restriction on use, Other modal connections

use in adding places to place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o constructs

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o kanla le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o modal followed by selbri

effect on eliding fe'u, Modal selbri

fi'o modals

negation of by negating selbri, Modal negation

usage in relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'o pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o pilno fe'u, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno [fe'u], Modal tags: BAI

fi'o tag

relation of modal sumti following to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri

meaning of, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o-, Other modal connections, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Mixed modal connection, Modal conversion: JAI

fi'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

Fido

example, Dropping the prenex

field rations

example, lujvo

figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

place structure, Miscellaneous indicators

figurative speech, Miscellaneous indicators

filso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

final syllable stress

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

finish

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finished

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finpe nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

finti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

first rat

example, Special mekso selbri

firstly

example, Other uses of mekso

fish eat

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

fish on right

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

flashbacks in story time

example, Story time

fleas, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

flexible vocabulary, brivla

floating point numbers

expressing, Infix operators revisited

flow of discourse

managing with discursives, Discursives

fo, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri

fo'a, Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'e, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'i, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'o, Pro-sumti summary

fo'u, Pro-sumti summary

foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

foldi smacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

folk quantifiers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

font

example, Alien alphabets

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

food

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

foreman of a jury

example, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

forethought bridi connection

as grammatically one sentence, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi connectives

contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule for tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connection

contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

observatives, Multiple compound bridi

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought connections

modal compared with tense in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connectives

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with afterthought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

with tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connectives and bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

forethought intervals

GAhO position, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

forethought logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

forethought logical connectives in tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

forethought modal sentence connection, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first bridi in, Other modal connections

relation to modal of second bridi in, Other modal connections

forethought modal sentence connection for causals

order of cause and effect, Other modal connections

forethought tanru connection, Logical connection within tanru

forethought tense connection

contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

forethought tense connection of bridi-tails

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sumti

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought termsets

logical connection of, Termset logical connection

formal requirement

example, Attitudes as scales

former market

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

former state, Comparatives and superlatives

formulae

expressing based on pure dimensions, Using Lojban resources within mekso

four "e"s

example, References to lerfu

Four score and seven

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

fourteen "e"s, What's a letteral, anyway?

fraction

meaning with elided numerator and denominator, Special numbers

fractions

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

numerator default, Signs and numerical punctuation

fragmentary text, Miscellaneous indicators

Frank is a fool

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

fraso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

free modifiers

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

friend's cup

example, Relative phrases

friko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

frinu, Miscellany

from one to two o'clock

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

fu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fu'a, Reverse Polish notation

fu'e, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

fu'ivla

algorithm for constructing, fu'ivla

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as Stage 3 borrowings, fu'ivla

as Stage 4 borrowings, fu'ivla

categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, fu'ivla

considerations for choosing basis word, fu'ivla

consonant clusters in, fu'ivla

construction of, fu'ivla

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, fu'ivla

disambiguation of, fu'ivla

form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

form of, fu'ivla

initial consonant cluster in, fu'ivla

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rules for formation of, fu'ivla

stress in, fu'ivla

uniqueness of meaning in, fu'ivla

use of, fu'ivla

with invalid diphthongs, fu'ivla

fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

for distinguishing fu'ivla form, fu'ivla

for distinguishing specialized meanings, fu'ivla

selection consideration for, fu'ivla

fu'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fukpi valsi, fu'ivla

fully reduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

function f of x

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

function name

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

future event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

futureward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, Truth-value abstraction: jei

fy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

fy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany

fy. le'u si si si, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GA selma'o, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ga'e, Upper and lower cases

ga'e .abu, Upper and lower cases

ga'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gadri, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti

GAhO position in forethought intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

GAhO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

galfi, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

galtu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

ganai, Forethought bridi connection

ganlo, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gapru, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures

gasnu lo citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

gau, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ge, lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

ge ... gi, Modal selbri

ge'a, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

ge'a gei, Reverse Polish notation

ge'e, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators

ge'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

ge'o, Alien alphabets

ge'u, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases

effect of following logical connective on elidability, Relative phrases

elidability of from relative phrases, Relative phrases

ge'u-zdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'urzdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'uzda, lujvo-making examples

gei, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

as a binary operator, Infix operators revisited

as a ternary operator, Infix operators revisited

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

gek

definition, Forethought bridi connection

gek bridi connectives

contrasted with ijeks, Forethought bridi connection

gekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

geks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in forethought sumti connection, sumti connection

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

General American, IPA For English Speakers

general sumti

contrasted with operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

general terms, Notes on gismu place structures

gento, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

gerku, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo

gerku bo kavbu, Complex tanru grouping

gerku zdani, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo

gerkyzda, lujvo-making examples

gerkyzdani, lujvo-making examples

German rich man

example, Grouping of afterthought connectives

gerselzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

gerzda, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

gerzdani, lujvo-making examples

Gettysburg Address

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

gi, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GI selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

gi'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'e, Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'i, Questions and answers

gi'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gicmu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

gigdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

GIhA selma'o, Compound bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

gihek

definition, Compound bridi

giheks

syntax of, Compound bridi

gik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Forethought bridi connection

giks

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

girls' school

little

example, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

girzu, lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

gismu, The concept of the bridi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

algorithm for, lujvo-making examples

and cmavo

major, gismu

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as partitioning semantic space, gismu

basic rafsi for, rafsi

coined, The gismu creation algorithm

conflicts between, gismu

creation

and transcription blunders, The gismu creation algorithm

considerations for selection after scoring, The gismu creation algorithm

proscribed gismu pairs, The gismu creation algorithm

scoring rules, The gismu creation algorithm

cultural, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

definition, gismu

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

ethnic, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

examples of, gismu

exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, The gismu creation algorithm

for countries, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for Lojban source languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

geographical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

length of, gismu

level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, rafsi

Lojban-specific, The gismu creation algorithm

place order

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

place structures, Notes on gismu place structures

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for choice of, gismu

religious, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rules for, gismu

scientific-mathematical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

selection of, gismu

source of, gismu

source-language weights for, The gismu creation algorithm

special, gismu

too-similar, The gismu creation algorithm

gisnu, gismu

give

example, The concept of the bridi

give or receive

example, Tagging places: FA

giving the horse

example, Property abstractions

gizmu, gismu

gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

glico, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

glottal stop

as pause in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

glue in lujvo

n-hyphen as, lujvo

r-hyphen as, lujvo

y-hyphen as, lujvo

go, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to market

example, Introductory

go to Paris or Rome

example, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

go to the store

example, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

go'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'a-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i, Examples of brivla, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations

as affirmative answer to yes/no question, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with mo in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

contrasted with mi'u, Discursives

go'i cei broda, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i ra'o

contrasted with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i with xu

quick-tour version, Questions

go'i-series pro-bridi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

as main-bridi anaphora only, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

assigning for permanent reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sub-clauses on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sumti of referent bridi on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

referent of, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'ixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'u, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

goal of this book, What is this book?

gocti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

goer table

example, Simple tanru

goer-house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

GOhA selma'o, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as component in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

as selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri

goi, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, Relative phrases

use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use in assigning name, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti

use in speech contrasted with writing, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi for ko'a-series assignment

compared with cei for broda-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

good house

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

gotro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

grammatical categories

use of upper case for, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

grammatical terms

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

grana mudri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grasp water

example, Other modal connections

great soldier

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

Greek alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Greek-Americans own restaurants, Descriptors for typical objects

gripau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

grouping

of connection in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

of connection in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

grouping parentheses, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

grutrceraso, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grutrceraso jbama, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

gu, cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'e, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

gu'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gugde ciste, Some types of symmetrical tanru

GUhA selma'o, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

guhek

definition, Logical connection within tanru

guheks

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

guheks for tanru connection

rationale, Logical connection within tanru

gy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

gy., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

H

had earlier

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

hands in pockets

example, Relative phrases

handwriting

example, Alien alphabets

han^{4}zi^{4}, What about Chinese characters?

happiness

example, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

happy face

example, The universal bu

has a heart

example, Property abstractions

have never

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

having

of properties, Property abstractions

healthy

example, Questions

hearsay

example, Evidentials

heartburn

example, Miscellaneous indicators

Hebrew alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Helvetica font

example, Alien alphabets

hepatitis

example, rafsi

hereafter known as

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

hesitation sound, Hesitation: Y

hexadecimal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, The lujvo scoring algorithm

hiragana

contrasted with kanji, What about Chinese characters?

example, Alien alphabets

hit cousin

example, Discursives

hit nose

example, Discursives

hits

example, The concept of the bridi

Hollywood

example, Descriptors for typical objects

hospitality

example, Vocative scales

hours

minutes

seconds: example, Non-decimal and compound bases

huh?

example, Miscellaneous indicators

hundred

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

husband and wife

example, Evidentials

hyphen letter

definition, rafsi

hyphens

use of, rafsi

hyphens in lujvo

proscribed where not required, The lujvo-making algorithm

hypothetical world, Propositional attitude indicators

contrasted with real world

example, Discursives

hypothetical world point of view, Discursives

I

i, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball Orthographies, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

regarding forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection

I selma'o, Logical connection of bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

i'a, Pure emotion indicators

i'e, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators

IBM

example, Acronyms

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

ice'o

contrasted with .ibabo, More about non-logical connectives

idea abstraction, Minor abstraction types

idea abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

identity

expressing with po'u, Relative phrases

identity predicate, The identity predicate: du

if

English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, Logical connection of bridi

expressing hypothetical world, Discursives

expressing real world, Discursives

meaning in logical connections, Logical connection of bridi

if coffee

bring tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

if … then

compared with only if, Logical connection of bridi

logical connectives contrasted with other translations, Forethought bridi connection

ijek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

ijek bridi connectives

contrasted with geks, Forethought bridi connection

ijek logical connectives

connecting bridi, Logical connection of bridi

ijeks

syntax of, Logical connection of bridi

ijoik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, More about non-logical connectives

imaginary journey

and spatial tense, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

ending point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sentence connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sumti connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin of in tense-connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

stages of in compound tenses, Compound spatial tenses

starting at a different point, Tenses as sumti tcita

starting point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita

with interval direction, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

imaginary journey origin

with sticky tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

imperatives

and truth, Truth questions and connective questions

attitude, Attitudinal modifiers

English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implausible, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

implicit quantifier

for quotations, Quantified sumti

on quotations

discussion of, Quantified sumti

importance of point

scale with ra'u, Discursives

in the aftermath

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

inalienable

distinguishing from alienable, Relative phrases

inalienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

inchoative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

incidental association

expressing with ne, Relative phrases

incidental identification

expressing with no'u, Relative phrases

incidental relative clause

as a parenthetical device, Incidental relative clauses

definition, Incidental relative clauses

inclusion

property of sets, Masses and sets

indefinite description

as needing explicit outer quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

compared with restricted variable, Variables with generalized quantifiers

definition, Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers

indefinite numbers

combined with definite, Indefinite numbers

indefinite portions

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indefinite pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite sumti

as implicit quantification, Using naku outside a prenex

compared to sumti with lo, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

indefinite values

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indicator scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

evolutionary development of, Tentative conclusion

grammar for compounding, Compound indicators

meaning when compounded, Compound indicators

placement of, Propositional attitude indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

ramifications, Tentative conclusion

rationale for selection, Tentative conclusion

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

types of, What are attitudinal indicators?

indirect question, Miscellaneous indicators

indirect question involving sumti, Indirect questions

indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

indirect questions without "kau", Indirect questions

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

individual

example, Special mekso selbri

individual descriptors

different implicit outer quantifiers among, Quantified descriptions

individual objects

multiple, Individuals and masses

individuals

expressing relation with mass formed, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set formed, Special mekso selbri

individuals into mass

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals into set

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals of set

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

indivisible, Types of event abstractions

induction

example, Evidentials

inexact numbers with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

inexact portions with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

infant ducks

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inferior

example, Attitudinal modifiers

infinity

example, Special numbers

infix notation mixed with Polish, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

inflammable

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

initial consonant pairs

list of, Initial Consonant Pairs

initiative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

innate capabilities

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate capability

expressing explicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate properties

extension of from mass to individuals, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

extension to individuals not actually capable, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inner product, Vectors and matrices

inner quantifier

contrasted with outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

explicit, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

inner sumti

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

integral

architectural concept

example, fu'ivla

mathematical concept

example, fu'ivla

integrale, fu'ivla

interactions between quantifiers and negation

effect, Negation boundaries

interjections

quick-tour version, Indicators

intermediate abstraction, Lojban sumti raising

intermittently

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

internal bridi negation

compared to external bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

internal naku negations

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

internal world, Propositional attitude indicators

International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), Basic Phonetics

intersect, Minor abstraction types

intersection

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

intersection of sets

compared with and, More about non-logical connectives

interval

closed, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

followed by direction in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

inclusion of endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

open, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with direction and distance in tense, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval continuousness

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

interval direction

specifying, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval properties

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

strings of, Sub-events

interval size

as context-dependent, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

unspecified, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

vague, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

interval spread

expressing English "intermittently", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

mutually contrasted, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negation with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

with unspecified interval, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intervals

effect of nai on, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as center and distance, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressing by endpoints with bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

forethought, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

spread of actions over, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing by using place in some selbri, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

introduce oneself, Vocative scales

invalid diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

invalid speech

marking as error with na'i, Miscellaneous indicators

inversion of quantifiers

definition, Negation boundaries

in moving negation boundary, Negation boundaries

inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary

rationale for, Negation boundaries

invertebrate, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

inverted tanru

effect on sumti after the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on sumti before the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

inverting quantifiers

with movement relative to fixed negation, Using naku outside a prenex

with movement relative to naku, Using naku outside a prenex

IPA, Basic Phonetics

IPA pronunciation

description, IPA For English Speakers

irony

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

irrational number

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

irrelevant

specifying of sumti place, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

isomorphism

audio-visual, Orthography

IT

as notation convention in relative clause chapter, What are you pointing at?

italic

example, Alien alphabets

iy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

J

j-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

ja, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

JA selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

ja'a, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

ja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ja'o, Evidentials

jai, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

for modal conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

jai with tense

as equivalent of SE in grammar, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

jai without modal

meaning, Modal conversion: JAI

jalra curnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

James

example, Consonant Clusters

jamfu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jane

example, cmene

Japanese hiragana

example, Alien alphabets

Japanese katakana

example, Alien alphabets

jargon

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

jdari bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jdaselsku, Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo

jdika, Comparatives and superlatives

je, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

je'a, Affirmations

je'e, Vocative scales

contrasted with vi'o, Vocative scales

je'enai, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

je'i, Questions and answers

je'o, Alien alphabets

je'u, Discursives

je'unai, Discursives

jegvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei

jek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

jeks

connecting abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

jelca, Miscellaneous indicators

jenai, Tense questions: cu'e

jerxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Jesus, Minor abstraction types

example, Minor abstraction types

jgalu grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ji, Questions and answers

ji'a, Discursives

ji'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

effect of placement, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

ji'u, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'uku, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'una'iku, Metalinguistic negation forms

jibni, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Jim

example, cmene

jinvi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

jipci gunse, Some types of symmetrical tanru

jipci pimlu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jipci sovda, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jitro, Anomalous lujvo

jmive munje, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jo, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

jo'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

jo'e, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

jo'i, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso

precedence of, Vectors and matrices

jo'o, Alien alphabets

jo'u, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce'o, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with joi, Non-logical connectives

result of connection with, Non-logical connectives

John and Sam

example, The concept of the bridi

John Brown

example, cmene

John is coming

example, What are attitudinal indicators?

John Paul Jones

example, Lojban names

John says that George goes to market

example, Tenses in subordinate bridi

joi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu

joi grammar

contrasted with eks, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with jeks, Non-logical connectives

JOI selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

joibu, The universal bu

joigik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joigiks

connection types, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Non-logical connectives

joiks

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

use of "se" in, Non-logical connectives

jokes, What is this book?

jordo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ju, Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

ju'a, Evidentials

ju'apei, Evidentials

ju'i .djan., Vocative scales

ju'i lobypli, Vocative scales

ju'o, Discursives

ju'u, Non-decimal and compound bases

grammar of, Non-decimal and compound bases

jubme tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jundi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

jungo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

junla dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jupiter life

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

juror 5

example, Possessive sumti

jy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

K

ka, cmene, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo

ka'a, Modal tags: BAI

ka'e, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ka'o, Special numbers

as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, Special numbers

ka'u, Evidentials

kabri palta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

kadno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kai, Metalinguistic negation forms

kalri, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

kalselvi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kalselvi'i gapci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kambla, Abstract lujvo

kanji, What about Chinese characters?

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on romaji spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

kanla denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanro, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

karce, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce klama, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce xislu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

karcykla, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karda mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

katakana

example, Alien alphabets

Kate

example, cmene

Katrina

example, cmene

kau, Indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

ke, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for conversion of tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

for expanding scope of scalar negation, Scalar negation of selbri

ke in sumti grouping

where allowed, Grouping of afterthought connectives

ke'a, Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ambiguity when omitted, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

and abstract descriptions, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

as referent for relativized sumti, What are you pointing at?

contrasted with ri in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

effect of omission of, What are you pointing at?

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

non-initial place use in relative clause, What are you pointing at?

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

subscripting for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ke'a with subscript

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'axipa, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I

ke'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ke'o, Vocative scales

compared to ki'a, Vocative scales

ke'u, Discursives

contrasted with va'i, Discursives

ke'unai, Discursives

kei, Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo

KEI selma'o

eliding, The syntax of abstraction

kelvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kensa bloti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kept on too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

kerfa silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ketco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ki, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o

with no tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

ki ku, Sticky modals

ki'a, cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms

compared to ke'o, Vocative scales

ki'o, Signs and numerical punctuation

ki'u, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection

killing Jim, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

kilto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kismu, gismu

kissing Jane

example, Event abstraction

kisto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kixipa, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

klama, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI

place structure of, Introductory

klama le zarci, Modal selbri, Compound bridi

klama zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

klamau, Comparatives and superlatives

klesi, lujvo-making examples

kliti cipni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

know

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

know who

contrasted with know that, Indirect questions

example, Indirect questions

knowledge discursives, Discursives

compared with propositional attitudes, Discursives

ko, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions

in later selbri place in imperative, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

in sub-clause of main bridi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for commands, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for imperatives, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ko'a, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'a goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series

after tenth, Subscripts: XI

ko'a-series for pro-sumti

compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

as assignable, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assignment with goi as symmetrical, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'e, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'i, Pro-sumti summary

ko'o, Pro-sumti summary

ko'u, Pro-sumti summary

kobra, fu'ivla

kolme terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Korean

example, fu'ivla

kosta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

krasi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

krecau, selbri and tanru negation

krici, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

krinu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

ktraile, fu'ivla

ku, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

as elidable terminator for descriptions, The three basic description types

effect of following selbri on elidability of, The three basic description types

effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect on of omitting descriptor, Indefinite descriptions

quick-tour version, Description sumti

uses of, The three basic description types

with tense, Introductory

KU selma'o

quick-tour version, Description sumti

ku'a, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

ku'a'e, cmavo

ku'e, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ku'i, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions

ku'o, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi

effect of vau on elidability, Possessive sumti

elidability for relative clauses, What are you pointing at?

kuarka, fu'ivla

kuldi'u, Dependent places

kurji, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

ky, Syllabication And Stress, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

ky. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky.bu, Alien alphabets

Kzinti

communication with, Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen

use of, fu'ivla

la, Words that can act as sumti, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Acronyms, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

compared with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lai in implications, Individuals and masses

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, The three basic description types

la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la .apasionatas, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .apasionatas., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .atlantas., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA

la alis., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la bastn., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

la betis., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la ckiipyris., Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la cribe, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses

la djan., Words that can act as sumti, Indirect questions, Pure emotion indicators, Multiple compound bridi, Other uses of mekso

la djan. nanmu, Logical connection of bridi

la djeimyz. ninmu, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection

la djein., sumti qualifiers

la djordj, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la djordj., Explicit magnitudes, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la frank. .e la djordj., Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la lojban., The five kinds of simple sumti, Modal conversion: JAI

la me zoi, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la meiris., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la meris., Words that can act as sumti

la nu,IORK., Tagging places: FA

la pacac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la plas., cmene

la recac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la rik., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

LA selma'o, Conversion: SE

contrasted with LE in use of name-words, Lojban names

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

la tcarlis., Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

la'e, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le selsinxa bele selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

la'e di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'e lu

compared with me'o, References to lerfu

la'edi'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'i, Rules for inserting pauses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as set counterpart of lai, Masses and sets

la'o, fu'ivla, cmene, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

interaction with bu, The universal bu

la'u, Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms

la-series descriptors

compared with le-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

Láadan evidentials, Evidentials

labmau, rafsi

ladru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru botpi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Lady

example, cmene

LAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lai, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as mass counterpart of lai, Individuals and masses

contrasted with la in implications, Individuals and masses

lambda calculus

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lange'u, Anomalous lujvo

language shift

based on name + bu, Alien alphabets

choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, Alien alphabets

compound, Alien alphabets

effect on following words, Alien alphabets

formation of shift alphabet name, Alien alphabets

interaction with bu, Alien alphabets

rationale for, Alien alphabets

standardization of, Alien alphabets

languages

abbreviations for, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lanme, Anomalous lujvo

lanme gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lantro, Anomalous lujvo

lanzu tumla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Laplace

example, cmene

large meal

example, Attitudinal modifiers

large-base decimal fraction

expressing, Non-decimal and compound bases

latent component, Anomalous lujvo

Latin

alphabet of Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Latin alphabet, Orthography

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

latmo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lau, Punctuation marks

effect on following lerfu word, Punctuation marks

LAU selma'o

grammar of following BY cmavo, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

le, Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

and specificity, The three basic description types

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

compared with English the, The three basic description types

compared with la in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with lo in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in truth requirement, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

in false-to-fact descriptions, The three basic description types

meaning of in the plural, Individuals and masses

le bersa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le berti, Modal tags: BAI

le bi'u nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le bi'unai nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le blanu zdan., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le blanu zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le briju, Termset logical connection

le ci cribe, sumti-based descriptions

le ci nanmu, Quantified descriptions

le cribe, Acronyms

le ctuca, Miscellaneous indicators

le cukta, Other modal connections, Multiple compound bridi

le dargu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

le gerku, Quantified descriptions, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of lujvo

le gerku poi blabi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

le go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

le jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei

le karce, Incidental relative clauses, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le karce po mi, Possessive sumti

le li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

le mi karce, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti

le mi pendo, Relative phrases

le mlatu cu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le mlatu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nanmu, The three basic description types, Miscellaneous indicators, Grouping of quantifiers

le nanmu joi, Non-logical connectives

le ni, Amount abstractions

le ni ... kei be, Amount abstractions

le ninmu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le ninmu cu morsi, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nu, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tense relations between sentences, Tenses versus modals, Event abstraction, Property abstractions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

definition, Event abstraction

le pluta, Conversion: SE

le re do, sumti-based descriptions

le remna, The three basic description types

le ri kumfa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

le se du'u ..., Predication/sentence abstraction

le se go'i ku, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

le se nelci, Event abstraction

le selbri [ku], Varying the order of sumti

LE selma'o, Conversion: SE, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

contrasted with LA in use of name-words, Lojban names

le selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le si'o mi go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le si'o mi klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le sutra tavla, Description sumti

le sutra tavla ku, Description sumti

le sutra te tavla ku, Description sumti

le tavla ku, Description sumti

le tcidu, The five kinds of simple sumti

le te jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le tricu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le ve jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le ve klama, Conversion: SE

le ve klama be fo da, Conversion: SE

le vecnu, Description sumti

le verba, Tense relations between sentences

le vi rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le xekri mlatu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le xunre cmaxirma, sumti qualifiers

le zarci, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, selbri and tanru negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers

le zdani, Inversion of tanru: co, The meaning of lujvo

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau, Tagging places: FA

le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

le'a, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

le'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to le'i, Descriptors for typical objects

le'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

le'i, Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

as set counterpart of lei, Masses and sets

relationship to le'e, Descriptors for typical objects

le'o, Attitudinal modifiers

le'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

le-series cmavo

as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

le-series descriptors

compared with la-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

learning Lojban

magnitude of task, gismu

lebna, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

left-grouping rule

definition of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

legal jargon

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

legal system, Truth-value abstraction: jei

lei, cmene, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with loi in specificity, Individuals and masses

lei cinfo, Individuals and masses

lemon tree

example, Simple tanru

Length * Width * Depth = Volume

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

Lepidoptera

example, tanru

lerfu, fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?

as assignable pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu word, What's a letteral, anyway?

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

reference to, References to lerfu

referring to with me'o, References to lerfu

lerfu as pro-sumti

contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

explicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

implicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu juxtaposition interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu shift scope

exception for mathematical texts, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu string

as function name, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as mathematical variable, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti

assumption of reference, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as pro-sumti assigned by goi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifier, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as selbri, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as subscript, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as utterance ordinal, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

definition, lerfu words as pro-sumti

interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu strings

as acronyms using "me", Acronyms

as pro-sumti

for multiple sumti separated by boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifiers

avoiding interaction with sumti quantified, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

in mathematical expressions, Simple infix expressions and equations

interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, Simple infix expressions and equations

uses in mathematics, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

with numerical selbri, Special mekso selbri

lerfu valsi, What's a letteral, anyway?

lerfu word

contrasted with lerfu, What's a letteral, anyway?

for "'", A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu word cmavo

list of auxiliary, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

lerfu word set extension

with bu, The universal bu

lerfu words

as a basis for acronym names, Acronyms

composed of compound cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

composed of single cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

consonant words contrasted with vowel words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

effect of systematic formulation, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for consonants, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for vowels, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

formation rules, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

list of proposed

notation convention, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Lojban coverage requirement, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

proposed for accent marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

proposed for diacritic marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for noisy environments, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

proposed for radio communication, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

table of Lojban, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

using computer encoding schemes with se'e, Computerized character codes

vowel words contrasted with consonant words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words ending with "y"

pause after

rationale, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words for vowels

pause requirement before, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words with numeric digits

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

lervla, What's a letteral, anyway?

less than

contrasted with more than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

less than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

letter

alphabet, What's a letteral, anyway?

contrasted with word for the letter, What's a letteral, anyway?

letter encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

letteral

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

letters

non-Lojban

representation of diacritical marks on, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

representation with consonant-word + bu, Alien alphabets

representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, Alien alphabets

representation with language-shift, Alien alphabets

representation with names, Alien alphabets

sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, Alien alphabets

symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, Alien alphabets

li, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

as converter of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

contrasted with me'o, Other uses of mekso

relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

terminator for, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

li ci, The five kinds of simple sumti

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mi, Quotation summary

li mu su'i li pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mu su'i pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li ro, Indefinite numbers

LI selma'o, Number summary

li'i, Minor abstraction types

li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

li'osa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

libjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lijda, Anomalous lujvo

lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

likes more than

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

likygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

likyri'a, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lined up, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

linguistic behavior, Predication/sentence abstraction

linguistic drift, What is this book?

linguistic drift in Lojban

possible source of, Considerations for making lujvo

linji zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

linked arguments, Questions and answers

linked sumti

definition, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

in tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and FA tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Linnaean names

rules for, cmene

lion in Africa

example, Descriptors for typical objects

lions in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

list

as a physical object, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with sequence, Non-logical connectives

example, Non-logical connectives

list of things to do

example, More about non-logical connectives

liste, Non-logical connectives

listen attentively

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lists

use of tu'e/tu'u in, More about non-logical connectives

literally, Miscellaneous indicators

litki, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

litru, Dependent places

livgyterbilma, rafsi

living things

example, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Livingston

example, Evidentials

LLG, Acknowledgements and Credits

lo, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in truth requirement, The three basic description types

contrasted with loi and lo'i, Masses and sets

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

lo cribe, Acronyms

lo forca, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo gerku zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

lo klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo liste, Non-logical connectives

lo mitre be li mu, Explicit magnitudes

lo porsi, Non-logical connectives

lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lo prenu noi blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

lo rinka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lo rupnu, Multiple compound bridi

lo se klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo smuci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo xe klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo zarci, The three basic description types

lo zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with na'a, Alien alphabets

lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to lo'i, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri

as set counterpart of loi, Masses and sets

contrasted with lo and loi, Masses and sets

relationship to lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects

with elided quantifiers, Special mekso selbri

lo'i cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i lei, lujvo-making examples

lo'i ratcu, Special mekso selbri

lo'ikle, lujvo-making examples

lo'irlei, lujvo-making examples

lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect of logical connective on elidability of, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

lo'u, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

lo'u ... le'u, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, No more to say: FAhO

lo-series cmavo

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

lo-series description

caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, Quantified descriptions

logic

and attitudinals, What's wrong with this picture?

limits of, What's wrong with this picture?

resolving ambiguities of "nobody", What's wrong with this picture?

logic and Lojban

more aspects, Conclusion

logical connection

effect on elidability of lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in abstractions

inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

contrasted with unconnected version, Logical connection within tanru

expandability of, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with bo, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with ke, Logical connection within tanru

inside abstractions

contrasted with outside, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

interaction with tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, Logical connection within tanru

of bridi-tails

forethought, Multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

of forethought termsets, Termset logical connection

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of more than 2 sentences

all or none, More than two propositions

forethought, More than two propositions

things to avoid, More than two propositions

of observatives

relation of first places, Compound bridi

of selbri, Compound bridi

of sumti

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

restriction on ke, Grouping of afterthought connectives

of tanru

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, Logical connection within tanru

termsets, Termset logical connection

transformation between forms, sumti connection

with bo

precedence, Grouping of afterthought connectives

logical connection of abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

logical connection of more than 2 sentences

mixed "and" and "or", More than two propositions

logical connectives, Logical connection and truth tables

associative, More than two propositions

bridi-tail connection, Compound bridi

cmavo

format for each selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, Relative phrases

equivalence relation on 3 sentences, More than two propositions

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, Forethought bridi connection

non-associative, More than two propositions

observative sentence connection, Compound bridi

pairing from left, More than two propositions

rationale for multiple sets in grammar, The six types of logical connectives

recipes

simplified for logic chapter discussion, bridi negation and logical connectives

relation to truth functions, The Four basic vowels

relative precedence with me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

right-grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

selma'o

enumerated, The six types of logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

table by truth function value, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tensed, Tensed logical connectives

logical connectives and bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives and negation

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

ambiguity of, Logical connection within tanru

effect on formal logical manipulations, Logical connection within tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

usefulness of, Logical connection within tanru

logical connectives within negation

effects of expansion on, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logical language

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

Logical Language Group

example, lujvo-making examples

relation to Lojban, What is Lojban?

logical variables

creating more by subscripting, A few notes on variables

effect of global substitution, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

effect of order in prenex, Universal claims

effect of using multiple different, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

explicitly placing in outer prenex, The problem of “any”

for selbri, selbri variables

implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, The problem of “any”

notation convention, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

when not in main bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with multiple appearances in bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with poi

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

with ro

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

logically connected sentences

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logically connected tenses

definition, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

expansion to sentences, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

logji, Lojban names

logji bangu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

logji bangu girzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangri, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygri, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugir, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugri, lujvo-making examples

Loglan, Informal Bibliography

logograms

words for, The universal bu

loi, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

as mass counterpart of lo, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lei in specificity, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lo and lo'i, Masses and sets

loi cinfo, Individuals and masses

loi jdini, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Lojban

features of, What is Lojban?

history of, What is Lojban?

stability of, What is this book?

Lojban alphabet, Orthography

Lojban letters

IPA for pronouncing, Basic Phonetics

list with IPA pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

lojban., brivla

lojbangir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangri, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygri, lujvo-making examples

Lojbanistan, What is this book?

lojbaugir, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugri, lujvo-making examples

lojbo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

long ago and far away

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

long rafsi

definition, rafsi

long rafsi form

compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

long-sword

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

loose association

expressing with pe, Relative phrases

Lord

example, cmene

lotkle, lujvo-making examples

lotlei, lujvo-making examples

Lottie

example, Lojban names

love more

example, Property abstractions

lower case letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

lower-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

lower-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

lower-case word

effect on following lerfu words, Upper and lower cases

lu, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

lu do cadzu le bisli li'u, Quantified sumti

lu e'osai li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti

lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lu'a, Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e, sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le sinxa bele sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

lu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'u, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising

as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

lubno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lujvo, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

abbreviated, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

abstract, Abstract lujvo

algorithm for, The lujvo-making algorithm

and consonant pairs, rafsi

and plausibility, Considerations for making lujvo

and seltau/tertau relationship, The meaning of lujvo

and the listener, Considerations for making lujvo

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as suppliers of agent place, Notes on gismu place structures

asymmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

based on multiple tanru, Considerations for making lujvo

cmavo incorporation, Why have lujvo?

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

compared with tanru, Why have lujvo?

consideration in choosing meaning for, Considerations for making lujvo

considerations for retaining elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

construction of, lujvo

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

design consideration for relationship, The meaning of lujvo

dropping elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

dropping SE rafsi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

examples of making, The lujvo scoring algorithm

from cmavo with no rafsi, rafsi

from tanru, lujvo

fully reduced, rafsi

guidelines for place structure, Why have lujvo?

interpreting, The meaning of lujvo

invention of, lujvo

meaning drift of, Considerations for making lujvo

meaning of, lujvo

multiple forms of, lujvo

place structure of figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for, Why have lujvo?

recognizing, rafsi

rules for formation of, lujvo

scored examples of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

scoring of, The lujvo-making algorithm

selection of best form of, The lujvo-making algorithm

shorter for more general concepts, Considerations for making lujvo

summary of form characteristics, rafsi

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguity of, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguous decomposition of, lujvo

unreduced, rafsi

unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, fu'ivla

with zei, rafsi

zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lujvo creation

interaction of KE with NAhE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

interaction of KE with SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

use of multiple SE in, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

lujvo form

consonant cluster requirement in, rafsi

final letter of, rafsi

hierarchy of priorities for selection of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

number of letters in, rafsi

requirements for hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

lujvo place order, Ordering lujvo places.

asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

based on 3-or-more part veljvo, lujvo with more than two parts.

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

rationale for standardization, Ordering lujvo places.

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

superlatives as exceptions, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo place structure

"ni" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

"nu" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

basis of, Selecting places

comparative lujvo, Comparatives and superlatives

cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dependent places, Dependent places

dropping "KE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping "KEhE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dropping dependent places

caveat, Dependent places

dropping dependent seltau places, Dependent places

dropping dependent tertau places, Dependent places

dropping redundant places, The meaning of lujvo

effect of "SE", Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

explicated walk-through, The meaning of lujvo

guidelines, Why have lujvo?

multi-place abstraction lujvo, Abstract lujvo

notation conventions, The meaning of lujvo

rationale for standardization, Selecting places

selecting tertau, Dependent places

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

when first place redundant with non-first, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant plus others, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lukewarm food

example, sumti qualifiers

lunra tarci, Some types of symmetrical tanru

ly, cmene, Lojban names, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ly'i, cmene, Lojban names

ly., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Lyra

example, Lojban names

M

ma, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Questions and answers

as sumti question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

for tense questions, Tense questions: cu'e

ma'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ma'i, Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri

ma'o, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany

potential ambiguity caveat, Miscellany

ma'o fy. [te'u], Miscellany

ma'o fy.boi, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ma'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

mabla, Attitudinal modifiers

magic square

example, Vectors and matrices

mai, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mo'o, Other uses of mekso

MAI selma'o

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

male sexual teacher

example, lujvo-making examples

mampa'u, lujvo

mamta, rafsi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

mamta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mamta patfu, lujvo

man biting dog, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

man or woman

example, Logical connection and truth tables

man-woman

example, Logical connection within tanru

manhole

example, Compound spatial tenses

manskapi, Acknowledgements and Credits

manti zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

manysome

example, Special mekso selbri

maple sugar

example, fu'ivla

maple trees

example, fu'ivla

marathon, Types of event abstractions

Mars road

example, Conversion: SE

mass

compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with set in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set forming, Special mekso selbri

joining elements into a, Non-logical connectives

mass contrasted with components

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

mass name

use of, Individuals and masses

mass object

and logical reasoning, Individuals and masses

as dependent on intention, Individuals and masses

contrasted with multiple individual objects, Individuals and masses

properties of, Individuals and masses

mass objects

peculiarities of English translation of, Individuals and masses

masses

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

mathematical equality

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical expression

referring to, Other uses of mekso

mathematical expressions

connectives in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

tensed connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

mathematical expressions in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

mathematical intervals, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mathematical notation

and omitted operators, Introductory

and operator precedence, Simple infix expressions and equations

infix, Simple infix expressions and equations

international uniqueness of, Introductory

mathematical operators, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical texts

effect on lerfu shift scope, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical variables

lerfu strings as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematics

use of lerfu strings in, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

matne, Individuals and masses

matrices

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

matrix

as combination of vectors, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, Vectors and matrices

with more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

matrix column operator, Vectors and matrices

matrix row operator, Vectors and matrices

mau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mayan mathematics

as a system with base larger than 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri

compared with du in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

explicitly specifying, Vocative scales

place structure of, selbri based on sumti: me

used with names, selbri based on sumti: me

me dy ny. .abu, Acronyms

me la pinpan. bolci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

me'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

me'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'i re, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'o, Number summary, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

compared with la'e lu, References to lerfu

contrasted with li, Other uses of mekso

contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

relation to li compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

me'u, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri

relative precedence with logical connectives, selbri based on sumti: me

me'u moi, Special mekso selbri

me/du equivalence, selbri based on sumti: me

measurements

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

meat slice

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

medieval weapon, lujvo with more than two parts.

megdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mei, Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

place structure formed for objective indefinites, Special mekso selbri

mekso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

and literary translation, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

complex used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

design goals, Introductory

mekso chapter

completeness, Introductory

table notation convention, Introductory

mekso goal

coverage, Introductory

expandable, Introductory

for common use, Introductory

for mathematical writing, Introductory

precision, Introductory

unambiguous, Introductory

mekso goals

and ambiguity, Introductory

and non-mathematical expression, Introductory

mathematical notation form, Introductory

melbi, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping

melbi cmalu nixli ckule, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

meljo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

melting, Notes on gismu place structures

membership

property of sets, Masses and sets

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

mental discomfort

example, Emotional categories

merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms

metalinguistic comment

with embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels or reference, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

metalinguistic words

quick-tour version, Indicators

mexno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mi, Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e, More about non-logical connectives

mi bevri le dakli, Mixed modal connection

mi jo'u do, More about non-logical connectives

mi joi do, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Tense relations between sentences

mi klama le zdani, Tense relations between sentences

mi nelci do, Mixed modal connection, Tenses versus modals

mi nelci la djein., Mixed modal connection

mi vasxu, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

mi'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'e, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales

contrasted with other members of COI, Vocative scales

effect of ordering multiple COI, Vocative scales

mi'enai, Vocative scales

mi'enai .djan., Vocative scales

mi'erxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mi'o, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'u, Discursives

contrasted with go'i, Discursives

mi-series

of pro-sumti, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi-series pro-sumti

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mice

example, Minor abstraction types

midju, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

mikri, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

milti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

minde, Anomalous lujvo

minkemxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mintu

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

mirli nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

misinterpretation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

misro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mitsubishi

example, What about Chinese characters?

mixed claim

definition, Universal claims

mixed modal connection

afterthought, Mixed modal connection

as proscribed in forethought, Mixed modal connection

definition, Mixed modal connection

of bridi-tails, Mixed modal connection

of sentences, Mixed modal connection

of sumti, Mixed modal connection

mixed with

example, Non-logical connectives

mlatu, Logical connection within tanru

mlatu kalci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mleca, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

mo, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers

as selbri question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

mo'a, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

mo'e, Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

mo'i, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

mo'o, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mai, Other uses of mekso

mo'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

modal bridi-tail connection, Other modal connections

modal causals

implication differences, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal cmavo

basis in gismu place structure, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

regular form for derivation, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

table with English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal cmavo table

format of, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal connection

simultaneous with logical, Mixed modal connection

modal connection of selbri

using bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

modal connectives

fi'o prohibited in, Other modal connections

modal conversion

access to original first place with fai, Modal conversion: JAI

grammar of, Modal conversion: JAI

place structure of, Modal conversion: JAI

with no modal specified, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion with fi'o, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion without modal

as vague, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversions

in descriptions, Modal conversion: JAI

modal followed by selbri

compared with tanru modification in meaning, Modal selbri

contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, Modal selbri

effect on eliding cu, Modal selbri

modal operand connection, Other modal connections

modal place

definition, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

on description selbri, Modal tags: BAI

rationale for term name, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

relation of to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal place relation

importance of first place in, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal sentence connection, Modal sentence connection: the causals

condensing, Other modal connections

effect on modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

forethought, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

relation to modal of second sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

with other than causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal sumti

and FA marking, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

as first place of modal tag selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also seltcita sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

leaving vague, Modal selbri

position in bridi, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

unspecified, Modal selbri

modal sumti connection, Other modal connections

modal tag

definition (see also sumti tcita), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri as, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

for vague relationship, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags

contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

modal-or-tense question

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

modal-or-tense questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

modals

compared with tenses in syntax, Tenses versus modals

contradictory negation of, Modal negation

contrasted with tenses in semantics, Tenses versus modals

expanding scope over inner modal connection, Modal selbri

expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e, Modal selbri

expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u, Modal selbri

expanding scope over non-logical connection, Modal selbri

for causal gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

improving relative phrase preciseness with , Modal relative phrases; Comparison

making long-scope, Sticky modals

making sticky, Sticky modals

negation of, Modal negation

scalar negation of, Modal negation

termset connection, Other modal connections

modals often attached with relative phrases

list, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

modifier

seltau as, Simple tanru

modifying brivla (see also seltau), lujvo

moi, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

MOI selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

use of boi before, Special mekso selbri

mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mokca, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

moklu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu stedu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

molro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mon Repos

example, Dependent places

more than

contrasted with less than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

more than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

morko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

morphology

conventions for, Introductory

definition, Introductory

derivational, Introductory

simplicity of, Introductory

symbolic conventions for discussing, Introductory

mother father

example, lujvo

movement

order in tense constructs, Movement in space: MOhI

time, Movement in space: MOhI

with multiple directions, Movement in space: MOhI

movement specification

interaction with direction in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

mrostu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mrostu mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mu, Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation

mu'e, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

mu'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mu'onai, Vocative scales

mudri siclu, rafsi

mudri xarci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudri zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudsiclu, rafsi

mudysiclu, rafsi

mukti, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

multiple conversion

avoiding, Conversion: SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple indefinite sumti

effect of re-ordering in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

expressing with equal scope, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indefinite sumti scope

in termset, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indicators, The uses of indicators

multiple individual objects

contrasted with mass object, Individuals and masses

meaning of, Individuals and masses

multiple letters

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

multiple logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

multiple ma

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple mo

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple quantification

effect on selbri placement among sumti, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple questions in one bridi

expressing, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple relative clauses

attaching with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

connecting different kinds with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

multiple SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple speakers, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

multiple sumti in one place

avoiding, Tagging places: FA

meaning, Tagging places: FA

multiple tanru inversion

effect on grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple tenses

effect of order in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

muslo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mutce bo barda, Complex tanru grouping

my, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

example, Possessive sumti

my chair

example, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

my., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

myth

example, Evidentials

N

n people

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

n-hyphen

contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

na, Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

order in logical connectives with se, Logical connection of bridi

na and tense

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na go'i, Questions

na writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

na'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with lo'a, Alien alphabets

na'e, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms

before gu'e, Scalar negation of selbri

contrasted with na'e ke, Scalar negation of selbri

na'e barda bloti, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'e brablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'ebo, sumti qualifiers, sumti negation

na'eke, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions

na'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

na'inai, Miscellaneous indicators

na'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

na'u, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

use in asking operator questions, Other uses of mekso

na'u mo, Other uses of mekso

na'u nu'a, Other uses of mekso

na'ujbi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

NAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Tense negation, Miscellany

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

nai, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions

effect on intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

effect on joiks, More about non-logical connectives

placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, Forethought bridi connection

placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, Forethought bridi connection

naja, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

naje, Tense questions: cu'e

nakni cinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakni ke cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

naku, The three basic description types, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

as creating a negation boundary, Using naku outside a prenex

compared with sumti in grammar, Using naku outside a prenex

effect on moving quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex

in linked sumti places, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple in sentence, Using naku outside a prenex

outside of prenex, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation

rationale for considering an advanced technique, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation boundary

effect on conversion with se, Using naku outside a prenex

naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

as expansion of noda, Negation boundaries

naku zo'u, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nakykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

nalbrablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

nalmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

namcu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

name equivalent for typical

rationale for lack of, Descriptors for typical objects

name words

recognition of, Lojban names

name-words

limitations on, Lojban names

pause requirements before, Lojban names

permissible consonant combinations, Lojban names

names

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

authority for, cmene

borrowing from other languages, Lojban names

examples of, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

in vocative phrase, Lojban names

multiple, Lojban names

pause requirement in lerfu words, The universal bu

purpose of, cmene

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

stress in, cmene

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

two kinds of, Lojban names

unusual stress in, cmene

uses of, Lojban names

using rafsi, Lojban names

with LA descriptor, Lojban names

names from vowel-final base

commonly used consonant endings, Lojban names

names in Lojban (see also cmene), cmene

names with la

implicit quantifier for, Lojban names

naming predicate, The three basic description types

nan, cmavo

nanba spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, Logical connection within tanru, selbri variables

nanmu je ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

nanvi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

NATO

example, Acronyms

natural end

continuing beyond, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with actual stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

nau, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on sticky tenses, Tenses in subordinate bridi

syntax, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Navajo

example, fu'ivla

nazbi kevna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ne, Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

compared with pe, Relative phrases

near the faraway park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

near the park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

nearby in time

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Nederlands

example, cmene

need any box, The problem of “any”

negated intervals

meaning of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a sentence

and truth value, Logical connection and truth tables

negation

complex examples, Scalar negation of selbri

form for emulating natural language negation, Using naku outside a prenex

of operand, Miscellany

of operator, Miscellany

of tenses, Tense negation

negation and logical connectives

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation between sentences

compared with bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

meaning of, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation boundary

and zero, Negation boundaries

effect of moving, Negation boundaries

negation cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

negation in prenex

effects of position, Negation boundaries

negation manipulation

"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

negation of fi'o modals

by negating selbri, Modal negation

negation of modals, Modal negation

contradictory, Modal negation

scalar, Modal negation

negation of tenses

meaning of, Tense negation

negation sumti qualifiers

meanings of, sumti qualifiers

negations with logical connectives

effects on expansion of sentence, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

negative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

negative numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

negative sign

contrasted with subtraction operator, Special numbers

negator

movement from bridi to sumti, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nei, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

nelci la djan., Compound bridi

nelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

new notation, The meaning of lujvo

New York city

example, Relative phrases

New York state

example, Relative phrases

Newport News

example, Lojban names

news

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

ni, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni citno, Comparatives and superlatives

ni klama, Abstract lujvo

ni'e, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni'enu'a, Miscellany

ni'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ni'igi, Other modal connections

ni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

ni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'oni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

nibli, Modal sentence connection: the causals

nicte ckule, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nilkla, Abstract lujvo

nimre, Simple tanru

ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

ninmu bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nitcu, The problem of “any”

nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

nixli bo ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

nixli tuple, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

no, Syllabication And Stress, IPA For English Speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases

no'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

no'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

no'ebo, sumti negation

no'i, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'ino'i, Paragraphs: NIhO

no'o, Indefinite numbers

no'u, Relative phrases

compared with po'u, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'u, Relative phrases

nobli, cmene

nobli bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nobody

ambiguous interpretations of, What's wrong with this picture?

interpretation of, What's wrong with this picture?

Lojban contrasted with English, What's wrong with this picture?

noda, Negation boundaries

expanding to naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

noi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

noi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

noi le mi pendo cu ponse, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

noi nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

noi sipna, Possessive sumti

noisy environments

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

nolraitru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nolraitru prije, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nolraitru ralju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

non-, selbri and tanru negation

non-logical connection

and elidability of terminators, Non-logical connectives

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

distinguishing from connection of sumti, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into mass, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into set, Non-logical connectives

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of sumti

distinguishing from connection in tanru, Non-logical connectives

of termsets, More about non-logical connectives

non-logical connectives

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

including tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

sentence, More about non-logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

un-ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

non-logical forethought termsets

connecting tagged sumti, More about non-logical connectives

non-logically connected tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

non-Lojban quotation, Quotation summary

non-Lojban text

rules for pause with, Rules for inserting pauses

non-restrictive relative clause

definition (see also incidental relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

non-specific descriptions, The three basic description types

non-standard orthographies

caveat, Oddball Orthographies

Cyrillic, Oddball Orthographies

Tengwar, Oddball Orthographies

nonagenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

nonce word

marking

selma'o catalog,

normal circumstances, Event abstraction

normle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

notation conventions

for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

nothing sits

example, Negation boundaries

nouns

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

Nth rat

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nth rat

example, Special mekso selbri

Nthly

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nu, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI

definition, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

nu citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka kei gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka [kei], Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu kalri kei gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nu klama [kei], Abstract lujvo

NU selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

nu'a, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso

use in answering operator questions, Other uses of mekso

nu'e, Vocative scales

nu'i, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

nu'u, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

null operand

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

null operator

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

number article

explanation of use, Simple infix expressions and equations

number questions, Number questions

answers to, Number questions

number sumti

syntax of, Number summary

with li, Number summary

with li contrasted with me'o, Number summary

with me'o, Number summary

with me'o contrasted with li, Number summary

number words

pattern in, Lojban numbers

numbers

as compound cmavo, Lojban numbers

as grammatically complete utterances, Number questions

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

expressing simple, Lojban numbers

greater than 9, Lojban numbers

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

on logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

rafsi for, rafsi

special, Special numbers

talking about contrasted with using for quantification, Simple infix expressions and equations

using for quantification contrasted with talking about, Simple infix expressions and equations

numeric digits in lerfu words

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

undefined, Special numbers

numerical selbri

alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, Special mekso selbri

based on non-numerical sumti, Special mekso selbri

complex, Special mekso selbri

grammar, Special mekso selbri

restriction on numbers used for, Special mekso selbri

special, Special mekso selbri

with lerfu strings, Special mekso selbri

use of "me" with, Special mekso selbri

numerical tenses

effect on use of boi, Other uses of mekso

nuncti, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunctikezgau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunkalri gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkla, Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI

nunklama, Abstract lujvo

nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunsoidji, Abstract lujvo

nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nuzba tanbo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ny, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ny., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. su'i pa, Special mekso selbri

ny.mai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

NYC

example, Acronyms

O

o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

o'onai, Attitudinal modifiers

o'onaivu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

o'u, cmavo, Emotional categories

o'unaire'e, Emotional categories

o'unairo'u, Emotional categories

observation

example, Evidentials

observation evidential

contrasted with observative , Evidentials

observative

contrasted with observation evidential, Evidentials

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

observative form

contrasted with command, Standard bridi form: cu

observative with elided CAhA

convention, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

observatives

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

ocean shell

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

octal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

octogenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

Old McDonald

example, The Special Lojban Characters

old topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

omission of descriptor

effect on ku, Indefinite descriptions

omitting terminators

perils of, Scalar negation of selbri

on right

contrasted with toward right, Movement in space: MOhI

on two occasions

example, Sub-events

on verge

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

once and future king

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

One

the

example, cmene

one-third of food, Special mekso selbri

only

example, Discursives

only if

compared with if … then, Logical connection of bridi

only once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

open interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand

converting from operator, Miscellany

converting into operator, Miscellany

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting sumti into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operand connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand modal connection, Other modal connections

operands

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

contrasted with general sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

too few for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

too many for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

operator

converting from operand, Miscellany

converting into operand, Miscellany

converting into selbri, Other uses of mekso

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operator derived from selbri

effect of selbri place structure on, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator left-right grouping

as Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence

and mathematical notation, Simple infix expressions and equations

effect of pragmatic convention, Simple infix expressions and equations

generalized explicit specification, Simple infix expressions and equations

in Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

plans for future, Explicit operator precedence

rationale for default left-grouping, Simple infix expressions and equations

scope modification with bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations

specifying by parenthesis, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence in other languages, Simple infix expressions and equations

operators

analogue of tanru in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

list of simple, Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

operators of VUhU

grammar of operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

opinion

example, Evidentials

opposite-of-minus

example, Miscellany

order of variables

in moving to prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ordered sequence

by listing members, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with mass, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, Non-logical connectives

ordinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

ordinal tense, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

orthography

non-standard, Oddball Orthographies

relation to pronunciation, Orthography

outer product, Vectors and matrices

outer quantifier

contrasted with inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

outer quantifiers

for expressing subsets, Quantified descriptions

rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

outer sumti

prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

owe money

example, Multiple compound bridi

P

pa, cmene, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri

pa da, A few notes on variables

pa no, Non-decimal and compound bases

PA selma'o

exception on use of boi with MOI, Special mekso selbri

members with rafsi, Miscellany

pa'e, Discursives

pa'enai, Discursives

pacraistu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacraistu zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

pagbu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

pai, Special numbers

pamoi, Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri

pante tavla, rafsi

panzi nanmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

panzi ninmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

paragraph separation

spoken text, Paragraphs: NIhO

written text, Paragraphs: NIhO

paragraphs

effects on scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

separator, Paragraphs: NIhO

parasitic worms

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

pareci, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

parentheses

for complex mekso used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

parenthesis

mathematical, Simple infix expressions and equations

partial quotation, Miscellaneous indicators

parts of speech, Introductory

paso, Non-decimal and compound bases

passive voice, Varying the order of sumti

past event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

pastward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

paternal grandmother

example, lujvo

patfu mamta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

patta'a, rafsi

patyta'a, rafsi

pau, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers

placement in sentence, Miscellaneous indicators

paunai, Miscellaneous indicators

pausative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pause

and cmene, Rules for inserting pauses

and consonant-final words, Rules for inserting pauses

and Cy-form cmavo, Rules for inserting pauses

and final-syllable stress, Rules for inserting pauses

and non-Lojban text, Rules for inserting pauses

and vowel-initial words, Rules for inserting pauses

between words, Rules for inserting pauses

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with syllable break, The Special Lojban Characters

proscribed within words, Rules for inserting pauses

representation of in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

requirement between stressed syllables, cmavo

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

pause before name

effect of doi, Vocative scales

effect of vocatives of COI, Vocative scales

pauses

before vowels, cmavo

rules for, Rules for inserting pauses

pe, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

as loose association, Relative phrases

compared with ne, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a sranapoi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

pe mi, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

pe'a, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'e, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

pe'i, Indicators, Evidentials

pe'ipei, Evidentials

pe'o, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

pe'u

contrasted with e'o, Vocative scales

peace symbol, Computerized character codes

pei, cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers

peipe'i, Evidentials

pelnimre, Simple tanru

pelnimre tricu, Simple tanru

pelxu, Simple tanru

percent

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

perfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perils of omitting terminators, Scalar negation of selbri

period

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

within a word, The Special Lojban Characters

Persian rug

example, rafsi

person's arm

example, Relative phrases

personal pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

personal pronouns

with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with mi-series for I/you, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

personal pronouns for he/she/it/they

English contrasted with Lojban in organization, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Pete

example, cmene

petso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pevrisnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

Pheidippides, Types of event abstractions

phonetic alphabet, Basic Phonetics

Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

physical distress

example, Emotional categories

pi, Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany

pi'a, Vectors and matrices

pi'e, Non-decimal and compound bases

pi'i, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation

pi'o, Modal tags: BAI

pi'u, Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, More about non-logical connectives

use in connecting tenses, Sub-events

piano-moving

example, Individuals and masses

picti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pictures

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo

pilno-, Modal tags: BAI

pimu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le'i nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pinca litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pino'o, Indefinite numbers

pinsi nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pinyin

as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

pirau, Indefinite numbers

piro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

piro la'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro le'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro lo'i ro, Quantified descriptions

piso'a, Indefinite numbers

piso'u, Indefinite numbers

pisu'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lai su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lei su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o loi ro, Quantified descriptions

pixra cukta, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

place of eating

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

place structure

adding new places to with modal sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition, Introductory

definition of, The concept of the bridi

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

effect of modal conversion on, Modal conversion: JAI

empty slots in, Introductory

explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, Tagging places: FA

gismu, Notes on gismu place structures

instability of, Introductory

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

notation conventions, Introductory

re-ordering by conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

place structure and tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

place structure of selbri

determining, Introductory

place structure order

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

place structures

omitting places with FA, Tagging places: FA

omitting places with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

plant grows

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

plants

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

plausibility

in abbreviated lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

playgrounds, Dependent places

pleases, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

plise tapla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pluja valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pluka, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

plural

Lojban equivalent of, Approximation and inexact numbers

plural masses

possible use for, Quantified descriptions

plurals

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, The three basic description types

plurals with le

meaning of, Individuals and masses

pluta, Conversion: SE

contrasted with ve klama, Conversion: SE

po, Relative phrases

as restrictive possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a se steci sranapoi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with English possession, Relative phrases

contrasted with pe, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'e, Relative phrases

po do, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

po mi, Relative phrases

po'e, Relative phrases

as intrinsic possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci sranapoi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

po'o, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

po'u, Relative phrases

as identity, Relative phrases

compared with no'u, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a dupoi ke'a du, Relative phrases

contrasted with no'u, Relative phrases

relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, Relative phrases

poi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex

discussion of translation, What are you pointing at?

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

syntax of, What are you pointing at?

poi blabi, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

poi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

poi du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

poi ninmu, Relative clauses and descriptors

poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

poi se cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

poi-, Relative phrases

point

event considered as, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

point-event abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

point-event abstractor, Types of event abstractions

pointing

reference by, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pointing cmavo

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

police lineup, Number questions

Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

Polish notation mixed with infix, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

politeness

thank you and you're welcome, Vocative scales

you're welcome, Vocative scales

polno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponse, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

portion

on set contrasted with on individual, Quantified descriptions

portion selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

porto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

positive numbers

explicit expression, Signs and numerical punctuation

positive sign

contrasted with addition operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

possessed in relative phrases

compared with possessor, Relative phrases

possession

expressing with po, Relative phrases

intrinsic

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

quick-tour version, Possession

possession not ownership

quick-tour version, Possession

possessive sumti

compared with relative phrase, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of ku, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on, Possessive sumti

syntax allowed, Possessive sumti

with relative clauses on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti and relative clauses

development history, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti with relative clauses

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

possessor in relative phrases

compared with possessed, Relative phrases

possessor sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

posydji, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

potential

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

potential events

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

prayer

example, Ordering lujvo places.

precedence

mathematical default, Simple infix expressions and equations

precise erasures, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

predicate answers, Questions and answers

predication

as a relationship, The concept of the bridi

compared with bridi, The concept of the bridi

Preem Palver

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

pregnant sister

example, Discursives

prenex

considerations for dropping, Dropping the prenex

dropping for terseness, Dropping the prenex

effect of order of variables in, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

internal to a bridi, The problem of “any”

purpose of, Dropping the prenex

removing when numeric quantifiers present, Variables with generalized quantifiers

syntax of, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

prenex manipulation

exporting na from left of prenex, bridi negation and logical connectives

importing na from selbri, bridi negation and logical connectives

moving naku past bound variable, bridi negation and logical connectives

rules, bridi negation and logical connectives

prenex scope

for sentences joined by .i, A few notes on variables

for sentences joined by ijeks, A few notes on variables

in abstractions, A few notes on variables

in embedded bridi, A few notes on variables

in relative clauses, A few notes on variables

informal, A few notes on variables

prenu, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations

prenu so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

prepositions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

pretty

English ambiguity of, Complex tanru grouping

pretty little girls' school

forty ways, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

previous topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

pride of lions

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

primitive roots

gismu as, brivla

principle of consistency

of logical-if statements, Logical connection of bridi

pritu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

pro-bridi

as abbreviation for bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

pro-bridi assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-bridi rafsi

as producing context-dependent meanings, lujvo based on pro-sumti

pro-sumti

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

classes of, Pro-sumti summary

compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

contrasted with description, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

for listener(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

for speaker(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

ko'a-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu as, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu string

effect on reference to lerfu itself, References to lerfu

lerfu strings

interaction with quantifiers and boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rafsi for, lujvo based on pro-sumti

referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

series, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

typical, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

unspecified, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

pro-sumti assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-sumti for "we"

contrasted with English "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others

as masses, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

relation to joi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for utterances, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pro-sumti rafsi

anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, lujvo based on pro-sumti

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

probability .5

example, Special mekso selbri

probability selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

values, Special mekso selbri

process abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

process abstractor, Types of event abstractions

process event

described, Types of event abstractions

pronouncement

example, Evidentials

pronouns

as anaphora, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronouns in English

as independent of abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as noun abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronunciation

IPA for Lojban, Basic Phonetics

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

relation to orthography, Orthography

standard, Basic Phonetics

properties

place structure, Property abstractions

property abstraction

specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

property abstractions

specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, Property abstractions

specifying determining place with ce'u, Property abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Property abstractions

use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

property description, Property abstractions

property of loving

example, Property abstractions

proposed law, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

proposed lerfu words

as working basis, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

propositional

of attitudinals, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional attitudes, Predication/sentence abstraction

compared with knowledge discursives, Discursives

protocol

computer communications using COI, Vocative scales

parliamentary using COI, Vocative scales

using vocatives, Vocative scales

psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

pu, Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

pu bajra, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

pu ge, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

pu naje ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

PU selma'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation

compared with FAhA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

PU tenses

contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as pastward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'u, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

puba, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puki, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puku, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

punai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punai je ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punctuation

in numbers, Signs and numerical punctuation

punctuation lerfu words

interaction with different alphabet systems, Punctuation marks

mechanism for creating, Punctuation marks

rationale for lau, Punctuation marks

punctuation marks

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

purci, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

purdi bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purdi vorme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

puxipa, Subscripts: XI

puxire, Subscripts: XI

py, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

py., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

py. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Q

quack

example, Alien alphabets

quadratic formula

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

qualified sumti

contrasted with unqualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

quality and quantity

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

quantification

before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, Quantified descriptions

quantificational pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantification rules, Pro-sumti summary

quantified space, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified sumti

different types contrasted for scope for distribution, Grouping of quantifiers

quantified temporal tense

definition, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negating with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tense with direction

Lojban contrasted with English in implications, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tenses

"once" contrasted with "only once", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

caveat on implication of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

quantifier

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

on previously quantified variable, A few notes on variables

quantifier scope

in multiple connected sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

quantifiers

effect of moving naku, Using naku outside a prenex

with logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

with sumti, Quantified sumti

quark

example, fu'ivla

question pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

questions

answering with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

connection, Truth questions and connective questions

digit, Number questions

fill-in-the-blank, Questions and answers

marking in advance, Miscellaneous indicators

multiple, Questions and answers

number, Number questions, Questions and answers

operator, Other uses of mekso

place structure position, Tagging places: FA

quick-tour version, Questions

rhetorical, Miscellaneous indicators

selbri, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

sumti, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

truth, Questions and answers

with "xu", Miscellaneous indicators

quick runner

example, Simple tanru

quotation

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction

four kinds, Quotation summary

implicit quantifier for, Quotation summary

quotations

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

implicit quantifier for, Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen

contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

ra, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'a, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'e, Signs and numerical punctuation

ra'i, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'u, Discursives

scale of importance, Discursives

ra'ucu'i, Discursives

ra'unai, Discursives

ractu mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

radio communication

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

radix

decimal (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

radno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi, gismu, lujvo

as fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti

considerations restricting construction of, rafsi

contrasted with cmavo in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, lujvo

contrasted with words, rafsi

conventional meaning for cu'o, Miscellany

conventional meaning for frinu, Miscellany

definition, lujvo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

forms of, rafsi

four-letter

requirement for y-hyphen, rafsi

lack of

effect on forming lujvo, rafsi

level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, rafsi

long, rafsi

multiple for each gismu, Considerations for making lujvo

multiplicity of for single gismu, rafsi

possible forms for construction of, rafsi

rationale for assignments of, rafsi

rules for combining to form lujvo, lujvo

selection considerations in making lujvo, rafsi

short, rafsi

uniqueness in gismu referent of, rafsi

use of, rafsi

rafsi assignments

non-reassignability of, rafsi

rafsi for numbers, rafsi

rafsi form

effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, lujvo

rafsi fu'ivla, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

rafsi space, rafsi

rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

rakso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ralju, cmene

ralju zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Ralph

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

ranti bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

rat eats cheese

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumti tcita

rat eats cheese in park

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

ratni nejni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rats are brown

example, Masses and sets

rats in park

example, Special mekso selbri

rau, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

re, cmavo, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation

re ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

re da, A few notes on variables

re karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re le ci mlatu, Grouping of quantifiers

re le mu prenu, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lei djacu, Quantified descriptions

re lo karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lo ro karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers, selbri variables

re prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

re'i, Vocative scales

re'imi'e, Vocative scales

re'inai, Vocative scales

re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

re-ordering logical variables with se, Dropping the prenex

real world

contrasted with hypothetical world

example, Discursives

real world point of view, Discursives

reboi ci pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

Received Pronunciation, IPA For English Speakers

reciprocal

expression of mathematical, Signs and numerical punctuation

reciprocal pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

reciprocity

expressing with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

recital rooms, Dependent places

Red Pony

example, sumti qualifiers

red pony

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

redundancy

effect on vocative design, Vocative scales

reference

ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, What are you pointing at?

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

quick-tour version, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

to relativized sumti with ke'a, What are you pointing at?

use of relative clause for, What are you pointing at?

reference frame

specifying for direction tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference frame for directions in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference grammar, What is this book?

referent

of operand, Miscellany

referring to with la'e, sumti qualifiers

referent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

referent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

reflexive pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

regularly

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

relation of first places in logical connection of observatives

rationale, Compound bridi

relationship

active/static/attributive compared, The concept of the bridi

as basis of sentence, Introductory

objects of, Introductory

relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

relative clause

compared with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

effect of omission of ke'ake'a on, What are you pointing at?

restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

use for reference, What are you pointing at?

relative clause scope

extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses

as part of name, Relative clauses and descriptors

effect of commas in English, Incidental relative clauses

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

impact of indefinite sumti on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of la on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of LAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

impact of NAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

kinds of, Incidental relative clauses

list of cmavo for, Index of relative clause cmavo

on connected sumti, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on names, Relative clauses and descriptors

on number, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

on quotation, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

placement with vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

relative clauses within, Relative clauses within relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental, Incidental relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, Incidental relative clauses

syntax with indefinite sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors

use in restricting existential claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use in restricting universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

relative clauses and indefinite sumti

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and LAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and NAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and names

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and possessive sumti

development history, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on complex sumti

Lojban contrasted with English, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses on indefinite sumti

syntax considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses on lo

syntax suggestion, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses with possessive sumti

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

relative phrase

as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, Relative phrases

compared with possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

connecting to relative clause with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

rationale for, Relative phrases

syntax of, Relative phrases

relative phrases

contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

improving preciseness with modals, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative phrases with modals

compared to relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

relativity theory

relation to Lojban tense system, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relativized sumti

definition, What are you pointing at?

in relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses

remei bruna, Non-logical connectives

remembered

example, Evidentials

remna fetsi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

remna girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

remna nakni, Some types of symmetrical tanru

repeating decimals

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

marking start of repeating portion, Signs and numerical punctuation

representing lerfu

lu contrasted with me'o, References to lerfu

reroi, Sub-events

respectively

example, Non-logical connectives

specifying with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

with different relationships, More about non-logical connectives

restricted claims

definition, Restricted claims: da poi

restricted variable

compared with indefinite description, Variables with generalized quantifiers

restrictive relative clause

definition, Incidental relative clauses

resume

contrasted with begin, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

revelation

example, Evidentials

reverse Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

definition, Reverse Polish notation

marker, Reverse Polish notation

number of operands, Reverse Polish notation

operands of, Reverse Polish notation

parentheses in operands of, Reverse Polish notation

terminator, Reverse Polish notation

use of parentheses in, Reverse Polish notation

with too few operands, Reverse Polish notation

with too many operands, Reverse Polish notation

reviewers of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

rhetorical question, Miscellaneous indicators

ri, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ri goi ko'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

ri'a do, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ri'agi, Other modal connections

ri'e, Attitudinal modifiers

ri-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri-series pro-sumti, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ricfu, Compound bridi

rich and German

example, More about non-logical connectives

ricrxaceru, fu'ivla

right-grouping in tanru

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

right-grouping rule

definition of, Complex tanru grouping

righteous indignation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

rinka, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection

rirxe xirma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi dakli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi patxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

risna, Miscellaneous indicators

risnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

riximu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

rixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

effect of order when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

ro da, Universal claims

ro da poi klama, The problem of “any”

ro DA poi prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro la su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers

ro le su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le'e su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

ro'anai, Emotional categories

example, Emotional categories

ro'e, Emotional categories

ro'inre'o, brivla, rafsi

ro'ire'o, rafsi

ro'irre'o, rafsi

ro'o, More about non-logical connectives

ro'ole'o, Attitudinal modifiers

ro'u, Compound indicators

rock face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

roger

example, Vocative scales

roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso

ROI selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

scalar negation of, Tense negation

rokci bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokci cinfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci derxi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci renro, rafsi

rokci zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokre'o, rafsi

romai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

romaji

as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

Roman Empire, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

room which he built

example, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ropno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rounded down

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded up

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded/unrounded vowels, Basic Phonetics

RP

as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation

ru, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ru'a, Indicators, Evidentials

compared with e'u, Evidentials

ru'e, Attitudes as scales

ru'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'o, Alien alphabets

ru'o.abupyky, lerfu words as pro-sumti

rug

Persian

example, rafsi

runner shoe

example, tanru

rusko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ry, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ry., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

S

sa, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with sei, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with to'i, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'asa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'enai, Discursives

sa'i, Vectors and matrices

sa'unai, Discursives

sadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sai, More about non-logical connectives

saicli, The lujvo-making algorithm

said John

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sakli, rafsi

saktrxaceru, fu'ivla

salad ingredients

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

salci, rafsi

samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sanli, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Sapir-Whorf effects

and emotional indicators, Tentative conclusion

sarcasm

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

saske, fu'ivla

sau'e, cmavo

scalar attitude, Attitudes as scales

scalar negation

effect on selbri, Scalar negation of selbri

scalar negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

scalar negation of non-logical connective, More about non-logical connectives

scalar negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

scale

granular contrasted with continuous, Special mekso selbri

scale of redness

example, Special mekso selbri

scale selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

school building

example, Dependent places

schooner

example, Lojban content words: brivla

scientific names

rules for, cmene

scientific notation

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

score

as 20-year span, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

as alternate base for years, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

se, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI

as grammatical in JOI compounds, Non-logical connectives

in logical connective to exchange sentences, Logical connection of bridi

order in logical connectives with na, Logical connection of bridi

use with operators, Miscellany

using to re-order logical variables, Dropping the prenex

se batci, Dropping the prenex

se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

se dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

se jbopli, Selecting places

se kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se ke blanu zdani [ke'e], Conversion: SE

se ke te, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se klama, tanru, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

place structure of, Conversion: SE

se pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI

se pinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se pinxe be zi'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se remei, More about non-logical connectives

se se gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

SE selma'o, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Subscripts: XI

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on place structure numbering, Conversion: SE

effect on selbri place structure, Conversion: SE

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

for converting place structure, Conversion: SE

rationale for no 1st place conversion, Conversion: SE

scope of, Conversion: SE

word formation of cmavo in, Conversion: SE

se te, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se te klama, Conversion: SE

se writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

se xance minde, Anomalous lujvo

se zdani, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

se'a, Attitudinal modifiers

se'e, Computerized character codes

and number base convention, Computerized character codes

se'i, Attitudinal modifiers

se'o, Evidentials

se'u, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as elidable terminator for soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

elidability considerations, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

se.u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seba'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

section numbering, Other uses of mekso

see with eye

example, Modal selbri

see with left eye

example, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

segi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

sei, Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sei ... se'u, A sample dialogue

seja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seju, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seka'a, Modal tags: BAI

sel-, Anomalous lujvo

selbri, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as part of description, The three basic description types

brivla as, Lojban content words: brivla

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting into an operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting operator into, Other uses of mekso

definition, Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

omitting with co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

place structure of, Introductory

place structure of converted operator, Other uses of mekso

relation to bridi, Lojban content words: brivla

scalar negation of, Scalar negation of selbri

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri from sumti, selbri based on sumti: me

selbri list for quick tour, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

selbri logical variables, selbri variables

selbri place structure

effect on operator formed by, Using Lojban resources within mekso

selbri placement among sumti

effect of multiple quantification on, Using naku outside a prenex

selbri questions

quick-tour version, Questions

selbri variables

form when not in prenex, selbri variables

prenex form as indefinite description, selbri variables

quantified, selbri variables

selbri-first bridi

effect on sumti places, Standard bridi form: cu

effect on use of cu, Tagging places: FA

specifying first sumti place in with fa, Tagging places: FA

selcadzu klama, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selci lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

seldzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

self-orientation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

selkemdzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkemsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

selma'o, cmavo

cross-reference list of

selma'o catalog,

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

selnelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

selsel, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Anomalous lujvo

selselgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selseljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selsinxa, sumti qualifiers

selsku, Anomalous lujvo

seltau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

compared with English adjective, lujvo

compared with English adverb, lujvo

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

filling sumti places in, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

seltcita sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also modal sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

selter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selti'i, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

semto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sentence

basic Lojban, Introductory

sentences

close grouping, Sentences: I

connecting non-logically, More about non-logical connectives

connecting with tense, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

separator for joining, Sentences: I

tenseless

quick-tour version, Tenses

separate questions

quick-tour version, Questions

separately tensed sentences

contrasted with tense connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

sepi'o, Modal tags: BAI

sequence

as an abstract list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, sumti qualifiers

sequence of events

expressing non-time-related sequences, More about non-logical connectives

sequence of tense rules

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

seri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seri'agi, Other modal connections

set

as specified by members, Non-logical connectives

by listing members with ce, Non-logical connectives

compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming set, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with mass formed from set, Special mekso selbri

set of all rats

example, Special mekso selbri

set of rats

example, sumti qualifiers

set operations, More about non-logical connectives

setese, Conversion: SE

sets

properties of, Masses and sets

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

use in Lojban place structure, Masses and sets

sexixa, Subscripts: XI

sexual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

sexual teacher

male

example, lujvo-making examples

sfofa, IPA For English Speakers

sfofy, IPA For English Speakers

shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

shell worm

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

shellfish, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Sherman tank

example, rafsi

shift

single-letter

grammar of, Upper and lower cases

shift word

for single letter, Upper and lower cases

scope, Upper and lower cases

shift words

canceling effect, Alien alphabets

for face, Alien alphabets

for font, Alien alphabets

ship sank

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

shoehorn, Dependent places

shook stick

example, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

short rafsi, rafsi

short rafsi form

compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

si, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

si'a, Discursives

si'e, Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary

si'o, Minor abstraction types

signed numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

signs on numbers

grammar, Signs and numerical punctuation

sikcurnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sikcurnu silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silka curnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silna jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Simon says

example, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti

simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

since, fu'ivla

sinful

example, Attitudinal modifiers

single consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

single-letter shift

as toggle, Upper and lower cases

single-word quotation, Quotation summary

singular me

example, Special mekso selbri

sinso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sinxa, sumti qualifiers

sirxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sister pregnant

example, Discursives

sisti, Metalinguistic negation forms

six-shooter

example, Sub-events

size

order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

skami pilno, lujvo

skari, Metalinguistic negation forms

skoto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slaka, The universal bu

slaka bu, The universal bu

slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

slinku'i test

definition, fu'ivla

slovo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slowdown, Types of event abstractions

smacu terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

smiley face

example, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

sneak in

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

snime nanmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

snow falls

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

snowball's chance

example, Special mekso selbri

so'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'e, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'i, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

so'o, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'u, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

social butterfly

example, tanru

Socrates

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals

softo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi sai, lujvo

soi vo'a vo'e, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi with one following sumti

convention, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soidji, Abstract lujvo

solji carce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji djine, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solji sicni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solri, cmene

solxrula, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solxrula grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

some do not go to school

example, Using naku outside a prenex

some relationship

example, selbri variables

somebody

contrasted with somebody else, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves self

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves somebody

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody's dog

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something

contrasted with someone, Restricted claims: da poi

expressing using "su'o", Variables with generalized quantifiers

unspecified definite with "zo'e", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something is loved by everybody

example, Negation boundaries

something sees everything

example, Universal claims

something sees me

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sonci manti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sonci tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sounds

clarity of, Basic Phonetics

complex, Basic Phonetics

difficult, Basic Phonetics

sounds for letters

Lojban contrasted with English, Basic Phonetics

source languages

use in creating gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

south face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sow grain

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sowed grain

example, Tense questions: cu'e

space

as time-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with time in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

space intervals

compared with time intervals in continuity, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

space location

as part of tense system (see also tense

spatial tense), Introductory

space tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

space/time metaphor

expressing direction mapping for, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spageti, fu'ivla

spaghetti, fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

Spanish ch

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Spanish ll

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

spano, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

spatial contours

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with temporal event contours, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

expressing, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial directions

list of, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

spatial information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

spatial interval modifiers

order in tense, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial intervals

expressing degree of continuity over, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial tense

4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

as an imaginary journey, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as optional in English, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

compared with temporal tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, Dimensionality: VIhA

definition, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

four-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

linear, Dimensionality: VIhA

one-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

order relative to temporal, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

planar, Dimensionality: VIhA

reference frame, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

referent of, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

three-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

two-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tense intervals

order of size and dimensionality in, Dimensionality: VIhA

order of VEhA and VIhA in, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

order of direction and distance specifications, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

spatrkoka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

spatrkoka lanka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

speaker's state of knowledge, Discursives

speaker-listener cooperation, Questions

speaker-relative viewpoint

contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

specific descriptions, The three basic description types

specific terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

specificity

expressing with po, Relative phrases

speech rhythm

for grouping in English, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

spelling out words

Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

spiritual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

spraile, fu'ivla

SQL

example, Acronyms

square brackets

use of in notation, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

sralo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

srana, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

srito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

stali, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

standard bridi form

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

standard for subjective numbers

specifying, Special mekso selbri

standard pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

starting marker, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

state abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

state abstractor, Types of event abstractions

state event

described, Types of event abstractions

steady speed, Types of event abstractions

steci, Relative phrases

stereotypical

as not derogatory in Lojban, Descriptors for typical objects

compared with typical, Descriptors for typical objects

stereotypical objects, Descriptors for typical objects

stero, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Steven Mark Jones

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

sticky modals

canceling, Sticky modals

definition, Sticky modals

fi'o proscribed from, Sticky modals

sticky tenses

and CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canceling, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect of nau on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on future tense meaning, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

from part of a multiple tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

stidi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stidi flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stop

contrasted with finish, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with pause, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

stories

flow of time in, Story time

story tense

Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, Story time

story time

as a convention for inferring tense, Story time

definition, Story time

rationale for, Story time

tenseless sentences in, Story time

with no initial sticky time, Story time

stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

effect of buffer vowel on, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

effect of syllabic consonants on, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

example, Emotional categories

final syllable

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

irregular marked with upper-case, Upper and lower cases

levels of, Syllabication And Stress

on cmavo, cmavo

primary, Syllabication And Stress

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

secondary, Syllabication And Stress

showing non-standard, Orthography

stressed syllable

compared with stressed vowel, Syllabication And Stress

stressed vowel

compared with stressed syllable, Syllabication And Stress

stroke cat then rabbit

example, Tensed logical connectives

structure of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

structure of this book, What is this book?

structure words, cmavo

stura, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

su, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

su'a, Evidentials, Discursives

su'anai, Evidentials

su'e, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'i, Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

su'i zy, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'i zy., Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

as implicit quantifier for quotations, Quantified sumti

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'o bu'a, selbri variables

su'o ci cutci, Indefinite descriptions

su'o le ro, The syntax of vocative phrases

su'o lo ro, Quantified descriptions

su'o lo'e ro, Quantified descriptions

su'opa, Variables with generalized quantifiers

su'ore, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'u, Minor abstraction types

su'u jenai ni, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

su'ujeninai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

sub-subscripts, Subscripts

subjective amounts

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subjective numbers

effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for portion selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for probability selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for scale selbri, Special mekso selbri

rationale for effect on place structure, Special mekso selbri

specifying standard for, Special mekso selbri

subjective portions

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subordinate clause tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Esperanto, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Russian, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subordinate clauses

tense usage rules in English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subscripted topics, Paragraphs: NIhO

subscripting, Subscripts: XI

subscripts

and fuzzy truths, Subscripts: XI

and names, Subscripts: XI

and paragraph separators, Subscripts: XI

and pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

and sumti re-ordering, Subscripts: XI

and tense, Subscripts: XI

before main expression, Subscripts

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

external grammar of, Subscripts

for sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

internal grammar of, Subscripts

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical, Subscripts: XI

multiple as sub-subscript, Subscripts

multiple for same base word, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

on ke'a for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

terminator for, Subscripts

to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

use with logical variables, A few notes on variables

subscripts on lerfu words

effect on elidability of boi, Subscripts

subsets

expressing with outer quantifiers, Quantified descriptions

subtraction operator

contrasted with negative sign, Special numbers

subtypes of words, brivla

sudysrasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cunmi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cutci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sumti, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as having implicit quantifiers, Quantified sumti

as objects in place structure slots, Introductory

beginning with "ke", Grouping of afterthought connectives

between descriptor and description selbri, Possessive sumti

classified by types of objects referred to, Individuals and masses

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

descriptions as, The five kinds of simple sumti

dropping trailing unspecified, Standard bridi form: cu

explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, Tagging places: FA

for individual objects, Individuals and masses

for mass objects, Individuals and masses

for set objects, Individuals and masses

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

irrelevant to relationship, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

kinds of, The five kinds of simple sumti

multiple in one place with FA, Tagging places: FA

names as, The five kinds of simple sumti

numbers as, The five kinds of simple sumti

omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

pro-sumti as, The five kinds of simple sumti

quotations as, The five kinds of simple sumti

re-ordering with FA, Tagging places: FA

relation with bridi, The concept of the bridi

sumti cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

sumti connection

afterthought, sumti connection

forethought, sumti connection

sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

sumti logical connection, sumti connection

compared with bridi logical connections, sumti connection

contrasted with tanru logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

rationale for, sumti connection

sumti modal connection, Other modal connections

sumti place

additional

selma'o catalog,

sumti placement

variant

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

sumti qualifiers

as short forms for common special cases, sumti qualifiers

elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

external syntax of, sumti qualifiers

for negation, sumti qualifiers

internal syntax of, sumti qualifiers

list of, sumti qualifiers

sumti questions

quick-tour version, Questions

sumti reordering

quick-tour version, Varying the order of sumti

sumti tcita, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

based on event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on spatial contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense direction, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

definition (see also modal tag), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and modal tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and tense tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita based on dimension, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on event contours

relation of main bridi to sumti process in, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval properties, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval size, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti with lo

compared to indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

sumti with tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti with tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

sumti-based description

definition, sumti-based descriptions

inner quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

outer quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

sumti-based descriptions with le

as increasing restricting to in-mind, sumti-based descriptions

Sun

the

example, cmene

sunburn

example, Property abstractions

superfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

superscripts, Subscripts

supervising

as a contribution to mass action, Non-logical connectives

supper

example, rafsi

supplementary information, Dependent places

Susan

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

susu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

sutra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri

sutra cadzu, selbri and tanru negation

sword blade, lujvo with more than two parts.

sy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sy., brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

syllabaries

lerfu word representation, What about Chinese characters?

syllabic consonant

effect on stress determination, cmene

syllabic consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

effect on stress, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final in word, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

syllabic l

considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic m

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic n

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic pronunciations of consonants

in fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

in fu'ivla category attachment

example, fu'ivla

syllabic r

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabication

and names, Syllabication And Stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

examples of, Syllabication And Stress

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

variants of

example, Syllabication And Stress

syllable break

contrasted with pause, The Special Lojban Characters

representation in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

symbol

for operand, Miscellany

referring to with lu'e, sumti qualifiers

symmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical tanru types

both separately true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

one or other true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using crucial/typical parts, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using more inclusive class, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical veljvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sympathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

ta, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

ta'apei, Vocative scales

ta'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation

ta'onai, Discursives

ta'u, Discursives

ta'unai, Discursives

tables

format of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

tadni girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tagged sumti termsets

connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, More about non-logical connectives

TAhE selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

scalar negation of, Tense negation

tai, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tail-terms

definition, Compound bridi

Take care!

example, Vocatives and commands

Talk!

example, Vocatives and commands

talker

example, tanru

taller

example, The concept of the bridi

tamdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tamsmi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tan(pi/2) = infinity

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tanjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tank

Sherman

example, rafsi

tanru, tanru, Simple tanru

ambiguity in, lujvo

ambiguity of, lujvo, Simple tanru

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

and conversion

quick-tour version, tanru

and creativity, lujvo

as ambiguous, Simple tanru

asymmetrical, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

combination of, lujvo

containing mathematical expressions, Other kinds of simple selbri

default left-grouping of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

definition, Simple tanru

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

expanding, Discursives

explanation of, lujvo

explicating, Discursives

explicitly defining, Discursives

expression of, lujvo

meaning of, Simple tanru

place structure of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

place structures of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

possible meanings of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

primary meaning of, Simple tanru

purpose, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

reducing logically connected sumti to

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

simple, Simple tanru

to lujvo, lujvo

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

tanru and conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

tanru connection

connotation of non-logical, Non-logical connectives

tanru connection grouping

guheks unmarked tanru, Logical connection within tanru

tanru conversion

effect on place structure

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru default grouping

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru grouping

complex, Complex tanru grouping

effect of jeks, Logical connection within tanru

effect of tanru inversion on, Inversion of tanru: co

guheks compared with jeks, Logical connection within tanru

three-part, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

with ke, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

with ke and bo, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

tanru grouping with JA+BO

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on tanru grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

in complex tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple, Inversion of tanru: co

rule for removing, Inversion of tanru: co

where allowed, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru inversion and place structure, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru logical connection

contrasted with sumti logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

tanru nested within tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

tarmi, fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tarmi simsa, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tarmrnintegrale, fu'ivla

tatru litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tau, Upper and lower cases

tavla, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti

tavla be do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

taxfu dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcarlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

tcati kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

te, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

te klagau, Selecting places

te klama, Conversion: SE

te se klama, Conversion: SE

te'a, Simple infix expressions and equations

te'o, Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

te'u, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

technical terms, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

teci'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tei, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

tei .abu .ebu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei .ibu jy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei fy. ibu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei sy. zy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

teka'a, Modal tags: BAI

telephone conversation

hello, Vocative scales

television, IPA For English Speakers

template, Minor abstraction types

temporal direction

exception in meaning when following ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

temporal information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

temporal tense

as mandatory in English, Introductory

compared with spatial tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

historical definition, Introductory

interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, Introductory

order relative to spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

quantified with direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

real relationship to time in English, Introductory

temporal tense elision

compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

temporal tenses

compared with spatial tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ten

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

tense

aorist, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

as observer-based, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

as subjective perception, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

connecting sentences in with, Tense relations between sentences

contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, Tense negation

effect of different position in sentence, Introductory

effect of sticky tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

emphasizing by position in sentence, Introductory

explanation of presentation method, Introductory

expressing movement in, Movement in space: MOhI

handling multiple episodes, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

in forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

interval contrasted with point, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with native languages, Introductory

numerical, Other uses of mekso

on embedded bridi, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

order of direction

distance and interval in, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

order of direction specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of distance specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of movement specification in, Movement in space: MOhI

order of spatial interval modifiers in , Space interval modifiers: FEhE

order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

overriding to speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

point contrasted with interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

position in sentence alternative, Introductory

position of in sentence, Introductory

quantified, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation

scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, Tense negation

scalar negation of with NAhE, Tense negation

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

scope of, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

selbri types applicable to, Introductory

space-time dimension for intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

static contrasted with moving, Movement in space: MOhI

subscripting, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

with both temporal and spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

with ku, Introductory

tense afterthought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense and na

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

tense as sumti tcita

contrasted with tense inside sumti, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

tense connected sentences

contrasted with separately tensed sentences, Tense relations between sentences

forethought mode, Tense relations between sentences

importance of bo in, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection

equivalent meanings, Tense relations between sentences

expansions of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of bridi-tails

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sentences

contrasted with sumti tcita form, Tense relations between sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sumti

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense conversion

accessing original first place with fai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

of temporal tenses, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

use in sumti descriptions, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

with jai, Conversion of simple selbri

tense direction

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

tense direction/distance as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense distance

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense forethought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense in scope of sticky tense

compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense inside sumti

contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense on main bridi

effect on embedded bridi tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect on embedded sumti with tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense questions

by using logical connective question, Tense questions: cu'e

methods of asking, Tense questions: cu'e

tense questions with ma, Tense questions: cu'e

tense selma'o

summary of, Summary of tense selma'o

tense sentence connection

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

tense specification

effect on "cu", Introductory

effect on elidability of terminators, Introductory

tense system

and space location, Introductory

tense tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

tense with sumti tcita

asymmetry of, Tense relations between sentences

tense-or-modal questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

tensed connectives

in mathematical expressions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in jek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

with ke…ke'e, Tensed logical connectives

with tu'e…tu'u, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected bridi-tails, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sentences, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sumti, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tenseless sentences in story time, Story time

tenses

compared with modals in syntax, Tenses versus modals

connected

with negation, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

contradictory negation of with nai, Tense negation

contrasted with modals in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought logical connections, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

grouping of connectives in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

logically connected with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

multiple in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

negating, Tense negation

non-logical connection of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

non-logical connection of for sub-events, Sub-events

possible groupings of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

use as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

tenses with elided CAhA

meaning, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

terbi'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terbi'a jurme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terci'e, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tergu'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergu'i ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

terlanme jitro gerku, Anomalous lujvo

terlantroge'u, Anomalous lujvo

term

definition, Termset logical connection

terminators

eliding ku in non-logical connections, Non-logical connectives

termset

effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

formation, Termset logical connection

termset logical connection

unequal length, Termset logical connection

termset modal connection, Other modal connections

termsets

compared to fa'u, Non-logical connectives

non-logical connection of, More about non-logical connectives

tertau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

terter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

terto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

tesete, Conversion: SE

texete, Conversion: SE

text

division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

sub-division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

text quotation

as internally grammatical, Quotation summary

syntax of, Quotation summary

tezu'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

thank you

example, Vocative scales

the

contrasted with a/an, Miscellaneous indicators

example, Miscellaneous indicators

for talking about numbers themselves, Simple infix expressions and equations

the destination

example, Conversion: SE

the go-er

example, Conversion: SE

The men are women

example, The three basic description types

the two of you

example, sumti-based descriptions

thingy

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

this

adjective expression with ti noi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective expression with vi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as utterance reference in English, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pronoun expression with ti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this boat

example, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this book

author of, Acknowledgements and Credits

contributors to, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

examples of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

goal of, What is this book?

reviewers of, Acknowledgements and Credits

structure of, What is this book?

this/that in English

compared with ti-series pro-sumti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

three bears

example, sumti-based descriptions

three cats white

and two big

example, A few notes on variables

three dogs bite two men

example, Grouping of quantifiers

Three Kings

example, selbri based on sumti: me

three of four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three or four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three rats

example, Special mekso selbri

thus

example, Evidentials

ti, Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as pronoun expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti mlatu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

ti noi

as adjective expression for this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti'e, Evidentials

ti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ti'o, Explicit operator precedence

ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ti-series pro-sumti

3 degrees of distance with, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as pointing referents only, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

compared with English this/that, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

conversational convention for, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

problems in written text, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tilde

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

time

as part of tense system (see also tense

temporal tense), Introductory

as space-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with space in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

time tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

time travel, Movement in space: MOhI

times

explicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

implicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

tinju'i, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

tirna, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

title

specifying with tu'e…tu'u, Sentences: I

title of book

example, sumti qualifiers

tixnu be mi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, No more to say: FAhO

to movie

house

office: example, Tagging places: FA

to the market from the office, Termset logical connection

to'a, Upper and lower cases

to'e, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation

to'ebo, sumti negation

to'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'i ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

to'u, Discursives

to-do list

example, More about non-logical connectives

toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Tolkien

and non-standard Lojban orthography, Oddball Orthographies

tolmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tomorrow

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

too

example, Discursives

too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita

too many rats

example, Special mekso selbri

topic-comment

description, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

topic/comment

multiple sentence, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tosmabru test, The lujvo-making algorithm

toward her right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward my right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward right

contrasted with on right, Movement in space: MOhI

traji, Comparatives and superlatives

transfinite cardinal

example, Special numbers

transformations with logical connectives

steps, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

traveling salesperson

example, Modal tags: BAI

tricrxaceru, fu'ivla

tricrxaceru sakta, fu'ivla

tricu, fu'ivla

tricu stedu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

triumph, Types of event abstractions

trkaile, fu'ivla

troci, Inversion of tanru: co

troci co klama, Inversion of tanru: co

truncation of number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

truth

in imperative sentences, Truth questions and connective questions

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

16 possible, Logical connection and truth tables

commutative, The Four basic vowels

creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, The Four basic vowels

fundamental 4 in Lojban, The Four basic vowels

relation to logical connectives, The Four basic vowels

table of logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

truth questions, Miscellaneous indicators

answering "no", Truth questions and connective questions

answering "yes", Truth questions and connective questions

as yes-or-no questions, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with connection questions, Truth questions and connective questions

simple, Truth questions and connective questions

truth table

explanation, Logical connection and truth tables

truth tables

abbreviated format, Logical connection and truth tables

for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, The Four basic vowels

list of 16 in abbreviated form, Logical connection and truth tables

notation convention, Logical connection and truth tables

truth-value abstractions

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction

try the door

example, Lojban sumti raising

try to go

example, Inversion of tanru: co

ts-sound in Russian

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

tsys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

tu, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

archaic English yon as equivalent of, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tu'a, sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising

as being deliberately vague, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for forming abstractions, sumti qualifiers

tu'a le vorme, Lojban sumti raising

tu'e, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

effect on di'e, More about non-logical connectives

use in lists, More about non-logical connectives

tu'o, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

tu'o va'a, Reverse Polish notation

tu'u, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tumla spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tumla vacri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tuple birka, Some types of symmetrical tanru

turdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

twice today

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

two brothers

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

two dogs are white

example, Quantified descriptions

ty, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ty., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty.bu, Alien alphabets

types and subtypes of words, brivla

typical

compared with stereotypical, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Englishman

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Lojban user

example, Masses and sets

typical objects

and instantiation, Descriptors for typical objects

determining characteristics of, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Smith

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

typical value

contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

u'e, cmavo

u'u, Propositional attitude indicators

ugh

example, More about non-logical connectives

UI selma'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

umlaut

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

unabridged dictionary, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

unconditional signal, No more to say: FAhO

unconnected tanru

contrasted with logically connected version, Logical connection within tanru

undemonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

under compulsion

example, Modal selbri

under conditions

example, Event abstraction

underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

unequal termset connection

compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, Termset logical connection

unfilled places of inverted tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

Unicode, Computerized character codes

union

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

union of sets

compared with or, More about non-logical connectives

units of measurement

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

universal

mixed claim with existential, Universal claims

universal claims

dangers of using, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Universal claims

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

unqualified sumti

contrasted with qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

unreduced fractions

use in granular scales, Special mekso selbri

unreduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

unspecified breed

example, Dependent places

unspecified direction

temporal contrasted with in spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

unspecified emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified level of emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified route

example, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified sumti

non-trailing, Standard bridi form: cu

using zo'e as place-holder for, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified trailing sumti

dropping, Standard bridi form: cu

unstated emotion, Compound indicators

unusual characters

words for, The universal bu

unvoiced consonants

contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

unvoiced vowel glide

apostrophe as, The Special Lojban Characters

upper-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

upper-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

utterance

expressing relation to discourse, Discursives

utterance ordinal

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

utterance pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

utterances

non-bridi, Questions and answers

uy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

V

V

as a symbol for a single vowel, Introductory

va, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

VA selma'o

and distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

relation of words to ti

ta, tu, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

va'a, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso

va'e, Special mekso selbri

va'i, Discursives

contrasted with ke'u, Discursives

va'inai, Discursives

vague abstraction, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractor, Minor abstraction types

vague relationship

modal tag for, Modal tags: BAI

valid speech

marking as error with jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators

vanju kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

variables

logical, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

vau, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on elidability ku'o, Possessive sumti

vau for shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

ve, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ve klama, Conversion: SE

contrasted with pluta, Conversion: SE

ve'abe'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ve'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ve'o, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

vecnu, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI

vector

components of, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

vector indicator, Vectors and matrices

terminator for, Vectors and matrices

vectors

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

vei, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

veka'a, Modal tags: BAI

veljvo, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

velvel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

vemau, Comparatives and superlatives

veme'a, Comparatives and superlatives

vensa djedi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verba jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

veterinarian

example, Ordering lujvo places.

vexixa, Subscripts: XI

vi, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses

as adjective expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

vi'a, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'e, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'o

contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

vi'u, Dimensionality: VIhA

vice versa

English

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vindu firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

vinji rebla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

virtue

example, Attitudinal modifiers

viska, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

viska le, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

viska lo, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

vo, Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation

vo'a, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'a-series pro-sumti

use in expressing reciprocity with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'e, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'i, Pro-sumti summary

vo'o, Pro-sumti summary

vo'u, Pro-sumti summary

voboi mu pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

voboi renomei, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

vocative phrase

effect of position on meaning, The syntax of vocative phrases

elidable terminator for, The syntax of vocative phrases

explicit quantifiers prohibited on, The syntax of vocative phrases

forms of, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit descriptor on, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit quantifiers on, The syntax of vocative phrases

purpose of, The syntax of vocative phrases

with complete sumti, The syntax of vocative phrases

with sumti without descriptor, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase terminator

elidability of, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase with name

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrase with selbri

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrases

as a free modifier, The syntax of vocative phrases

relative clauses on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative word

phrase following, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocatives

and definition of "you", Vocative scales

contrasted with "la", Vocative scales

definition, Vocative scales

grammar overview, Vocative scales

notation convention symbol "X", Vocative scales

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

rationale for redundancy, Vocative scales

voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voiced consonants

contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

voiced/unvoiced consonants

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

vorme, Lojban sumti raising

vowel

buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel buffer

contrasted with y sound, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel pairs

contrasted with diphthongs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Vowel Pairs

grouping of, Vowel Pairs

involving y, Vowel Pairs

list of, Vowel Pairs

use of apostrophe in, Vowel Pairs

vowel-initial words

necessity for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

vowels

contrasted with consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

length of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

vu, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

vu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

vu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for creating sequence, sumti qualifiers

vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

vu'u, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

VUhU operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

vukro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

VV string

as a symbol for a double vowel, Introductory

vy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

vy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

vy.bu, Alien alphabets

W

walk to market

example, Conversion of simple selbri

want to be a soldier

example, The syntax of abstraction

wash self

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

weapon against self

example, Dropping the prenex

went and bought

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

what is your name

example, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

when

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when else

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when/where/how

example, Tense questions: cu'e

where

example, Tense questions: cu'e

whether criminal

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

whole time interval

expressing, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

window

example, The six types of logical connectives

wine-dark sea, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

word "abu"

example, References to lerfu

word "bu", The universal bu

word classes, Introductory

word forms

as related to grammatical uses, Introductory

in Lojban (see also morphology), Introductory

word quotation

as morphologically valid, Quotation summary

internal grammar of, Quotation summary

words not in the dictionary, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

wrong concept, Dependent places

X

x sub b,d

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

x sub k

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

X-ray

example, rafsi

x-sub-3

example, Subscripts

x1

in place structure notation, Introductory

notation convention

quick-tour version, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

xa rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

xaceru, fu'ivla

xagmau, Comparatives and superlatives

xagrai, Comparatives and superlatives

xamgu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Comparatives and superlatives

xampo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xamsi gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xance, Anomalous lujvo

xancypliminde, Anomalous lujvo

xanmi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xanplimi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

xaroi, Sub-events

xaskemcakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xasycakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xatsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xazdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xe, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI

xe klama, Conversion: SE

xebro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xecto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xeka'a, Modal tags: BAI

xekri, Notes on gismu place structures

xelklama, Tenses as sumti tcita

xelso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xelxel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xetexe, Conversion: SE

xexso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI

xindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xirma zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xismu, gismu

xispo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xo, Number questions, Questions and answers

xrabo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xriso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xrula tricu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

xu, The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers

xunre, Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation

xunre pastu nixli, The syntax of vocative phrases

xurdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xutla bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

xy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

xy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

xy. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Y

y

considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, Introductory

letter

between letters of consonant pair, brivla

prohibition from fu'ivla, fu'ivla

use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, Consonant Clusters

y sound

contrasted with vowel buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

y-hyphen

and consonant cluster determination, lujvo

and stress determination, lujvo

use of, lujvo

yes/no questions, Miscellaneous indicators

quick-tour version, Questions

yielding the floor, No more to say: FAhO

yon

as archaic English equivalent of tu, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

you

defining, Vocative scales

you're welcome

fi'i contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

je'e contrasted with fi'i, Vocative scales

you-cmavo

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

you-talk

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

younger

example, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

za'a, Indicators, Evidentials

za'e, Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, Considerations for making lujvo

za'i, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'u, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

zabna, Attitudinal modifiers

ZAhO selma'o, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

zai, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

zarci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types

zbasu, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zdani, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zdani co blanu, Inversion of tanru: co

zdani lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani linji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani tcadu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

zdani turni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

effect on following PU direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eba, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eca, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'epu, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'i, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

ze'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zei, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zemo'o, Utterance ordinals: MAI

zenba, Comparatives and superlatives

zepti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zerle'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zerle'a nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zernerkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

zero

relation to negation boundary, Negation boundaries

zero to one

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

zetro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zgike nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ZI selma'o

compared with VA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

compared with English and, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with logical connectives, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'o, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti

as creating new selbri, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zi'o rafsi

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

Zipf's Law, Considerations for making lujvo

zmadu, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

zo, The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zo .bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zo .djan., Other uses of mekso

zo .djan. si .djordj., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo le'u, List of cmavo interactions

zo'e, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as place-holder for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

as place-holder for unspecified sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with FA for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

contrasted with da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

zo'e-series

compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'e-series pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'i, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zo'o, Discursives

zo'obu, The universal bu

zo'u, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

zoi, The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zoi X. text .X, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zu'a, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes

derivation of word, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

zu'a ca'u, Movement in space: MOhI

zu'aku, Tense relations between sentences

zu'i, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zu'o, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

zukte, Notes on gismu place structures

zuljamfu, rafsi

zuljma, rafsi

zunle, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

zunle jamfu, rafsi

zunlyjamfu, rafsi

zunlyjma, rafsi

zy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

zy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

Lojban Words Index

Symbols

"

"

word for, The universal bu

"&"

word for, The universal bu

"."

word for, The universal bu

"a" is letteral

example, References to lerfu

"because"

English word

four varieties of, Modal sentence connection: the causals

"la"

contrasted with vocatives, Vocative scales

"less"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"me"

effect of MOI on, Special mekso selbri

"more"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"no" quantifier

expanding, Negation boundaries

"of"

in English

compared with do'e, Modal tags: BAI

"or"

"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both", Logical connection and truth tables

"there is a Y"

expression

notation convention, Negation boundaries

"z" instead of "'"

in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

$, Computerized character codes

' symbol

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

definition (see also apostrophe), The Special Lojban Characters

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

(n+1)-th rat

example, Special mekso selbri

* ... le zarci fa'u le briju, Questions and answers

*gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

*reboi ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

+1 + -1 = 0

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

-1

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

-cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?

-ek

in name for logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives

-er

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

-hood, Abstract lujvo

-ity, Property abstractions

-mei, Special mekso selbri

-nai, Modal negation, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation, What are attitudinal indicators?, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

-ness, Property abstractions

-ng

Lojban contrasted with English, Syllabication And Stress

-roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

-to'e-, Expressing scales in selbri negation

... lo gerku, Quantified descriptions

.a, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.a'abu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.a'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.a'o, What are attitudinal indicators?

.a'u, More about non-logical connectives

.a'ucu'i, Propositional attitude indicators

.abu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.abu by. cy., Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

.abubu, The universal bu

.ai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Vocative scales

.ai,in bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.akut. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.alef. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.alfas., Alien alphabets

.alfas. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.au, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.azys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.bet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.betas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.bravos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.brevis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.bukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.cas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.cin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cirkumfleks. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.ctas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.curuk. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cyVAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daled. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.dasei,as. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.deltas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.dobros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.e, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

contrasted with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

.e speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

.e'ebu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.ebu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ecarn. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ei, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.eibu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.eicai, Attitudes as scales

.eicu'i, Attitudes as scales

.einai, Attitudes as scales

.eiro'u, Emotional categories

.eiru'e, Attitudes as scales

.eisai, Attitudes as scales

.ekos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.eksreis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.Epsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.etas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fokstrot. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.friytys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.gamas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.gapmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gapyjin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gimel. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.glagolis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.golf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.grav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.i, cmavo, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.i la nas., cmene

.i'anai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'inai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.ia, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.iabu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ianai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives

.iankis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ibaubo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.ibu, cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ie, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Vocative scales

.ie ge'eru'e, Compound indicators

.iecu'i, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ienai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ier. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieriys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieru'e, Compound indicators

.ierys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iestys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ii, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales

.ii.iinai, The space of emotions

.iige'e, Miscellaneous indicators

.ija, bridi negation and logical connectives

.ije, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables

.ije seri'a, Mixed modal connection

.ije,is. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ijebabo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.ijeseri'abo, Mixed modal connection

.indias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.io, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.iotas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.iri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.iseri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.itord. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.iubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iucai, Propositional attitude indicators

.iud. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ius. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.izu'abo, Tense relations between sentences

.jivet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.juliet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kaf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kakos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.kamats. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kapas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.keBEK. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kilos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.kubuts. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kuf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.limas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.liudi,ies. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.lymdas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.LYmed. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.maik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.makron. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.midgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.myslites. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.naciys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.novembr. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.nun. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.nus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.o'obu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o'ufu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.o'unairo'a, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'i, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'o, Emotional categories

.obu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ogoniek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.oi, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators

.oicai, Propositional attitude indicators

.oinai, Compound indicators

.oinaicu'i ro'ucai, Compound indicators

.omegas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.Omikron. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.onai, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

.onys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.oskar. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.paPAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.patax. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.pokois. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.pritygal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.psiles. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.re'akut. bu [re akut.], Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.rec. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.relmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.riytsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.romios. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.seDIlys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.seGOL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.sieras. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.sigmas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.sin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.slovos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.taf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tangos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.taus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tcriyviys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tildes. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tseirex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tyvriydos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.u, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.u'u, Pure emotion indicators

.u'ubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.u'unai, Attitudinal modifiers

.ua, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.uanai, Miscellaneous indicators

.ubu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ue, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.ui, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

.ui .ui .ui, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uibu, The universal bu

.uicai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.uiskis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.Uniform. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.uo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.Upsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.uu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.uuse'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.uuse'inai, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.vav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.vedis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.viktas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.xatcek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.xerys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.xet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xirik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.xolem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xoTEL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.y'y, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.y'y., Vowel Pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.y'y.bu, Alien alphabets

.y., cmavo, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions

.y.bu, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ybu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.zai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.zemlias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.zetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.zulgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.zulus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

1 + 1 = 2

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

10^20

example, Infix operators revisited

12-point

example, Alien alphabets

123

example, Lojban numbers

2 + 2

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

2/7

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

3 * 10^8

example, Infix operators revisited

3 grams

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

3.1415

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

4-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

5-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

9 out of ten

example, Special mekso selbri

A

a, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

example, Miscellaneous indicators

A

selma'o catalog,

A gives B to C

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A gives BC

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A loves B

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A selma'o, sumti connection, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

a'e, Propositional attitude indicators

a/an

contrasted with the, Miscellaneous indicators

abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ABC base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

abduction

example, Evidentials

Abraham Lincoln

example, Truth questions and connective questions

absolute laws, Why have lujvo?

abstract description, Lojban sumti raising

abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo

abstraction bridi

contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, Other kinds of simple selbri

effect on claim of bridi, Modal sentence connection: the causals

abstraction conversion, Lojban sumti raising

abstraction of sentences

contrasted with quotation, Predication/sentence abstraction

abstractions

achievement, Types of event abstractions

activity, Types of event abstractions

concept, Minor abstraction types

creating new types, Minor abstraction types

event, Event abstraction

experience, Minor abstraction types

forethought connection in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

grammatical uses, The syntax of abstraction

grouping of connectives in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

idea, Minor abstraction types

implicit in sumti, Event abstraction

logical connection of, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

making concrete, Lojban sumti raising

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

place structure, The syntax of abstraction

point-event, Types of event abstractions

process, Types of event abstractions

simplification to sumti with jai, Lojban sumti raising

simplification to sumti with tu'a, Lojban sumti raising

speaking

writing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

state, Types of event abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Event abstraction

truth-value and fuzzy logic, Truth-value abstraction: jei

vague, Minor abstraction types

with knowing

believing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

with wonder

doubt, etc., Indirect questions

accent mark

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

accent marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

accented letters

considered as distinct from unaccented, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Acer

example, fu'ivla

achievative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

achievement abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

achievement event

described, Types of event abstractions

acronym

definition, Acronyms

acronym names from lerfu words

assigning final consonant, Acronyms

acronyms

as lerfu strings using "me", Acronyms

using names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

acronyms names based on lerfu words

omitting bu, Acronyms

using "z" instead of "'" in, Acronyms

activity abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

activity abstractor, Types of event abstractions

activity event

described, Types of event abstractions

actual events

explicitly expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

actual stop

contrasted with natural end, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

actuality

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implying, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

addition

a mathematical operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition operator

contrasted with positive sign, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition problems

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

adjective ordering, Logical connection within tanru

adjective-noun combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adjectives

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

adverb-verb combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adverbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

affirmative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

afraid of horse

example, Relative clauses and descriptors

after sleep

example, Propositional attitude indicators

afterthought bridi connectives

contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought connection

contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

afterthought connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with forethought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought sentence connection

modal contrasted with tense, Tenses versus modals

afterthought tense connection

contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

ai, Quotation summary, Non-decimal and compound bases

ailment, Ordering lujvo places.

akut. bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

aleph null

example, Special numbers

Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

algebra of functions

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

alienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

aliens

communication with, Tentative conclusion

all-th

example, Special mekso selbri

allowable diphthongs

in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo, fu'ivla

in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

alpha

example, Alien alphabets

alphabet

Latin used for Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Lojban, Orthography

words for letters in

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alphabetic order, Orthography

alphabets

words for non-Lojban letters

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alternative guidelines, Why have lujvo?

always and everywhere

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ambiguity of tanru, Simple tanru

American dollars, Computerized character codes

American Indian languages and evidentials, Evidentials

Amharic writing, What about Chinese characters?

ampersand

example, The universal bu

ampersand character

word for, The universal bu

Amsterdam

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

an

example, Miscellaneous indicators

anaphora

definition, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-bridi go'i-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti ri-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti vo'a-series as, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

anaphoric pro-bridi

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

anaphoric pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

and

as non-logical connective, Non-logical connectives

compared with but, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with cross-product, More about non-logical connectives

and earlier

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and then, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

example, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

animal doctor

example, Ordering lujvo places.

animal patient, Ordering lujvo places.

animals

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

anomalous ordering of lujvo places, lujvo with more than two parts.

answers

go'i for yes/no questions, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to operator questions, Other uses of mekso

to place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

to tense-or-modal questions, Tense questions: cu'e

antecedent

for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

for pro-bridi as full bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

antecedent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

antecedent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

anticipated

example, Evidentials

any

as a restricted universal claim, The problem of “any”

as a translation problem, The problem of “any”

as a universal claim

later restricted, The problem of “any”

as an existential claim, The problem of “any”

expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, The problem of “any”

any box, The problem of “any”

anyone

contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

anyone who goes

walks

example, The problem of “any”

aorist

definition, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

apostrophe

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

as not a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

as preferable over comma in names, The Special Lojban Characters

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

purpose of, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

type of letter in word-formation, The Special Lojban Characters

use in vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

Appassionata

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

approximate numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

expressing some exactness of, Approximation and inexact numbers

approximately 40

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Arabian Nights, Paragraphs: NIhO

Arabic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

argument tags

based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), Tenses as sumti tcita

Armstrong

example, Syllabication And Stress

Arnold

example, cmene

arthropod, Dependent places

article

number, Simple infix expressions and equations

articles

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

Artur Rubenstein

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

ASCII

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

aspect

expressing, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

natural languages compared with respect to, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

assignable pro-sumti

explicit cancellation of by rebinding, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

assumption

example, Evidentials

asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

definition, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

asymmetrical tanru types

activity + implement-used, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cause + effect, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic-time + event, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic/detail + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

effect + causative agent, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

elements-in-set + set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

energy-source + powered, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

general-class + sub-class, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

inhabitant + habitat, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

locus-of-application + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

miscellaneous, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + component/detail, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + place-sold, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + usual-container, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-giving-characteristic + other-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-measured + standard-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-action + action, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

possessor + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + producer, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + source, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

set + element-of-set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

similar-appearance-object + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source + product, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source-material + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

typical-place + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

undesired-object + protection-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

whole + part, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

at least

contrasted with more than

less than, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at least two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most

contrasted with more than

at least, less than, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Athens, Types of event abstractions

attend school

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

attitude

avoidance of expression, Miscellaneous indicators

scalar, Attitudes as scales

attitudes

beginning, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

ceasing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

continuing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

empathy contrasted with sympathy, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

expressing changes in, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal

example of scale effect, Attitudes as scales

signaling as non-propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

attitudinal answers

plausibility, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal categories, Emotional categories

example of effect, Emotional categories

mnemonic for, Emotional categories

rationale, Emotional categories

attitudinal indicator

unspecified, Compound indicators

attitudinal indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

conventions of interpretation, Compound indicators

placement of "nai" in, Compound indicators

placement of scale in, Compound indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers

attitudinal questions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking about specific attitude, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking intensity, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal scale

as axis in emotion-space, The space of emotions

neutral compared with positive + negative, The space of emotions

seven-position, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone usage, Attitudes as scales

usage, Attitudes as scales

attitudinal scales

rationale for assignment, Attitudes as scales

attitudinals

a- series, Propositional attitude indicators

affecting whole grammatical structures, The uses of indicators

and logic, What's wrong with this picture?

at beginning of text, The uses of indicators

attributing emotion to others, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

benefit in written expression, The uses of indicators

categories with nai, Emotional categories

categories with scale markers, Emotional categories

complexity, Attitudinal modifiers

compound, What are attitudinal indicators?

contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

contrasted with bridi, Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions

contrasted with discursives, Discursives

contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, The space of emotions

design benefit, The space of emotions

e- series, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional contrasted with propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional/propositional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

exceptions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

external grammar, The uses of indicators

grammar of internal compounding, Compound indicators

grammar of placement in bridi, The uses of indicators

i- series, Propositional attitude indicators

internal grammar

complete, Compound indicators

logical language and, Propositional attitude indicators

negative, Attitudes as scales

neutral, Attitudes as scales

non-speaker attitudes, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

order of, The space of emotions

placement for prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

placement in sentences with "nai", Compound indicators

positive, Attitudes as scales

prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

propositional contrasted with emotional, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional effect on claim, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional/emotional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

rationale for, Propositional attitude indicators

referent uncertainty, The uses of indicators

scale of, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone categories, Emotional categories

word-form for primary, What are attitudinal indicators?

au, Non-decimal and compound bases

audio-visual isomorphism, Orthography

audio-visually isomorphic, Sentences: I

auditoriums, Dependent places

author of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

Avon

example, Modal tags: BAI

B

ba, Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

ba'a, Evidentials

ba'acu'i, Evidentials

ba'anai, Evidentials

ba'e, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

ba'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as futureward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

back-counting pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

background noise, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

BAhE

selma'o catalog,

bai, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection

BAI

selma'o catalog,

BAI cmavo

rationale for selection, Modal tags: BAI

bai ke, Modal selbri

BAI ki ku, Sticky modals

BAI modal tags

rationale for, Modal tags: BAI

BAI selma'o, Modal conversion: JAI

as short forms for fi'o constructs, Modal tags: BAI

effect of conversion on, Modal tags: BAI

form of cmavo in, Modal tags: BAI

bai tavla, Modal selbri

bai'ai, cmavo

bajra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

bakni rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakni verba, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakrecpa'o, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bakri, rafsi

balsoi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo

balvi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals

bangu, Lojban names

banli, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

banli sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

bapli tavla, Modal selbri

bapu, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

barda, Simple tanru

base

assumed, Non-decimal and compound bases

changing permanently, Non-decimal and compound bases

non-constant, Non-decimal and compound bases

specifying, Non-decimal and compound bases

vague, Non-decimal and compound bases

base greater than 16

compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing numbers in, Non-decimal and compound bases

two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

base point

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

base varying for each digit

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

base-20 arithmetic

remnants of, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

basis

example, Evidentials

basti, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

basygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

batci, Dropping the prenex

bau, Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals

bavla'i, lujvo with more than two parts.

bavlamdei, lujvo with more than two parts.

baxso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

be, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

be lo, Minor abstraction types

be'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?

effect of ku on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect of relative clauses on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

be'u, Attitudinal modifiers

beach

example, Property abstractions

bear wrote story

example, The three basic description types

Bears wrote book

example, Individuals and masses

beautiful dog

example, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

beefsteak, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Beethoven

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

beetle

example, Dependent places

beetles, Dependent places

begin

contrasted with resume, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

beginning point

spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

bei, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

being alive

example, Types of event abstractions

bemro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bengo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bersa tixnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

berti merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

better

example, Comparatives and superlatives

between Dresden and Frankfurt

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

beverage

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect on following operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

bi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'u, Miscellaneous indicators

bi'unai, Miscellaneous indicators

bibliography, Informal Bibliography

bicycle race

example, Minor abstraction types

bifce jisra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce lakse, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

big boat

example, lujvo

big nose

example, What are you pointing at?

big nose-pores

example, What are you pointing at?

big person

example, What are you pointing at?

big red dog

example, Logical connection within tanru

BIhI selma'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Bill Clinton

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

bilma, rafsi

binary system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

bindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

birka, Relative phrases

bisycla, brivla

blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

blabi karce, Incidental relative clauses

blaci, rafsi

blaci kanla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo sidju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blakanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

blanu bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je zdani, Logical connection within tanru

blanu kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu zdani, Logical connection within tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blanu zdani ponse, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blari'o, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti

blaselkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blokle, lujvo-making examples

blolei, lujvo-making examples

bloti, lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

bloti klesi, lujvo-making examples

blue

as sad

example, Miscellaneous indicators

blue and red

example, Non-logical connectives

blue house

example, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru

blue-eyed

example, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for right-grouping in tanru, Complex tanru grouping

in jeks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in joiks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

right-grouping, Grouping of afterthought connectives

bo and forethought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

BO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

boat class

example, lujvo-making examples

boat sailed

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

boi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI

effect on elidability of me'u, Special mekso selbri

eliding from lerfu strings, lerfu words as pro-sumti

exception before MAI, Other uses of mekso

exception before MOI, Special mekso selbri

exception before ROI, Other uses of mekso

required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, lerfu words as pro-sumti

bold

example, Alien alphabets

bomb destroyed fifty miles

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

bone bread

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

books about Lojban, Informal Bibliography

borrowing

four stages of, fu'ivla

borrowing from other language

fu'ivla as, brivla

borrowings

fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

most common form for, fu'ivla

Stage 1, fu'ivla

Stage 2, fu'ivla

Stage 3, fu'ivla

Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, fu'ivla

Stage 4, fu'ivla

using foreign-language name, fu'ivla

using lojbanized name, fu'ivla

Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

both dogs

example, Indefinite numbers

bound variable pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

bovine

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bracketed remark, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

brackets

use in IPA notation, Basic Phonetics

bradi, The gismu creation algorithm

brazo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

breathe

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

bredi, The gismu creation algorithm

bridi, The concept of the bridi, Syllabication And Stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions

building from selbri and sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with predication, The concept of the bridi

concept of, The concept of the bridi

definition, Lojban content words: brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

effect of alternate form on sumti order, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of using non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

exception to sumti place structure in, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving end sumti places unspecified in, Standard bridi form: cu

logical connection with negation, Logical connection of bridi

logical connective for, Logical connection of bridi

non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

omitting the first sumti place, Standard bridi form: cu

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

relation to selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

selbri-first as exceptional, Standard bridi form: cu

standard form of, Standard bridi form: cu

bridi cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

bridi connection

use of imperatives in, Truth questions and connective questions

use of truth questions in, Truth questions and connective questions

bridi logical connection

compared with sumti logical connections, sumti connection

bridi negation

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

compared with negation between sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, Negation boundaries

naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, Negation boundaries

relative order with tense, Tenses and bridi negation

two forms of, Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

bridi questions

quick-tour version, Questions

bridi valsi, lujvo, rafsi

bridi-based comparison

contrasted with comparison with relative phrase

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

bridi-tail

definition, Compound bridi

bridi-tail logical connection

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

bridi-tails

eliding vau in, Compound bridi

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

bridyvalsi, lujvo

bridyvla, lujvo

brie

example, fu'ivla

brife molki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

briju ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

brito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

brivalsi, lujvo

brivla, Examples of brivla, Syllabication And Stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

consonant pairs in, brivla

definition, brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

from tanru, lujvo

properties of, brivla

recognition of, brivla

relation to bridi, The concept of the bridi

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

subtypes of, brivla

types, Lojban content words: brivla

types of

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

brivla as selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

brivla equivalents, Other kinds of simple selbri

brivla form

contrasted with cmavo form, brivla

contrasted with cmene form, brivla

broda, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

broda-series for pro-bridi

compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as abstract pattern, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as sample gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with no assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

word-form rationale, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

brode, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

brodi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodo, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodu, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

Brooklyn

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

brothers

example, Non-logical connectives

Brown

James Cooke, Acknowledgements and Credits

and "letteral", What's a letteral, anyway?

John

example, cmene

brudi, The gismu creation algorithm

bu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions

and compound cmavo, The universal bu

effect of multiple, The universal bu

effect on preceding word, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for extension of lerfu word set, The universal bu

grammar of, The universal bu

interaction with ba'e, The universal bu

interaction with language shift, Alien alphabets

omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

bu'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'a zo'u, selbri variables

bu'a-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

bu'e, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'i, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'o, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'ocu'i, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'onai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compared with ca, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

bubu, The universal bu

budjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

buffer vowel, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

and stress, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

shortening of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

bukpu spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Bulgarian

example, fu'ivla

but

compared with and, Truth questions and connective questions

example, Discursives

but/and equivalence, Indicators

butter is soft

example, Individuals and masses

butterfly

social

example, tanru

by, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

by., rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti

by. cy., lerfu words as pro-sumti

C

C string

as a symbol for a single consonant, Introductory

C/C string

as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, Introductory

C/CC string

as a symbol for a consonant triple, Introductory

ca, Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

compared with bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

rational for, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ca ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca'e, Evidentials

ca'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cabna, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

cadzu, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu cipni, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cadzu klama, Conversion of simple selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu le bisli, Modal selbri

cafne, Lojban sumti raising

cagyce'u, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cagyce'u zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

CAhA selma'o

making sticky, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

order in tense construct, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

cai, Attitudes as scales

cakcinki, Dependent places

calculator mathematics

as default in Lojban, Simple infix expressions and equations

calku, Dependent places

calku cinki, Dependent places

calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

can see

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

canceling letter shifts, Alien alphabets

cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment

with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

capital letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

use of, Orthography

capitalization

for unusual stress in names, cmene

use in names, cmene

use of, cmene

car goer

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

cardinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

cardinality

definition, Masses and sets

property of sets, Masses and sets

carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

carried piano

example, Non-logical connectives

carry sack

example, Mixed modal connection

carry sack and dog

example, Tensed logical connectives

carry the piano

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Cartesian product

with tenses, Sub-events

Carthage destroyed

example, Evidentials

carvi dirgo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi taxfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

case

upper/lower specification, Upper and lower cases

casnu, More about non-logical connectives

cat of plastic

example, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Catherine

example, cmene

Cathy

example, cmene

causals

claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, Modal sentence connection: the causals

gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

cause death

example, Lojban sumti raising

cave

example, Story time

CC string

as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, Introductory

CCVVCV fu'ivla

and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ce, cmavo, Non-logical connectives

ce'a, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

ce'e, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

ce'i, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

ce'o, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Amount abstractions

use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

cedilla

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

cei for broda-series assignment

compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

centi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cerni bumru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cessitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cevni jenmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni prenu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni zekri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ch-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

chapter numbering, Other uses of mekso

chapter titles

intent of, What is this book?

character codes

definition, Computerized character codes

character encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

characters

definition, Computerized character codes

special, The Special Lojban Characters

Chelsea Clinton, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

chemical elements

use of single-letter shift for, Upper and lower cases

Chief

example, cmene

child on ice

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Chilean desert

example, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

Chinese characters

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on pinyin spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

choose from

example, Non-logical connectives

Chrysler

example, selbri based on sumti: me

ci, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation

ci da, A few notes on variables

ci gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci lo gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ci'e, Metalinguistic negation forms

ci'u, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

CIA

example, Acronyms

cidja, fu'ivla

cidja barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cidjrspageti, fu'ivla

cifi'uxa, Special mekso selbri

cifnu degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinctu, lujvo-making examples

cinfo, Notes on gismu place structures

cinfo jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinfo kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinki, Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures

cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

cipnrstrigi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

circumflex

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cirla, fu'ivla

ciste, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

citmau, Comparatives and superlatives

citno, Comparatives and superlatives

citno zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

ckana boxfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Dependent places

ckule dinju, Dependent places

ckunu tricu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cladakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakfu xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

clamshells, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

clani, lujvo with more than two parts.

clarity of sounds, Basic Phonetics

Classical Greek aorist tense

compared with Lojban tense, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

cliva, Dependent places

closed interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

closings

letter, Vocative scales

cmaci, fu'ivla

cmacrnintegrale, fu'ivla

cmacrntegrale, fu'ivla

cmalu, Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

cmalu bo nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, Complex tanru grouping

cmalu nixli ckule, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

cmalu valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cmaro'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmaro'i dargu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmavo, Variant bridi structure, Syllabication And Stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

compound, cmavo

contrasted with rafsi in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, lujvo

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, cmavo

experimental, cmavo

for experimental use, cmavo

lack of relation of form to grammatical use, cmavo

rules for pause after Cy-form, Rules for inserting pauses

simple, cmavo

stress on, Syllabication And Stress, cmavo

structure of, cmavo

cmavo and gismu

major, gismu

cmavo as selbri

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

cmavo be zo do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

cmavo form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmavo without rafsi

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

cmene, cmene

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

and analyzability of speech stream, cmene

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

authority for, cmene

avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, cmene

consonant clusters permitted in, cmene

definition, cmene

examples of, cmene

final letter in, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

proscribed syllables in, cmene

purpose of, cmene

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

rules for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

stress in, cmene

unusual stress in, cmene

cmene form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmima, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation

co'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

as selbri place-holder, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

rationale for word form, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'e-series pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'i, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'o, Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

co'o la xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'o le xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

cobra

example, fu'ivla

coffee mixed with tea

example, More about non-logical connectives

coffee or tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

coi, Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases

coi doi djan., Vocative scales

COI selma'o, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Relative clauses in vocative phrases, Vocative scales

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

effect on referent of "do", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

effect on referent of "mi", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ordering multiple with mi'e, Vocative scales

coico'o, Vocative scales

coin heads

example, Special mekso selbri

coinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Coleoptera, Dependent places

color standards, Notes on gismu place structures

comma

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

effect on relative clause in English, Incidental relative clauses

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

main use of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

command

contrasted with observative form, Standard bridi form: cu

commands

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

commas in numbers

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of other notation conventions, Signs and numerical punctuation

with elided digits, Signs and numerical punctuation

common abstractor, Event abstraction

commutative truth functions, The Four basic vowels

comparative lujvo

against former state, Comparatives and superlatives

and seltau presupposition, Comparatives and superlatives

potential ambiguity in, Comparatives and superlatives

standardized meanings, Comparatives and superlatives

comparatives

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

comparison

claims related to based on form, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

comparison with relative phrase

contrasted with bridi-based comparison

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

completitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

complex logical connection

grouping strategies contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex logical connectives

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex movements

expressing, Movement in space: MOhI

complex negation

examples, Scalar negation of selbri

complex numbers

expressing, Special numbers

components contrasted with mass

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

compound base

definition, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing digits in, Non-decimal and compound bases

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

compound bridi

definition, Compound bridi

logical connection of, Compound bridi

more than one sumti in common, Compound bridi

multiple with bo, Multiple compound bridi

multiple with ke…ke'e, Multiple compound bridi

one sumti in common, Compound bridi

separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

compound bridi with more than one sumti in common

with common sumti first, Compound bridi

with vau, Compound bridi

compound cmavo

compared with sequence of simple cmavo, cmavo

definition, cmavo

recognition of, cmavo

compound emotions, The space of emotions

compound letters

native language

representing as distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

compound logical connectives

components, The six types of logical connectives

naming convention, The six types of logical connectives

compound of gismu

lujvo as, brivla

compound spatial tense

as direction with-or-without distance, Compound spatial tenses

beginning with distance only, Compound spatial tenses

effect of different ordering, Compound spatial tenses

explanation of, Compound spatial tenses

with direction and distance, Compound spatial tenses

compound subscript, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

compound temporal tense

beginning with distance only, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compound tense

compared with multiple tenses in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Compound spatial tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, Compound spatial tenses

compound tense ordering

Lojban contrasted with English, Compound spatial tenses

computer interaction, No more to say: FAhO

concept abstraction, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractor, Minor abstraction types

concrete terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

condescension

example, Attitudinal modifiers

confusion

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

confusion about what was said, Miscellaneous indicators

conjunctions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

connected tenses

negation of compared with negation in connective, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

connecting operands

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting operators

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection

non-distributed, Non-logical connectives

of sumti

selma'o catalog,

simultaneously modal and logical, Mixed modal connection

connection of operands

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

precedence over operator, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection of operators

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connective answers

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connective question answers

contrasted with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

connective question cmavo

departure from regularity of, Truth questions and connective questions

connective questions

answering, Truth questions and connective questions

compared with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

table by constructs connected, Constructs and appropriate connectives

consonant

definition, Consonant Clusters

effect on syllable count, Consonant Clusters

consonant clusters

buffering of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

definition of, Consonant Clusters

more than three consonants in, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant pairs

in brivla, brivla

initial, Initial Consonant Pairs

letter y within, brivla

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

consonant triples, Initial Consonant Pairs

restrictions on, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant-final words

necessity for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

consonants

contrasted with vowels, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final, Consonant Clusters

position of, Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

syllabic, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

voiced/unvoiced equivalents, Consonant Clusters

voicing of, Consonant Clusters

continents

gismu for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

continues

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuous

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

contradictory negation

using naku before selbri, Using naku outside a prenex

contradictory negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

contradictory negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

contributors to this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

conversion

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

definition, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on BAI, Modal tags: BAI

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

modal, Modal conversion: JAI

of BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

of operator places, Miscellany

scope of, Conversion: SE

swapping non-first places, Conversion: SE

swapping with modal place, Modal conversion: JAI

conversion and tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion into sumti from mekso, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of operand into operator, Miscellany

conversion of operator into operand, Miscellany

conversion of operator into selbri, Other uses of mekso

conversion of selbri into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of selbri into operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sentence with quantified variables

technique, Using naku outside a prenex

conversion of sumti into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

conversion with ke, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion with se

effect of naku negation boundary on, Using naku outside a prenex

converted selbri

as different selbri from unconverted, Conversion: SE

as resetting standard order, Conversion: SE

compared with selbri with FA in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted with other similar selbri, Conversion: SE

contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, Conversion: SE

definition, Conversion: SE

forming with SE, Conversion: SE

in descriptions, Conversion: SE

place structure of, Conversion: SE

retention of basic meaning in, Conversion: SE

to access non-first place in description, Conversion: SE

cpina rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

creative understanding, Why have lujvo?

credits for pictures, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

cribe, The three basic description types

cribe rectu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

crisa citsi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

critu lunra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cross product

with tenses, Sub-events

cross-dependency, Dependent places

cross-product

contrasted with and, More about non-logical connectives

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

ctcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ctigau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

ctile jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cu, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions

as selbri separator, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of selbri-first bridi on, Tagging places: FA

effect of tense specification, Introductory

effect on elidability of ku, The three basic description types

effect on elidable terminators, Standard bridi form: cu

necessity of, Standard bridi form: cu

need for

quick-tour version, Description sumti

omission of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

use of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

usefulness of, Standard bridi form: cu

cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers

combining with other tense cmavo, Tense questions: cu'e

cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions

cu'o, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

cu'u, cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

cukta barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cukta vasru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cultural knowledge

example, Evidentials

cultural words

rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

culturally dependent lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

cunso, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cup's friend

example, Relative phrases

curious, Predication/sentence abstraction

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

curnu jalra, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

cutci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

cuxna, Non-logical connectives

cy, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Cy-form cmavo

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

cy., cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

cycles, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Cyrillic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da, Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with zo'e, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da poi, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi

da poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

DA selma'o, Subscripts: XI

da viska mi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da zo'u, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

default number for, Indefinite numbers

da'amei, brivla

da'amoi terbasna, Syllabication And Stress

da'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

da'i, Discursives

da'inai, Discursives

da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions

for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

syntax of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

da'u, Pro-sumti summary

da-series

after third, Subscripts: XI

da-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadysli junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dai, cmene, Lojban names, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

dakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

dalmikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daxivo, Subscripts: XI

de, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

de'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

de'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

de'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

de'u, Pro-sumti summary

decimal point

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of different notations, Signs and numerical punctuation

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

decti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

deduction

example, Evidentials

default operator precedence

contrasted with mekso goal, Simple infix expressions and equations

deference

example, Attitudinal modifiers

definable pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

sequences of lerfu words as, Pro-sumti summary

definite numbers

combined with indefinite, Indefinite numbers

dei, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

dejni, Multiple compound bridi

dekto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

delno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

demonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

demonstrative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

DeMorgan's Law

and bridi-tail logical connection, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and internal naku negations, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and logically connected sentences, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

sample applications, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci genja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci pesxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denpa, The universal bu

denpa bu, The universal bu

denpabu, The universal bu

denPAbu, The universal bu

dereferencing a pointer

with la'e, sumti qualifiers

derivational morphology

definition, Introductory

derogatory terms, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

descriptions

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

as based on first place of following selbri, Conversion: SE

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

components of, The three basic description types

importance of selbri first place in, The three basic description types

non-specific, The three basic description types

quick-tour version, Description sumti

specific, The three basic description types

types of, The three basic description types

use of SE in, Conversion: SE

descriptions with lo

teddy bear contrasted with real bear, The three basic description types

descriptor

as part of description, The three basic description types

descriptors

implicit quantifiers for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

purpose of, The three basic description types

Devanagari

example, Alien alphabets

dexivo, Subscripts: XI

di, cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

di'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

di'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives

effect of tu'e/tu'u on, More about non-logical connectives

di'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with la'edi'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with ta, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

diacritic marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

diacritical marks

as lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

considered as forming distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

order of specification within tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem of position, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem with multiple on one lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

specifying with tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

dictionary

superior authority of, Disclaimers

die after living

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

digit questions, Number questions

digit string

definition of, Other uses of mekso

digits

cmavo for, Lojban numbers

names from, Miscellany

rafsi for, Miscellany

rationale for having 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

digits beyond 9

word pattern, Non-decimal and compound bases

dikca tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dimension

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

dimensionality

of walking, Dimensionality: VIhA

order with size in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensionality of interval

as subjective, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensioned numbers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

dinju, fu'ivla

diphthongs

classification of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

contrasted with vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

English analogues of, English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

IPA for, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

list of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

specific to cmene, cmene

specific to names, cmene

direct address, Vocative scales

direction

following interval in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interaction with movement specification in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

reference frame for, Movement in space: MOhI

specification with FAhA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

directions

multiple with movement, Movement in space: MOhI

disambiguated instance, The meaning of lujvo

disclaimers, Disclaimers

discourse

commentary on, Discursives

expressing utterance relation to, Discursives

gesture markers, Discursives

tone of voice markers, Discursives

discrete

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

discursive indicator, Paragraphs: NIhO

discursives

as metalinguistic claims, Discursives

contrasted with attitudinals, Discursives

definition, Discursives

discourse commentary, Discursives

discourse management, Discursives

embedded, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

expressing how things are said, Discursives

knowledge, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

quick-tour version, Indicators

su'a as, Evidentials

word-level, Discursives

discursives for consecutive discourse, Discursives

contrasted, Discursives

discursives for managing discourse flow, Discursives

discuss in language

example, More about non-logical connectives

distance

order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

specification with VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

distribution of quantified sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

ditto

example, Discursives

diversified species, Notes on gismu place structures

djacu barna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu dertu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

djacu dunda, Modal sentence connection: the causals

djedi, lujvo with more than two parts.

djica, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

djine, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

djinrnintegrale, fu'ivla

djuno, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

DNA

example, Acronyms

do, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

do brode, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

do klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do nelci mi, Tenses versus modals

do'a, Discursives

do'anai, Discursives

do'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

compared with English "of", Modal tags: BAI

do'i, cmene, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

do'o, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

do'u, The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales

doctor and then rich

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

dog bites

example, Dropping the prenex

dog breathes, Restricted claims: da poi

dog house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

dog or cat

example, Truth questions and connective questions

doghouse

example, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo

dogs bite

example, Grouping of quantifiers

doi, Vocatives and commands, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, The syntax of vocative phrases, Lojban names, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

doi .io, Vocative scales

doi .ionai, Vocative scales

doi frank., Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

doi ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

DOI selma'o, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

doinai, Vocative scales

Dong

example, Ordering lujvo places.

donma'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

donri nicte, Some types of symmetrical tanru

donta'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dotco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

double negation

and naku, Using naku outside a prenex

double negatives

effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, Negation boundaries

double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

doubled consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

Doyle

example, Lojban names

dream

example, Evidentials

du, Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary

as an exception within GOhA selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

compared with me in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

contrasted with dunli, The identity predicate: du

contrasted with mintu, The identity predicate: du

derivation of, The identity predicate: du

grammar of, Simple infix expressions and equations

meaning of, The identity predicate: du

rationale for selection of selma'o for, The identity predicate: du

with complex mekso on both sides, Simple infix expressions and equations

du'e, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

du'e ratcu, Special mekso selbri

du'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

du-, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dubjavmau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

dubjavme'a, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

ducks swim

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

dunda, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

dunda gi'abo lebna, Multiple compound bridi

dunli, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

dunra nicte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

dy.bu, Alien alphabets

dzipo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

E

e, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

contrasted with pi'u, More about non-logical connectives

e'e, Attitudinal modifiers

e'o, Vocative scales

contrasted with pe'u, Vocative scales

e'u, Syllabication And Stress, Evidentials

compared with ru'a, Evidentials

Earl

example, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

eat in airplane

example, Movement in space: MOhI

eat themselves

example, Indefinite numbers

editorial commentary, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

with "sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

ei, Non-decimal and compound bases

Einsteinian

space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, Dimensionality: VIhA

ek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

eks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in sumti forethought logical connection, sumti connection

elementary schools, Dependent places

Elgin

Suzette Haden and evidentials, Evidentials

elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

elided tense

meaning of, Introductory

elimination process, Ordering lujvo places.

ellipsis

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

elliptical pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical value

contrasted with typical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

embarrassment

example, Emotional categories

embedded bridi tenses

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

emotional categories, Emotional categories

emotional indicators

noticeable effects of, Tentative conclusion

emotional scale, Attitudes as scales

emotions

compound, The space of emotions

cultural bias of expression, Tentative conclusion

insights, The space of emotions

recording using indicators, Tentative conclusion

research using indicators, Tentative conclusion

when expressed, The space of emotions

empathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

emphasis

changing by using non-standard form of bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

marking

selma'o catalog,

end of file, No more to say: FAhO

endpoints

inclusion in interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

engineering

example, Some simple Lojban bridi

English "we"

contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

English prepositions

contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

Englishman in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

enough currency

example, Indefinite numbers

enough-th

example, Special mekso selbri

equivalents to brivla, Other kinds of simple selbri

erasure

multiple word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

names, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

quotes, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

total, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

error marking

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

ete, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

event abstractions, Event abstraction

types, Types of event abstractions

event contours

achievative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as characteristic portions of events, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

as timeless in perspective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cessative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

completitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

definition, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

division of the event into, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

inchoative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

initiative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

interruption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

order with respect to TAhE and ROI, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pausative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

points associated with, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

strings of, Sub-events

superfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

syntax of, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

temporal contrasted with spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

event contours as sumti tcita

contrasted with direction and distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

event types

described, Types of event abstractions

event-relative viewpoint

contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

events

considered as a process, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

duration, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

everybody loves something

example, Negation boundaries

everyone

contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

everyone bitten by dog, Dropping the prenex

everything

expressing with "ro da", Universal claims

everything breathes

example, Restricted claims: da poi

everything loves everything

example, Universal claims

everything sees me

example, Universal claims

everything sees something

example, Universal claims

evidentials

ba'a scale, Evidentials

definition, Evidentials

grammar, Evidentials

in English, Evidentials

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

inspiration for, Evidentials

ja'o contrasted with su'a, Evidentials

ka'u contrasted with se'o, Evidentials

placement in bridi, Evidentials

quick-tour version, Indicators

rhetorical flavor, Evidentials

scales, Evidentials

se'o contrasted with ka'u, Evidentials

su'a contrasted with ja'o, Evidentials

exact number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

example of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples

structure of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples in this book, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

except from 10 to 12

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

existential

mixed claim with universal, Universal claims

existential claims

definition, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

existential variable

in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, The problem of “any”

in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, The problem of “any”

expanding "no" quantifier, Negation boundaries

experience abstraction, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractor, Minor abstraction types

experienced

example, Evidentials

experimental cmavo

definition, cmavo

forms for, cmavo

exponential notation

with base other than 10, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

exporting negation to prenex

"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, Using naku outside a prenex

internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", Using naku outside a prenex

external bridi negation

compared to internal bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

extrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

fa, Tagging places: FA

FA in selbri

compared with converted selbri in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted converted selbri with in structure, Conversion: SE

FA selma'o

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

as a reminder of place in place structure, Tagging places: FA

avoidance of complex usage of, Tagging places: FA

compared with zo'e for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure order, Tagging places: FA

effect on subsequent non-tagged places, Tagging places: FA

for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, Tagging places: FA

for putting more than one sumti in a single place, Tagging places: FA

syntax of, Tagging places: FA

FA tags and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

fa'a, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

fa'o, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

fa'u, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

compared to termsets, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, Non-logical connectives

face

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

fadni, Masses and sets

fagri, Why have lujvo?

fagri dapma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fagri festi, Why have lujvo?

fagyfesti, Why have lujvo?

FAhA selma'o, Tense negation

and direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

use in specifying space/time mapping direction, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fai, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo

as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

effect on numbering of place structure places, Modal conversion: JAI

false statement

implications of, Logical connection of bridi

fancy A

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy E

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy O

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy U

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

far away from the nearby park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

fasnu, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

fast talker

example, tanru

fast-talker shoe

example, tanru

father

example, The concept of the bridi

father mother

example, lujvo

fau, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

faxixa, Subscripts: XI

fe, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fe'a, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

fe'e, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fe'omi'e, Vocative scales

fe'u, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri

femti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

fenki litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

festi, Why have lujvo?

festi lante, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fetsygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

fewsome

example, Special mekso selbri

fi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi

fi'a, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers

effect on subsequent untagged sumti, Tagging places: FA

fi'a do, Tagging places: FA

fi'e, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'i, Vocative scales

fi'o, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals

and modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

as modal tag, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on following selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

mixed modal connection with, Mixed modal connection

proscribed for sticky modals, Sticky modals

restriction on use, Other modal connections

use in adding places to place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o constructs

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o kanla le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o modal followed by selbri

effect on eliding fe'u, Modal selbri

fi'o modals

negation of by negating selbri, Modal negation

usage in relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'o pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o pilno fe'u, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno [fe'u], Modal tags: BAI

fi'o tag

relation of modal sumti following to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri

meaning of, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o-, Other modal connections, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Mixed modal connection, Modal conversion: JAI

fi'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

Fido

example, Dropping the prenex

field rations

example, lujvo

figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

place structure, Miscellaneous indicators

figurative speech, Miscellaneous indicators

filso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

final syllable stress

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

finish

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finished

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finpe nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

finti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

first rat

example, Special mekso selbri

firstly

example, Other uses of mekso

fish eat

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

fish on right

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

flashbacks in story time

example, Story time

fleas, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

flexible vocabulary, brivla

floating point numbers

expressing, Infix operators revisited

flow of discourse

managing with discursives, Discursives

fo, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri

fo'a, Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'e, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'i, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'o, Pro-sumti summary

fo'u, Pro-sumti summary

foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

foldi smacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

folk quantifiers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

font

example, Alien alphabets

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

food

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

foreman of a jury

example, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

forethought bridi connection

as grammatically one sentence, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi connectives

contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule for tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connection

contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

observatives, Multiple compound bridi

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought connections

modal compared with tense in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connectives

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with afterthought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

with tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connectives and bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

forethought intervals

GAhO position, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

forethought logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

forethought logical connectives in tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

forethought modal sentence connection, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first bridi in, Other modal connections

relation to modal of second bridi in, Other modal connections

forethought modal sentence connection for causals

order of cause and effect, Other modal connections

forethought tanru connection, Logical connection within tanru

forethought tense connection

contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

forethought tense connection of bridi-tails

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sumti

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought termsets

logical connection of, Termset logical connection

formal requirement

example, Attitudes as scales

former market

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

former state, Comparatives and superlatives

formulae

expressing based on pure dimensions, Using Lojban resources within mekso

four "e"s

example, References to lerfu

Four score and seven

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

fourteen "e"s, What's a letteral, anyway?

fraction

meaning with elided numerator and denominator, Special numbers

fractions

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

numerator default, Signs and numerical punctuation

fragmentary text, Miscellaneous indicators

Frank is a fool

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

fraso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

free modifiers

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

friend's cup

example, Relative phrases

friko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

frinu, Miscellany

from one to two o'clock

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

fu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fu'a, Reverse Polish notation

fu'e, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

fu'ivla

algorithm for constructing, fu'ivla

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as Stage 3 borrowings, fu'ivla

as Stage 4 borrowings, fu'ivla

categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, fu'ivla

considerations for choosing basis word, fu'ivla

consonant clusters in, fu'ivla

construction of, fu'ivla

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, fu'ivla

disambiguation of, fu'ivla

form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

form of, fu'ivla

initial consonant cluster in, fu'ivla

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rules for formation of, fu'ivla

stress in, fu'ivla

uniqueness of meaning in, fu'ivla

use of, fu'ivla

with invalid diphthongs, fu'ivla

fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

for distinguishing fu'ivla form, fu'ivla

for distinguishing specialized meanings, fu'ivla

selection consideration for, fu'ivla

fu'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fukpi valsi, fu'ivla

fully reduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

function f of x

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

function name

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

future event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

futureward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, Truth-value abstraction: jei

fy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

fy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany

fy. le'u si si si, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GA selma'o, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ga'e, Upper and lower cases

ga'e .abu, Upper and lower cases

ga'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gadri, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti

GAhO position in forethought intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

GAhO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

galfi, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

galtu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

ganai, Forethought bridi connection

ganlo, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gapru, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures

gasnu lo citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

gau, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ge, lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

ge ... gi, Modal selbri

ge'a, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

ge'a gei, Reverse Polish notation

ge'e, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators

ge'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

ge'o, Alien alphabets

ge'u, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases

effect of following logical connective on elidability, Relative phrases

elidability of from relative phrases, Relative phrases

ge'u-zdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'urzdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'uzda, lujvo-making examples

gei, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

as a binary operator, Infix operators revisited

as a ternary operator, Infix operators revisited

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

gek

definition, Forethought bridi connection

gek bridi connectives

contrasted with ijeks, Forethought bridi connection

gekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

geks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in forethought sumti connection, sumti connection

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

General American, IPA For English Speakers

general sumti

contrasted with operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

general terms, Notes on gismu place structures

gento, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

gerku, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo

gerku bo kavbu, Complex tanru grouping

gerku zdani, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo

gerkyzda, lujvo-making examples

gerkyzdani, lujvo-making examples

German rich man

example, Grouping of afterthought connectives

gerselzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

gerzda, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

gerzdani, lujvo-making examples

Gettysburg Address

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

gi, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GI selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

gi'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'e, Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'i, Questions and answers

gi'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gicmu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

gigdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

GIhA selma'o, Compound bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

gihek

definition, Compound bridi

giheks

syntax of, Compound bridi

gik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Forethought bridi connection

giks

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

girls' school

little

example, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

girzu, lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

gismu, The concept of the bridi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

algorithm for, lujvo-making examples

and cmavo

major, gismu

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as partitioning semantic space, gismu

basic rafsi for, rafsi

coined, The gismu creation algorithm

conflicts between, gismu

creation

and transcription blunders, The gismu creation algorithm

considerations for selection after scoring, The gismu creation algorithm

proscribed gismu pairs, The gismu creation algorithm

scoring rules, The gismu creation algorithm

cultural, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

definition, gismu

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

ethnic, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

examples of, gismu

exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, The gismu creation algorithm

for countries, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for Lojban source languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

geographical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

length of, gismu

level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, rafsi

Lojban-specific, The gismu creation algorithm

place order

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

place structures, Notes on gismu place structures

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for choice of, gismu

religious, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rules for, gismu

scientific-mathematical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

selection of, gismu

source of, gismu

source-language weights for, The gismu creation algorithm

special, gismu

too-similar, The gismu creation algorithm

gisnu, gismu

give

example, The concept of the bridi

give or receive

example, Tagging places: FA

giving the horse

example, Property abstractions

gizmu, gismu

gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

glico, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

glottal stop

as pause in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

glue in lujvo

n-hyphen as, lujvo

r-hyphen as, lujvo

y-hyphen as, lujvo

go, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to market

example, Introductory

go to Paris or Rome

example, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

go to the store

example, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

go'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'a-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i, Examples of brivla, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations

as affirmative answer to yes/no question, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with mo in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

contrasted with mi'u, Discursives

go'i cei broda, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i ra'o

contrasted with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i with xu

quick-tour version, Questions

go'i-series pro-bridi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

as main-bridi anaphora only, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

assigning for permanent reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sub-clauses on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sumti of referent bridi on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

referent of, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'ixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'u, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

goal of this book, What is this book?

gocti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

goer table

example, Simple tanru

goer-house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

GOhA selma'o, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as component in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

as selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri

goi, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, Relative phrases

use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use in assigning name, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti

use in speech contrasted with writing, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi for ko'a-series assignment

compared with cei for broda-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

good house

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

gotro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

grammatical categories

use of upper case for, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

grammatical terms

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

grana mudri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grasp water

example, Other modal connections

great soldier

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

Greek alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Greek-Americans own restaurants, Descriptors for typical objects

gripau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

grouping

of connection in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

of connection in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

grouping parentheses, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

grutrceraso, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grutrceraso jbama, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

gu, cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'e, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

gu'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gugde ciste, Some types of symmetrical tanru

GUhA selma'o, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

guhek

definition, Logical connection within tanru

guheks

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

guheks for tanru connection

rationale, Logical connection within tanru

gy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

gy., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

H

had earlier

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

hands in pockets

example, Relative phrases

handwriting

example, Alien alphabets

han^{4}zi^{4}, What about Chinese characters?

happiness

example, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

happy face

example, The universal bu

has a heart

example, Property abstractions

have never

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

having

of properties, Property abstractions

healthy

example, Questions

hearsay

example, Evidentials

heartburn

example, Miscellaneous indicators

Hebrew alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Helvetica font

example, Alien alphabets

hepatitis

example, rafsi

hereafter known as

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

hesitation sound, Hesitation: Y

hexadecimal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, The lujvo scoring algorithm

hiragana

contrasted with kanji, What about Chinese characters?

example, Alien alphabets

hit cousin

example, Discursives

hit nose

example, Discursives

hits

example, The concept of the bridi

Hollywood

example, Descriptors for typical objects

hospitality

example, Vocative scales

hours

minutes

seconds: example, Non-decimal and compound bases

huh?

example, Miscellaneous indicators

hundred

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

husband and wife

example, Evidentials

hyphen letter

definition, rafsi

hyphens

use of, rafsi

hyphens in lujvo

proscribed where not required, The lujvo-making algorithm

hypothetical world, Propositional attitude indicators

contrasted with real world

example, Discursives

hypothetical world point of view, Discursives

I

i, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball Orthographies, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

regarding forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection

I selma'o, Logical connection of bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

i'a, Pure emotion indicators

i'e, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators

IBM

example, Acronyms

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

ice'o

contrasted with .ibabo, More about non-logical connectives

idea abstraction, Minor abstraction types

idea abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

identity

expressing with po'u, Relative phrases

identity predicate, The identity predicate: du

if

English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, Logical connection of bridi

expressing hypothetical world, Discursives

expressing real world, Discursives

meaning in logical connections, Logical connection of bridi

if coffee

bring tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

if … then

compared with only if, Logical connection of bridi

logical connectives contrasted with other translations, Forethought bridi connection

ijek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

ijek bridi connectives

contrasted with geks, Forethought bridi connection

ijek logical connectives

connecting bridi, Logical connection of bridi

ijeks

syntax of, Logical connection of bridi

ijoik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, More about non-logical connectives

imaginary journey

and spatial tense, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

ending point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sentence connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sumti connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin of in tense-connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

stages of in compound tenses, Compound spatial tenses

starting at a different point, Tenses as sumti tcita

starting point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita

with interval direction, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

imaginary journey origin

with sticky tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

imperatives

and truth, Truth questions and connective questions

attitude, Attitudinal modifiers

English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implausible, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

implicit quantifier

for quotations, Quantified sumti

on quotations

discussion of, Quantified sumti

importance of point

scale with ra'u, Discursives

in the aftermath

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

inalienable

distinguishing from alienable, Relative phrases

inalienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

inchoative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

incidental association

expressing with ne, Relative phrases

incidental identification

expressing with no'u, Relative phrases

incidental relative clause

as a parenthetical device, Incidental relative clauses

definition, Incidental relative clauses

inclusion

property of sets, Masses and sets

indefinite description

as needing explicit outer quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

compared with restricted variable, Variables with generalized quantifiers

definition, Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers

indefinite numbers

combined with definite, Indefinite numbers

indefinite portions

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indefinite pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite sumti

as implicit quantification, Using naku outside a prenex

compared to sumti with lo, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

indefinite values

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indicator scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

evolutionary development of, Tentative conclusion

grammar for compounding, Compound indicators

meaning when compounded, Compound indicators

placement of, Propositional attitude indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

ramifications, Tentative conclusion

rationale for selection, Tentative conclusion

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

types of, What are attitudinal indicators?

indirect question, Miscellaneous indicators

indirect question involving sumti, Indirect questions

indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

indirect questions without "kau", Indirect questions

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

individual

example, Special mekso selbri

individual descriptors

different implicit outer quantifiers among, Quantified descriptions

individual objects

multiple, Individuals and masses

individuals

expressing relation with mass formed, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set formed, Special mekso selbri

individuals into mass

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals into set

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals of set

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

indivisible, Types of event abstractions

induction

example, Evidentials

inexact numbers with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

inexact portions with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

infant ducks

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inferior

example, Attitudinal modifiers

infinity

example, Special numbers

infix notation mixed with Polish, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

inflammable

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

initial consonant pairs

list of, Initial Consonant Pairs

initiative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

innate capabilities

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate capability

expressing explicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate properties

extension of from mass to individuals, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

extension to individuals not actually capable, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inner product, Vectors and matrices

inner quantifier

contrasted with outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

explicit, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

inner sumti

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

integral

architectural concept

example, fu'ivla

mathematical concept

example, fu'ivla

integrale, fu'ivla

interactions between quantifiers and negation

effect, Negation boundaries

interjections

quick-tour version, Indicators

intermediate abstraction, Lojban sumti raising

intermittently

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

internal bridi negation

compared to external bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

internal naku negations

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

internal world, Propositional attitude indicators

International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), Basic Phonetics

intersect, Minor abstraction types

intersection

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

intersection of sets

compared with and, More about non-logical connectives

interval

closed, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

followed by direction in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

inclusion of endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

open, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with direction and distance in tense, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval continuousness

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

interval direction

specifying, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval properties

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

strings of, Sub-events

interval size

as context-dependent, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

unspecified, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

vague, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

interval spread

expressing English "intermittently", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

mutually contrasted, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negation with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

with unspecified interval, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intervals

effect of nai on, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as center and distance, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressing by endpoints with bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

forethought, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

spread of actions over, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing by using place in some selbri, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

introduce oneself, Vocative scales

invalid diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

invalid speech

marking as error with na'i, Miscellaneous indicators

inversion of quantifiers

definition, Negation boundaries

in moving negation boundary, Negation boundaries

inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary

rationale for, Negation boundaries

invertebrate, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

inverted tanru

effect on sumti after the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on sumti before the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

inverting quantifiers

with movement relative to fixed negation, Using naku outside a prenex

with movement relative to naku, Using naku outside a prenex

IPA, Basic Phonetics

IPA pronunciation

description, IPA For English Speakers

irony

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

irrational number

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

irrelevant

specifying of sumti place, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

isomorphism

audio-visual, Orthography

IT

as notation convention in relative clause chapter, What are you pointing at?

italic

example, Alien alphabets

iy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

J

j-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

ja, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

JA selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

ja'a, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

ja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ja'o, Evidentials

jai, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

for modal conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

jai with tense

as equivalent of SE in grammar, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

jai without modal

meaning, Modal conversion: JAI

jalra curnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

James

example, Consonant Clusters

jamfu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jane

example, cmene

Japanese hiragana

example, Alien alphabets

Japanese katakana

example, Alien alphabets

jargon

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

jdari bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jdaselsku, Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo

jdika, Comparatives and superlatives

je, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

je'a, Affirmations

je'e, Vocative scales

contrasted with vi'o, Vocative scales

je'enai, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

je'i, Questions and answers

je'o, Alien alphabets

je'u, Discursives

je'unai, Discursives

jegvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei

jek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

jeks

connecting abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

jelca, Miscellaneous indicators

jenai, Tense questions: cu'e

jerxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Jesus, Minor abstraction types

example, Minor abstraction types

jgalu grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ji, Questions and answers

ji'a, Discursives

ji'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

effect of placement, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

ji'u, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'uku, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'una'iku, Metalinguistic negation forms

jibni, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Jim

example, cmene

jinvi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

jipci gunse, Some types of symmetrical tanru

jipci pimlu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jipci sovda, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jitro, Anomalous lujvo

jmive munje, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jo, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

jo'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

jo'e, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

jo'i, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso

precedence of, Vectors and matrices

jo'o, Alien alphabets

jo'u, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce'o, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with joi, Non-logical connectives

result of connection with, Non-logical connectives

John and Sam

example, The concept of the bridi

John Brown

example, cmene

John is coming

example, What are attitudinal indicators?

John Paul Jones

example, Lojban names

John says that George goes to market

example, Tenses in subordinate bridi

joi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu

joi grammar

contrasted with eks, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with jeks, Non-logical connectives

JOI selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

joibu, The universal bu

joigik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joigiks

connection types, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Non-logical connectives

joiks

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

use of "se" in, Non-logical connectives

jokes, What is this book?

jordo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ju, Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

ju'a, Evidentials

ju'apei, Evidentials

ju'i .djan., Vocative scales

ju'i lobypli, Vocative scales

ju'o, Discursives

ju'u, Non-decimal and compound bases

grammar of, Non-decimal and compound bases

jubme tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jundi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

jungo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

junla dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jupiter life

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

juror 5

example, Possessive sumti

jy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

K

ka, cmene, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo

ka'a, Modal tags: BAI

ka'e, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ka'o, Special numbers

as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, Special numbers

ka'u, Evidentials

kabri palta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

kadno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kai, Metalinguistic negation forms

kalri, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

kalselvi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kalselvi'i gapci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kambla, Abstract lujvo

kanji, What about Chinese characters?

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on romaji spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

kanla denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanro, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

karce, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce klama, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce xislu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

karcykla, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karda mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

katakana

example, Alien alphabets

Kate

example, cmene

Katrina

example, cmene

kau, Indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

ke, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for conversion of tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

for expanding scope of scalar negation, Scalar negation of selbri

ke in sumti grouping

where allowed, Grouping of afterthought connectives

ke'a, Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ambiguity when omitted, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

and abstract descriptions, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

as referent for relativized sumti, What are you pointing at?

contrasted with ri in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

effect of omission of, What are you pointing at?

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

non-initial place use in relative clause, What are you pointing at?

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

subscripting for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ke'a with subscript

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'axipa, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I

ke'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ke'o, Vocative scales

compared to ki'a, Vocative scales

ke'u, Discursives

contrasted with va'i, Discursives

ke'unai, Discursives

kei, Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo

KEI selma'o

eliding, The syntax of abstraction

kelvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kensa bloti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kept on too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

kerfa silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ketco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ki, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o

with no tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

ki ku, Sticky modals

ki'a, cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms

compared to ke'o, Vocative scales

ki'o, Signs and numerical punctuation

ki'u, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection

killing Jim, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

kilto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kismu, gismu

kissing Jane

example, Event abstraction

kisto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kixipa, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

klama, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI

place structure of, Introductory

klama le zarci, Modal selbri, Compound bridi

klama zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

klamau, Comparatives and superlatives

klesi, lujvo-making examples

kliti cipni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

know

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

know who

contrasted with know that, Indirect questions

example, Indirect questions

knowledge discursives, Discursives

compared with propositional attitudes, Discursives

ko, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions

in later selbri place in imperative, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

in sub-clause of main bridi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for commands, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for imperatives, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ko'a, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'a goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series

after tenth, Subscripts: XI

ko'a-series for pro-sumti

compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

as assignable, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assignment with goi as symmetrical, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'e, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'i, Pro-sumti summary

ko'o, Pro-sumti summary

ko'u, Pro-sumti summary

kobra, fu'ivla

kolme terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Korean

example, fu'ivla

kosta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

krasi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

krecau, selbri and tanru negation

krici, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

krinu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

ktraile, fu'ivla

ku, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

as elidable terminator for descriptions, The three basic description types

effect of following selbri on elidability of, The three basic description types

effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect on of omitting descriptor, Indefinite descriptions

quick-tour version, Description sumti

uses of, The three basic description types

with tense, Introductory

KU selma'o

quick-tour version, Description sumti

ku'a, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

ku'a'e, cmavo

ku'e, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ku'i, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions

ku'o, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi

effect of vau on elidability, Possessive sumti

elidability for relative clauses, What are you pointing at?

kuarka, fu'ivla

kuldi'u, Dependent places

kurji, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

ky, Syllabication And Stress, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

ky. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky.bu, Alien alphabets

Kzinti

communication with, Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen

use of, fu'ivla

la, Words that can act as sumti, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Acronyms, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

compared with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lai in implications, Individuals and masses

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, The three basic description types

la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la .apasionatas, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .apasionatas., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .atlantas., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA

la alis., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la bastn., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

la betis., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la ckiipyris., Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la cribe, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses

la djan., Words that can act as sumti, Indirect questions, Pure emotion indicators, Multiple compound bridi, Other uses of mekso

la djan. nanmu, Logical connection of bridi

la djeimyz. ninmu, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection

la djein., sumti qualifiers

la djordj, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la djordj., Explicit magnitudes, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la frank. .e la djordj., Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la lojban., The five kinds of simple sumti, Modal conversion: JAI

la me zoi, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la meiris., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la meris., Words that can act as sumti

la nu,IORK., Tagging places: FA

la pacac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la plas., cmene

la recac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la rik., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

LA selma'o, Conversion: SE

contrasted with LE in use of name-words, Lojban names

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

la tcarlis., Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

la'e, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le selsinxa bele selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

la'e di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'e lu

compared with me'o, References to lerfu

la'edi'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'i, Rules for inserting pauses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as set counterpart of lai, Masses and sets

la'o, fu'ivla, cmene, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

interaction with bu, The universal bu

la'u, Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms

la-series descriptors

compared with le-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

Láadan evidentials, Evidentials

labmau, rafsi

ladru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru botpi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Lady

example, cmene

LAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lai, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as mass counterpart of lai, Individuals and masses

contrasted with la in implications, Individuals and masses

lambda calculus

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lange'u, Anomalous lujvo

language shift

based on name + bu, Alien alphabets

choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, Alien alphabets

compound, Alien alphabets

effect on following words, Alien alphabets

formation of shift alphabet name, Alien alphabets

interaction with bu, Alien alphabets

rationale for, Alien alphabets

standardization of, Alien alphabets

languages

abbreviations for, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lanme, Anomalous lujvo

lanme gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lantro, Anomalous lujvo

lanzu tumla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Laplace

example, cmene

large meal

example, Attitudinal modifiers

large-base decimal fraction

expressing, Non-decimal and compound bases

latent component, Anomalous lujvo

Latin

alphabet of Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Latin alphabet, Orthography

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

latmo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lau, Punctuation marks

effect on following lerfu word, Punctuation marks

LAU selma'o

grammar of following BY cmavo, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

le, Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

and specificity, The three basic description types

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

compared with English the, The three basic description types

compared with la in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with lo in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in truth requirement, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

in false-to-fact descriptions, The three basic description types

meaning of in the plural, Individuals and masses

le bersa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le berti, Modal tags: BAI

le bi'u nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le bi'unai nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le blanu zdan., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le blanu zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le briju, Termset logical connection

le ci cribe, sumti-based descriptions

le ci nanmu, Quantified descriptions

le cribe, Acronyms

le ctuca, Miscellaneous indicators

le cukta, Other modal connections, Multiple compound bridi

le dargu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

le gerku, Quantified descriptions, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of lujvo

le gerku poi blabi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

le go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

le jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei

le karce, Incidental relative clauses, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le karce po mi, Possessive sumti

le li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

le mi karce, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti

le mi pendo, Relative phrases

le mlatu cu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le mlatu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nanmu, The three basic description types, Miscellaneous indicators, Grouping of quantifiers

le nanmu joi, Non-logical connectives

le ni, Amount abstractions

le ni ... kei be, Amount abstractions

le ninmu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le ninmu cu morsi, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nu, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tense relations between sentences, Tenses versus modals, Event abstraction, Property abstractions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

definition, Event abstraction

le pluta, Conversion: SE

le re do, sumti-based descriptions

le remna, The three basic description types

le ri kumfa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

le se du'u ..., Predication/sentence abstraction

le se go'i ku, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

le se nelci, Event abstraction

le selbri [ku], Varying the order of sumti

LE selma'o, Conversion: SE, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

contrasted with LA in use of name-words, Lojban names

le selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le si'o mi go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le si'o mi klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le sutra tavla, Description sumti

le sutra tavla ku, Description sumti

le sutra te tavla ku, Description sumti

le tavla ku, Description sumti

le tcidu, The five kinds of simple sumti

le te jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le tricu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le ve jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le ve klama, Conversion: SE

le ve klama be fo da, Conversion: SE

le vecnu, Description sumti

le verba, Tense relations between sentences

le vi rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le xekri mlatu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le xunre cmaxirma, sumti qualifiers

le zarci, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, selbri and tanru negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers

le zdani, Inversion of tanru: co, The meaning of lujvo

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau, Tagging places: FA

le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

le'a, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

le'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to le'i, Descriptors for typical objects

le'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

le'i, Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

as set counterpart of lei, Masses and sets

relationship to le'e, Descriptors for typical objects

le'o, Attitudinal modifiers

le'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

le-series cmavo

as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

le-series descriptors

compared with la-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

learning Lojban

magnitude of task, gismu

lebna, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

left-grouping rule

definition of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

legal jargon

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

legal system, Truth-value abstraction: jei

lei, cmene, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with loi in specificity, Individuals and masses

lei cinfo, Individuals and masses

lemon tree

example, Simple tanru

Length * Width * Depth = Volume

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

Lepidoptera

example, tanru

lerfu, fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?

as assignable pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu word, What's a letteral, anyway?

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

reference to, References to lerfu

referring to with me'o, References to lerfu

lerfu as pro-sumti

contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

explicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

implicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu juxtaposition interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu shift scope

exception for mathematical texts, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu string

as function name, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as mathematical variable, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti

assumption of reference, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as pro-sumti assigned by goi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifier, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as selbri, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as subscript, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as utterance ordinal, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

definition, lerfu words as pro-sumti

interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu strings

as acronyms using "me", Acronyms

as pro-sumti

for multiple sumti separated by boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifiers

avoiding interaction with sumti quantified, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

in mathematical expressions, Simple infix expressions and equations

interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, Simple infix expressions and equations

uses in mathematics, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

with numerical selbri, Special mekso selbri

lerfu valsi, What's a letteral, anyway?

lerfu word

contrasted with lerfu, What's a letteral, anyway?

for "'", A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu word cmavo

list of auxiliary, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

lerfu word set extension

with bu, The universal bu

lerfu words

as a basis for acronym names, Acronyms

composed of compound cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

composed of single cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

consonant words contrasted with vowel words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

effect of systematic formulation, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for consonants, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for vowels, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

formation rules, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

list of proposed

notation convention, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Lojban coverage requirement, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

proposed for accent marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

proposed for diacritic marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for noisy environments, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

proposed for radio communication, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

table of Lojban, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

using computer encoding schemes with se'e, Computerized character codes

vowel words contrasted with consonant words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words ending with "y"

pause after

rationale, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words for vowels

pause requirement before, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words with numeric digits

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

lervla, What's a letteral, anyway?

less than

contrasted with more than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

less than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

letter

alphabet, What's a letteral, anyway?

contrasted with word for the letter, What's a letteral, anyway?

letter encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

letteral

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

letters

non-Lojban

representation of diacritical marks on, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

representation with consonant-word + bu, Alien alphabets

representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, Alien alphabets

representation with language-shift, Alien alphabets

representation with names, Alien alphabets

sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, Alien alphabets

symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, Alien alphabets

li, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

as converter of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

contrasted with me'o, Other uses of mekso

relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

terminator for, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

li ci, The five kinds of simple sumti

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mi, Quotation summary

li mu su'i li pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mu su'i pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li ro, Indefinite numbers

LI selma'o, Number summary

li'i, Minor abstraction types

li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

li'osa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

libjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lijda, Anomalous lujvo

lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

likes more than

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

likygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

likyri'a, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lined up, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

linguistic behavior, Predication/sentence abstraction

linguistic drift, What is this book?

linguistic drift in Lojban

possible source of, Considerations for making lujvo

linji zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

linked arguments, Questions and answers

linked sumti

definition, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

in tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and FA tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Linnaean names

rules for, cmene

lion in Africa

example, Descriptors for typical objects

lions in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

list

as a physical object, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with sequence, Non-logical connectives

example, Non-logical connectives

list of things to do

example, More about non-logical connectives

liste, Non-logical connectives

listen attentively

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lists

use of tu'e/tu'u in, More about non-logical connectives

literally, Miscellaneous indicators

litki, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

litru, Dependent places

livgyterbilma, rafsi

living things

example, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Livingston

example, Evidentials

LLG, Acknowledgements and Credits

lo, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in truth requirement, The three basic description types

contrasted with loi and lo'i, Masses and sets

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

lo cribe, Acronyms

lo forca, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo gerku zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

lo klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo liste, Non-logical connectives

lo mitre be li mu, Explicit magnitudes

lo porsi, Non-logical connectives

lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lo prenu noi blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

lo rinka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lo rupnu, Multiple compound bridi

lo se klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo smuci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo xe klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo zarci, The three basic description types

lo zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with na'a, Alien alphabets

lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to lo'i, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri

as set counterpart of loi, Masses and sets

contrasted with lo and loi, Masses and sets

relationship to lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects

with elided quantifiers, Special mekso selbri

lo'i cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i lei, lujvo-making examples

lo'i ratcu, Special mekso selbri

lo'ikle, lujvo-making examples

lo'irlei, lujvo-making examples

lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect of logical connective on elidability of, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

lo'u, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

lo'u ... le'u, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, No more to say: FAhO

lo-series cmavo

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

lo-series description

caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, Quantified descriptions

logic

and attitudinals, What's wrong with this picture?

limits of, What's wrong with this picture?

resolving ambiguities of "nobody", What's wrong with this picture?

logic and Lojban

more aspects, Conclusion

logical connection

effect on elidability of lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in abstractions

inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

contrasted with unconnected version, Logical connection within tanru

expandability of, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with bo, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with ke, Logical connection within tanru

inside abstractions

contrasted with outside, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

interaction with tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, Logical connection within tanru

of bridi-tails

forethought, Multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

of forethought termsets, Termset logical connection

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of more than 2 sentences

all or none, More than two propositions

forethought, More than two propositions

things to avoid, More than two propositions

of observatives

relation of first places, Compound bridi

of selbri, Compound bridi

of sumti

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

restriction on ke, Grouping of afterthought connectives

of tanru

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, Logical connection within tanru

termsets, Termset logical connection

transformation between forms, sumti connection

with bo

precedence, Grouping of afterthought connectives

logical connection of abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

logical connection of more than 2 sentences

mixed "and" and "or", More than two propositions

logical connectives, Logical connection and truth tables

associative, More than two propositions

bridi-tail connection, Compound bridi

cmavo

format for each selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, Relative phrases

equivalence relation on 3 sentences, More than two propositions

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, Forethought bridi connection

non-associative, More than two propositions

observative sentence connection, Compound bridi

pairing from left, More than two propositions

rationale for multiple sets in grammar, The six types of logical connectives

recipes

simplified for logic chapter discussion, bridi negation and logical connectives

relation to truth functions, The Four basic vowels

relative precedence with me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

right-grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

selma'o

enumerated, The six types of logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

table by truth function value, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tensed, Tensed logical connectives

logical connectives and bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives and negation

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

ambiguity of, Logical connection within tanru

effect on formal logical manipulations, Logical connection within tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

usefulness of, Logical connection within tanru

logical connectives within negation

effects of expansion on, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logical language

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

Logical Language Group

example, lujvo-making examples

relation to Lojban, What is Lojban?

logical variables

creating more by subscripting, A few notes on variables

effect of global substitution, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

effect of order in prenex, Universal claims

effect of using multiple different, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

explicitly placing in outer prenex, The problem of “any”

for selbri, selbri variables

implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, The problem of “any”

notation convention, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

when not in main bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with multiple appearances in bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with poi

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

with ro

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

logically connected sentences

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logically connected tenses

definition, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

expansion to sentences, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

logji, Lojban names

logji bangu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

logji bangu girzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangri, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygri, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugir, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugri, lujvo-making examples

Loglan, Informal Bibliography

logograms

words for, The universal bu

loi, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

as mass counterpart of lo, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lei in specificity, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lo and lo'i, Masses and sets

loi cinfo, Individuals and masses

loi jdini, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Lojban

features of, What is Lojban?

history of, What is Lojban?

stability of, What is this book?

Lojban alphabet, Orthography

Lojban letters

IPA for pronouncing, Basic Phonetics

list with IPA pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

lojban., brivla

lojbangir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangri, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygri, lujvo-making examples

Lojbanistan, What is this book?

lojbaugir, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugri, lujvo-making examples

lojbo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

long ago and far away

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

long rafsi

definition, rafsi

long rafsi form

compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

long-sword

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

loose association

expressing with pe, Relative phrases

Lord

example, cmene

lotkle, lujvo-making examples

lotlei, lujvo-making examples

Lottie

example, Lojban names

love more

example, Property abstractions

lower case letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

lower-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

lower-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

lower-case word

effect on following lerfu words, Upper and lower cases

lu, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

lu do cadzu le bisli li'u, Quantified sumti

lu e'osai li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti

lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lu'a, Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e, sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le sinxa bele sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

lu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'u, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising

as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

lubno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lujvo, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

abbreviated, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

abstract, Abstract lujvo

algorithm for, The lujvo-making algorithm

and consonant pairs, rafsi

and plausibility, Considerations for making lujvo

and seltau/tertau relationship, The meaning of lujvo

and the listener, Considerations for making lujvo

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as suppliers of agent place, Notes on gismu place structures

asymmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

based on multiple tanru, Considerations for making lujvo

cmavo incorporation, Why have lujvo?

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

compared with tanru, Why have lujvo?

consideration in choosing meaning for, Considerations for making lujvo

considerations for retaining elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

construction of, lujvo

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

design consideration for relationship, The meaning of lujvo

dropping elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

dropping SE rafsi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

examples of making, The lujvo scoring algorithm

from cmavo with no rafsi, rafsi

from tanru, lujvo

fully reduced, rafsi

guidelines for place structure, Why have lujvo?

interpreting, The meaning of lujvo

invention of, lujvo

meaning drift of, Considerations for making lujvo

meaning of, lujvo

multiple forms of, lujvo

place structure of figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for, Why have lujvo?

recognizing, rafsi

rules for formation of, lujvo

scored examples of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

scoring of, The lujvo-making algorithm

selection of best form of, The lujvo-making algorithm

shorter for more general concepts, Considerations for making lujvo

summary of form characteristics, rafsi

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguity of, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguous decomposition of, lujvo

unreduced, rafsi

unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, fu'ivla

with zei, rafsi

zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lujvo creation

interaction of KE with NAhE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

interaction of KE with SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

use of multiple SE in, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

lujvo form

consonant cluster requirement in, rafsi

final letter of, rafsi

hierarchy of priorities for selection of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

number of letters in, rafsi

requirements for hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

lujvo place order, Ordering lujvo places.

asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

based on 3-or-more part veljvo, lujvo with more than two parts.

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

rationale for standardization, Ordering lujvo places.

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

superlatives as exceptions, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo place structure

"ni" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

"nu" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

basis of, Selecting places

comparative lujvo, Comparatives and superlatives

cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dependent places, Dependent places

dropping "KE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping "KEhE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dropping dependent places

caveat, Dependent places

dropping dependent seltau places, Dependent places

dropping dependent tertau places, Dependent places

dropping redundant places, The meaning of lujvo

effect of "SE", Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

explicated walk-through, The meaning of lujvo

guidelines, Why have lujvo?

multi-place abstraction lujvo, Abstract lujvo

notation conventions, The meaning of lujvo

rationale for standardization, Selecting places

selecting tertau, Dependent places

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

when first place redundant with non-first, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant plus others, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lukewarm food

example, sumti qualifiers

lunra tarci, Some types of symmetrical tanru

ly, cmene, Lojban names, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ly'i, cmene, Lojban names

ly., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Lyra

example, Lojban names

M

ma, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Questions and answers

as sumti question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

for tense questions, Tense questions: cu'e

ma'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ma'i, Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri

ma'o, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany

potential ambiguity caveat, Miscellany

ma'o fy. [te'u], Miscellany

ma'o fy.boi, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ma'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

mabla, Attitudinal modifiers

magic square

example, Vectors and matrices

mai, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mo'o, Other uses of mekso

MAI selma'o

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

male sexual teacher

example, lujvo-making examples

mampa'u, lujvo

mamta, rafsi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

mamta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mamta patfu, lujvo

man biting dog, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

man or woman

example, Logical connection and truth tables

man-woman

example, Logical connection within tanru

manhole

example, Compound spatial tenses

manskapi, Acknowledgements and Credits

manti zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

manysome

example, Special mekso selbri

maple sugar

example, fu'ivla

maple trees

example, fu'ivla

marathon, Types of event abstractions

Mars road

example, Conversion: SE

mass

compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with set in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set forming, Special mekso selbri

joining elements into a, Non-logical connectives

mass contrasted with components

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

mass name

use of, Individuals and masses

mass object

and logical reasoning, Individuals and masses

as dependent on intention, Individuals and masses

contrasted with multiple individual objects, Individuals and masses

properties of, Individuals and masses

mass objects

peculiarities of English translation of, Individuals and masses

masses

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

mathematical equality

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical expression

referring to, Other uses of mekso

mathematical expressions

connectives in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

tensed connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

mathematical expressions in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

mathematical intervals, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mathematical notation

and omitted operators, Introductory

and operator precedence, Simple infix expressions and equations

infix, Simple infix expressions and equations

international uniqueness of, Introductory

mathematical operators, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical texts

effect on lerfu shift scope, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical variables

lerfu strings as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematics

use of lerfu strings in, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

matne, Individuals and masses

matrices

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

matrix

as combination of vectors, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, Vectors and matrices

with more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

matrix column operator, Vectors and matrices

matrix row operator, Vectors and matrices

mau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mayan mathematics

as a system with base larger than 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri

compared with du in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

explicitly specifying, Vocative scales

place structure of, selbri based on sumti: me

used with names, selbri based on sumti: me

me dy ny. .abu, Acronyms

me la pinpan. bolci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

me'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

me'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'i re, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'o, Number summary, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

compared with la'e lu, References to lerfu

contrasted with li, Other uses of mekso

contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

relation to li compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

me'u, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri

relative precedence with logical connectives, selbri based on sumti: me

me'u moi, Special mekso selbri

me/du equivalence, selbri based on sumti: me

measurements

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

meat slice

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

medieval weapon, lujvo with more than two parts.

megdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mei, Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

place structure formed for objective indefinites, Special mekso selbri

mekso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

and literary translation, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

complex used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

design goals, Introductory

mekso chapter

completeness, Introductory

table notation convention, Introductory

mekso goal

coverage, Introductory

expandable, Introductory

for common use, Introductory

for mathematical writing, Introductory

precision, Introductory

unambiguous, Introductory

mekso goals

and ambiguity, Introductory

and non-mathematical expression, Introductory

mathematical notation form, Introductory

melbi, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping

melbi cmalu nixli ckule, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

meljo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

melting, Notes on gismu place structures

membership

property of sets, Masses and sets

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

mental discomfort

example, Emotional categories

merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms

metalinguistic comment

with embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels or reference, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

metalinguistic words

quick-tour version, Indicators

mexno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mi, Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e, More about non-logical connectives

mi bevri le dakli, Mixed modal connection

mi jo'u do, More about non-logical connectives

mi joi do, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Tense relations between sentences

mi klama le zdani, Tense relations between sentences

mi nelci do, Mixed modal connection, Tenses versus modals

mi nelci la djein., Mixed modal connection

mi vasxu, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

mi'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'e, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales

contrasted with other members of COI, Vocative scales

effect of ordering multiple COI, Vocative scales

mi'enai, Vocative scales

mi'enai .djan., Vocative scales

mi'erxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mi'o, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'u, Discursives

contrasted with go'i, Discursives

mi-series

of pro-sumti, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi-series pro-sumti

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mice

example, Minor abstraction types

midju, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

mikri, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

milti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

minde, Anomalous lujvo

minkemxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mintu

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

mirli nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

misinterpretation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

misro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mitsubishi

example, What about Chinese characters?

mixed claim

definition, Universal claims

mixed modal connection

afterthought, Mixed modal connection

as proscribed in forethought, Mixed modal connection

definition, Mixed modal connection

of bridi-tails, Mixed modal connection

of sentences, Mixed modal connection

of sumti, Mixed modal connection

mixed with

example, Non-logical connectives

mlatu, Logical connection within tanru

mlatu kalci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mleca, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

mo, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers

as selbri question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

mo'a, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

mo'e, Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

mo'i, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

mo'o, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mai, Other uses of mekso

mo'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

modal bridi-tail connection, Other modal connections

modal causals

implication differences, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal cmavo

basis in gismu place structure, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

regular form for derivation, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

table with English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal cmavo table

format of, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal connection

simultaneous with logical, Mixed modal connection

modal connection of selbri

using bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

modal connectives

fi'o prohibited in, Other modal connections

modal conversion

access to original first place with fai, Modal conversion: JAI

grammar of, Modal conversion: JAI

place structure of, Modal conversion: JAI

with no modal specified, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion with fi'o, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion without modal

as vague, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversions

in descriptions, Modal conversion: JAI

modal followed by selbri

compared with tanru modification in meaning, Modal selbri

contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, Modal selbri

effect on eliding cu, Modal selbri

modal operand connection, Other modal connections

modal place

definition, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

on description selbri, Modal tags: BAI

rationale for term name, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

relation of to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal place relation

importance of first place in, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal sentence connection, Modal sentence connection: the causals

condensing, Other modal connections

effect on modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

forethought, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

relation to modal of second sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

with other than causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal sumti

and FA marking, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

as first place of modal tag selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also seltcita sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

leaving vague, Modal selbri

position in bridi, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

unspecified, Modal selbri

modal sumti connection, Other modal connections

modal tag

definition (see also sumti tcita), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri as, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

for vague relationship, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags

contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

modal-or-tense question

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

modal-or-tense questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

modals

compared with tenses in syntax, Tenses versus modals

contradictory negation of, Modal negation

contrasted with tenses in semantics, Tenses versus modals

expanding scope over inner modal connection, Modal selbri

expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e, Modal selbri

expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u, Modal selbri

expanding scope over non-logical connection, Modal selbri

for causal gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

improving relative phrase preciseness with , Modal relative phrases; Comparison

making long-scope, Sticky modals

making sticky, Sticky modals

negation of, Modal negation

scalar negation of, Modal negation

termset connection, Other modal connections

modals often attached with relative phrases

list, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

modifier

seltau as, Simple tanru

modifying brivla (see also seltau), lujvo

moi, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

MOI selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

use of boi before, Special mekso selbri

mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mokca, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

moklu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu stedu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

molro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mon Repos

example, Dependent places

more than

contrasted with less than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

more than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

morko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

morphology

conventions for, Introductory

definition, Introductory

derivational, Introductory

simplicity of, Introductory

symbolic conventions for discussing, Introductory

mother father

example, lujvo

movement

order in tense constructs, Movement in space: MOhI

time, Movement in space: MOhI

with multiple directions, Movement in space: MOhI

movement specification

interaction with direction in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

mrostu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mrostu mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mu, Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation

mu'e, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

mu'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mu'onai, Vocative scales

mudri siclu, rafsi

mudri xarci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudri zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudsiclu, rafsi

mudysiclu, rafsi

mukti, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

multiple conversion

avoiding, Conversion: SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple indefinite sumti

effect of re-ordering in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

expressing with equal scope, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indefinite sumti scope

in termset, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indicators, The uses of indicators

multiple individual objects

contrasted with mass object, Individuals and masses

meaning of, Individuals and masses

multiple letters

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

multiple logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

multiple ma

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple mo

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple quantification

effect on selbri placement among sumti, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple questions in one bridi

expressing, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple relative clauses

attaching with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

connecting different kinds with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

multiple SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple speakers, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

multiple sumti in one place

avoiding, Tagging places: FA

meaning, Tagging places: FA

multiple tanru inversion

effect on grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple tenses

effect of order in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

muslo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mutce bo barda, Complex tanru grouping

my, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

example, Possessive sumti

my chair

example, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

my., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

myth

example, Evidentials

N

n people

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

n-hyphen

contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

na, Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

order in logical connectives with se, Logical connection of bridi

na and tense

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na go'i, Questions

na writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

na'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with lo'a, Alien alphabets

na'e, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms

before gu'e, Scalar negation of selbri

contrasted with na'e ke, Scalar negation of selbri

na'e barda bloti, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'e brablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'ebo, sumti qualifiers, sumti negation

na'eke, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions

na'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

na'inai, Miscellaneous indicators

na'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

na'u, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

use in asking operator questions, Other uses of mekso

na'u mo, Other uses of mekso

na'u nu'a, Other uses of mekso

na'ujbi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

NAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Tense negation, Miscellany

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

nai, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions

effect on intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

effect on joiks, More about non-logical connectives

placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, Forethought bridi connection

placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, Forethought bridi connection

naja, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

naje, Tense questions: cu'e

nakni cinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakni ke cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

naku, The three basic description types, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

as creating a negation boundary, Using naku outside a prenex

compared with sumti in grammar, Using naku outside a prenex

effect on moving quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex

in linked sumti places, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple in sentence, Using naku outside a prenex

outside of prenex, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation

rationale for considering an advanced technique, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation boundary

effect on conversion with se, Using naku outside a prenex

naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

as expansion of noda, Negation boundaries

naku zo'u, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nakykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

nalbrablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

nalmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

namcu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

name equivalent for typical

rationale for lack of, Descriptors for typical objects

name words

recognition of, Lojban names

name-words

limitations on, Lojban names

pause requirements before, Lojban names

permissible consonant combinations, Lojban names

names

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

authority for, cmene

borrowing from other languages, Lojban names

examples of, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

in vocative phrase, Lojban names

multiple, Lojban names

pause requirement in lerfu words, The universal bu

purpose of, cmene

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

stress in, cmene

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

two kinds of, Lojban names

unusual stress in, cmene

uses of, Lojban names

using rafsi, Lojban names

with LA descriptor, Lojban names

names from vowel-final base

commonly used consonant endings, Lojban names

names in Lojban (see also cmene), cmene

names with la

implicit quantifier for, Lojban names

naming predicate, The three basic description types

nan, cmavo

nanba spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, Logical connection within tanru, selbri variables

nanmu je ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

nanvi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

NATO

example, Acronyms

natural end

continuing beyond, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with actual stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

nau, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on sticky tenses, Tenses in subordinate bridi

syntax, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Navajo

example, fu'ivla

nazbi kevna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ne, Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

compared with pe, Relative phrases

near the faraway park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

near the park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

nearby in time

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Nederlands

example, cmene

need any box, The problem of “any”

negated intervals

meaning of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a sentence

and truth value, Logical connection and truth tables

negation

complex examples, Scalar negation of selbri

form for emulating natural language negation, Using naku outside a prenex

of operand, Miscellany

of operator, Miscellany

of tenses, Tense negation

negation and logical connectives

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation between sentences

compared with bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

meaning of, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation boundary

and zero, Negation boundaries

effect of moving, Negation boundaries

negation cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

negation in prenex

effects of position, Negation boundaries

negation manipulation

"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

negation of fi'o modals

by negating selbri, Modal negation

negation of modals, Modal negation

contradictory, Modal negation

scalar, Modal negation

negation of tenses

meaning of, Tense negation

negation sumti qualifiers

meanings of, sumti qualifiers

negations with logical connectives

effects on expansion of sentence, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

negative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

negative numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

negative sign

contrasted with subtraction operator, Special numbers

negator

movement from bridi to sumti, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nei, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

nelci la djan., Compound bridi

nelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

new notation, The meaning of lujvo

New York city

example, Relative phrases

New York state

example, Relative phrases

Newport News

example, Lojban names

news

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

ni, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni citno, Comparatives and superlatives

ni klama, Abstract lujvo

ni'e, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni'enu'a, Miscellany

ni'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ni'igi, Other modal connections

ni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

ni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'oni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

nibli, Modal sentence connection: the causals

nicte ckule, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nilkla, Abstract lujvo

nimre, Simple tanru

ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

ninmu bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nitcu, The problem of “any”

nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

nixli bo ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

nixli tuple, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

no, Syllabication And Stress, IPA For English Speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases

no'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

no'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

no'ebo, sumti negation

no'i, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'ino'i, Paragraphs: NIhO

no'o, Indefinite numbers

no'u, Relative phrases

compared with po'u, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'u, Relative phrases

nobli, cmene

nobli bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nobody

ambiguous interpretations of, What's wrong with this picture?

interpretation of, What's wrong with this picture?

Lojban contrasted with English, What's wrong with this picture?

noda, Negation boundaries

expanding to naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

noi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

noi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

noi le mi pendo cu ponse, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

noi nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

noi sipna, Possessive sumti

noisy environments

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

nolraitru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nolraitru prije, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nolraitru ralju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

non-, selbri and tanru negation

non-logical connection

and elidability of terminators, Non-logical connectives

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

distinguishing from connection of sumti, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into mass, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into set, Non-logical connectives

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of sumti

distinguishing from connection in tanru, Non-logical connectives

of termsets, More about non-logical connectives

non-logical connectives

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

including tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

sentence, More about non-logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

un-ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

non-logical forethought termsets

connecting tagged sumti, More about non-logical connectives

non-logically connected tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

non-Lojban quotation, Quotation summary

non-Lojban text

rules for pause with, Rules for inserting pauses

non-restrictive relative clause

definition (see also incidental relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

non-specific descriptions, The three basic description types

non-standard orthographies

caveat, Oddball Orthographies

Cyrillic, Oddball Orthographies

Tengwar, Oddball Orthographies

nonagenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

nonce word

marking

selma'o catalog,

normal circumstances, Event abstraction

normle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

notation conventions

for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

nothing sits

example, Negation boundaries

nouns

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

Nth rat

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nth rat

example, Special mekso selbri

Nthly

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nu, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI

definition, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

nu citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka kei gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka [kei], Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu kalri kei gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nu klama [kei], Abstract lujvo

NU selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

nu'a, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso

use in answering operator questions, Other uses of mekso

nu'e, Vocative scales

nu'i, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

nu'u, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

null operand

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

null operator

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

number article

explanation of use, Simple infix expressions and equations

number questions, Number questions

answers to, Number questions

number sumti

syntax of, Number summary

with li, Number summary

with li contrasted with me'o, Number summary

with me'o, Number summary

with me'o contrasted with li, Number summary

number words

pattern in, Lojban numbers

numbers

as compound cmavo, Lojban numbers

as grammatically complete utterances, Number questions

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

expressing simple, Lojban numbers

greater than 9, Lojban numbers

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

on logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

rafsi for, rafsi

special, Special numbers

talking about contrasted with using for quantification, Simple infix expressions and equations

using for quantification contrasted with talking about, Simple infix expressions and equations

numeric digits in lerfu words

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

undefined, Special numbers

numerical selbri

alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, Special mekso selbri

based on non-numerical sumti, Special mekso selbri

complex, Special mekso selbri

grammar, Special mekso selbri

restriction on numbers used for, Special mekso selbri

special, Special mekso selbri

with lerfu strings, Special mekso selbri

use of "me" with, Special mekso selbri

numerical tenses

effect on use of boi, Other uses of mekso

nuncti, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunctikezgau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunkalri gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkla, Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI

nunklama, Abstract lujvo

nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunsoidji, Abstract lujvo

nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nuzba tanbo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ny, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ny., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. su'i pa, Special mekso selbri

ny.mai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

NYC

example, Acronyms

O

o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

o'onai, Attitudinal modifiers

o'onaivu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

o'u, cmavo, Emotional categories

o'unaire'e, Emotional categories

o'unairo'u, Emotional categories

observation

example, Evidentials

observation evidential

contrasted with observative , Evidentials

observative

contrasted with observation evidential, Evidentials

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

observative form

contrasted with command, Standard bridi form: cu

observative with elided CAhA

convention, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

observatives

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

ocean shell

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

octal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

octogenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

Old McDonald

example, The Special Lojban Characters

old topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

omission of descriptor

effect on ku, Indefinite descriptions

omitting terminators

perils of, Scalar negation of selbri

on right

contrasted with toward right, Movement in space: MOhI

on two occasions

example, Sub-events

on verge

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

once and future king

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

One

the

example, cmene

one-third of food, Special mekso selbri

only

example, Discursives

only if

compared with if … then, Logical connection of bridi

only once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

open interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand

converting from operator, Miscellany

converting into operator, Miscellany

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting sumti into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operand connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand modal connection, Other modal connections

operands

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

contrasted with general sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

too few for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

too many for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

operator

converting from operand, Miscellany

converting into operand, Miscellany

converting into selbri, Other uses of mekso

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operator derived from selbri

effect of selbri place structure on, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator left-right grouping

as Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence

and mathematical notation, Simple infix expressions and equations

effect of pragmatic convention, Simple infix expressions and equations

generalized explicit specification, Simple infix expressions and equations

in Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

plans for future, Explicit operator precedence

rationale for default left-grouping, Simple infix expressions and equations

scope modification with bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations

specifying by parenthesis, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence in other languages, Simple infix expressions and equations

operators

analogue of tanru in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

list of simple, Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

operators of VUhU

grammar of operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

opinion

example, Evidentials

opposite-of-minus

example, Miscellany

order of variables

in moving to prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ordered sequence

by listing members, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with mass, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, Non-logical connectives

ordinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

ordinal tense, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

orthography

non-standard, Oddball Orthographies

relation to pronunciation, Orthography

outer product, Vectors and matrices

outer quantifier

contrasted with inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

outer quantifiers

for expressing subsets, Quantified descriptions

rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

outer sumti

prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

owe money

example, Multiple compound bridi

P

pa, cmene, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri

pa da, A few notes on variables

pa no, Non-decimal and compound bases

PA selma'o

exception on use of boi with MOI, Special mekso selbri

members with rafsi, Miscellany

pa'e, Discursives

pa'enai, Discursives

pacraistu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacraistu zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

pagbu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

pai, Special numbers

pamoi, Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri

pante tavla, rafsi

panzi nanmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

panzi ninmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

paragraph separation

spoken text, Paragraphs: NIhO

written text, Paragraphs: NIhO

paragraphs

effects on scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

separator, Paragraphs: NIhO

parasitic worms

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

pareci, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

parentheses

for complex mekso used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

parenthesis

mathematical, Simple infix expressions and equations

partial quotation, Miscellaneous indicators

parts of speech, Introductory

paso, Non-decimal and compound bases

passive voice, Varying the order of sumti

past event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

pastward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

paternal grandmother

example, lujvo

patfu mamta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

patta'a, rafsi

patyta'a, rafsi

pau, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers

placement in sentence, Miscellaneous indicators

paunai, Miscellaneous indicators

pausative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pause

and cmene, Rules for inserting pauses

and consonant-final words, Rules for inserting pauses

and Cy-form cmavo, Rules for inserting pauses

and final-syllable stress, Rules for inserting pauses

and non-Lojban text, Rules for inserting pauses

and vowel-initial words, Rules for inserting pauses

between words, Rules for inserting pauses

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with syllable break, The Special Lojban Characters

proscribed within words, Rules for inserting pauses

representation of in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

requirement between stressed syllables, cmavo

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

pause before name

effect of doi, Vocative scales

effect of vocatives of COI, Vocative scales

pauses

before vowels, cmavo

rules for, Rules for inserting pauses

pe, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

as loose association, Relative phrases

compared with ne, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a sranapoi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

pe mi, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

pe'a, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'e, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

pe'i, Indicators, Evidentials

pe'ipei, Evidentials

pe'o, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

pe'u

contrasted with e'o, Vocative scales

peace symbol, Computerized character codes

pei, cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers

peipe'i, Evidentials

pelnimre, Simple tanru

pelnimre tricu, Simple tanru

pelxu, Simple tanru

percent

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

perfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perils of omitting terminators, Scalar negation of selbri

period

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

within a word, The Special Lojban Characters

Persian rug

example, rafsi

person's arm

example, Relative phrases

personal pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

personal pronouns

with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with mi-series for I/you, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

personal pronouns for he/she/it/they

English contrasted with Lojban in organization, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Pete

example, cmene

petso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pevrisnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

Pheidippides, Types of event abstractions

phonetic alphabet, Basic Phonetics

Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

physical distress

example, Emotional categories

pi, Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany

pi'a, Vectors and matrices

pi'e, Non-decimal and compound bases

pi'i, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation

pi'o, Modal tags: BAI

pi'u, Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, More about non-logical connectives

use in connecting tenses, Sub-events

piano-moving

example, Individuals and masses

picti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pictures

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo

pilno-, Modal tags: BAI

pimu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le'i nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pinca litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pino'o, Indefinite numbers

pinsi nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pinyin

as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

pirau, Indefinite numbers

piro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

piro la'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro le'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro lo'i ro, Quantified descriptions

piso'a, Indefinite numbers

piso'u, Indefinite numbers

pisu'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lai su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lei su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o loi ro, Quantified descriptions

pixra cukta, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

place of eating

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

place structure

adding new places to with modal sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition, Introductory

definition of, The concept of the bridi

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

effect of modal conversion on, Modal conversion: JAI

empty slots in, Introductory

explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, Tagging places: FA

gismu, Notes on gismu place structures

instability of, Introductory

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

notation conventions, Introductory

re-ordering by conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

place structure and tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

place structure of selbri

determining, Introductory

place structure order

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

place structures

omitting places with FA, Tagging places: FA

omitting places with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

plant grows

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

plants

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

plausibility

in abbreviated lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

playgrounds, Dependent places

pleases, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

plise tapla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pluja valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pluka, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

plural

Lojban equivalent of, Approximation and inexact numbers

plural masses

possible use for, Quantified descriptions

plurals

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, The three basic description types

plurals with le

meaning of, Individuals and masses

pluta, Conversion: SE

contrasted with ve klama, Conversion: SE

po, Relative phrases

as restrictive possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a se steci sranapoi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with English possession, Relative phrases

contrasted with pe, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'e, Relative phrases

po do, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

po mi, Relative phrases

po'e, Relative phrases

as intrinsic possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci sranapoi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

po'o, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

po'u, Relative phrases

as identity, Relative phrases

compared with no'u, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a dupoi ke'a du, Relative phrases

contrasted with no'u, Relative phrases

relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, Relative phrases

poi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex

discussion of translation, What are you pointing at?

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

syntax of, What are you pointing at?

poi blabi, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

poi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

poi du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

poi ninmu, Relative clauses and descriptors

poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

poi se cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

poi-, Relative phrases

point

event considered as, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

point-event abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

point-event abstractor, Types of event abstractions

pointing

reference by, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pointing cmavo

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

police lineup, Number questions

Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

Polish notation mixed with infix, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

politeness

thank you and you're welcome, Vocative scales

you're welcome, Vocative scales

polno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponse, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

portion

on set contrasted with on individual, Quantified descriptions

portion selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

porto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

positive numbers

explicit expression, Signs and numerical punctuation

positive sign

contrasted with addition operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

possessed in relative phrases

compared with possessor, Relative phrases

possession

expressing with po, Relative phrases

intrinsic

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

quick-tour version, Possession

possession not ownership

quick-tour version, Possession

possessive sumti

compared with relative phrase, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of ku, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on, Possessive sumti

syntax allowed, Possessive sumti

with relative clauses on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti and relative clauses

development history, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti with relative clauses

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

possessor in relative phrases

compared with possessed, Relative phrases

possessor sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

posydji, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

potential

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

potential events

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

prayer

example, Ordering lujvo places.

precedence

mathematical default, Simple infix expressions and equations

precise erasures, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

predicate answers, Questions and answers

predication

as a relationship, The concept of the bridi

compared with bridi, The concept of the bridi

Preem Palver

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

pregnant sister

example, Discursives

prenex

considerations for dropping, Dropping the prenex

dropping for terseness, Dropping the prenex

effect of order of variables in, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

internal to a bridi, The problem of “any”

purpose of, Dropping the prenex

removing when numeric quantifiers present, Variables with generalized quantifiers

syntax of, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

prenex manipulation

exporting na from left of prenex, bridi negation and logical connectives

importing na from selbri, bridi negation and logical connectives

moving naku past bound variable, bridi negation and logical connectives

rules, bridi negation and logical connectives

prenex scope

for sentences joined by .i, A few notes on variables

for sentences joined by ijeks, A few notes on variables

in abstractions, A few notes on variables

in embedded bridi, A few notes on variables

in relative clauses, A few notes on variables

informal, A few notes on variables

prenu, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations

prenu so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

prepositions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

pretty

English ambiguity of, Complex tanru grouping

pretty little girls' school

forty ways, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

previous topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

pride of lions

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

primitive roots

gismu as, brivla

principle of consistency

of logical-if statements, Logical connection of bridi

pritu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

pro-bridi

as abbreviation for bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

pro-bridi assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-bridi rafsi

as producing context-dependent meanings, lujvo based on pro-sumti

pro-sumti

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

classes of, Pro-sumti summary

compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

contrasted with description, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

for listener(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

for speaker(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

ko'a-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu as, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu string

effect on reference to lerfu itself, References to lerfu

lerfu strings

interaction with quantifiers and boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rafsi for, lujvo based on pro-sumti

referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

series, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

typical, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

unspecified, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

pro-sumti assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-sumti for "we"

contrasted with English "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others

as masses, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

relation to joi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for utterances, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pro-sumti rafsi

anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, lujvo based on pro-sumti

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

probability .5

example, Special mekso selbri

probability selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

values, Special mekso selbri

process abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

process abstractor, Types of event abstractions

process event

described, Types of event abstractions

pronouncement

example, Evidentials

pronouns

as anaphora, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronouns in English

as independent of abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as noun abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronunciation

IPA for Lojban, Basic Phonetics

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

relation to orthography, Orthography

standard, Basic Phonetics

properties

place structure, Property abstractions

property abstraction

specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

property abstractions

specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, Property abstractions

specifying determining place with ce'u, Property abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Property abstractions

use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

property description, Property abstractions

property of loving

example, Property abstractions

proposed law, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

proposed lerfu words

as working basis, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

propositional

of attitudinals, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional attitudes, Predication/sentence abstraction

compared with knowledge discursives, Discursives

protocol

computer communications using COI, Vocative scales

parliamentary using COI, Vocative scales

using vocatives, Vocative scales

psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

pu, Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

pu bajra, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

pu ge, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

pu naje ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

PU selma'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation

compared with FAhA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

PU tenses

contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as pastward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'u, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

puba, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puki, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puku, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

punai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punai je ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punctuation

in numbers, Signs and numerical punctuation

punctuation lerfu words

interaction with different alphabet systems, Punctuation marks

mechanism for creating, Punctuation marks

rationale for lau, Punctuation marks

punctuation marks

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

purci, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

purdi bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purdi vorme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

puxipa, Subscripts: XI

puxire, Subscripts: XI

py, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

py., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

py. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Q

quack

example, Alien alphabets

quadratic formula

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

qualified sumti

contrasted with unqualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

quality and quantity

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

quantification

before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, Quantified descriptions

quantificational pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantification rules, Pro-sumti summary

quantified space, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified sumti

different types contrasted for scope for distribution, Grouping of quantifiers

quantified temporal tense

definition, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negating with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tense with direction

Lojban contrasted with English in implications, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tenses

"once" contrasted with "only once", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

caveat on implication of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

quantifier

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

on previously quantified variable, A few notes on variables

quantifier scope

in multiple connected sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

quantifiers

effect of moving naku, Using naku outside a prenex

with logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

with sumti, Quantified sumti

quark

example, fu'ivla

question pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

questions

answering with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

connection, Truth questions and connective questions

digit, Number questions

fill-in-the-blank, Questions and answers

marking in advance, Miscellaneous indicators

multiple, Questions and answers

number, Number questions, Questions and answers

operator, Other uses of mekso

place structure position, Tagging places: FA

quick-tour version, Questions

rhetorical, Miscellaneous indicators

selbri, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

sumti, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

truth, Questions and answers

with "xu", Miscellaneous indicators

quick runner

example, Simple tanru

quotation

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction

four kinds, Quotation summary

implicit quantifier for, Quotation summary

quotations

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

implicit quantifier for, Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen

contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

ra, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'a, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'e, Signs and numerical punctuation

ra'i, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'u, Discursives

scale of importance, Discursives

ra'ucu'i, Discursives

ra'unai, Discursives

ractu mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

radio communication

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

radix

decimal (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

radno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi, gismu, lujvo

as fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti

considerations restricting construction of, rafsi

contrasted with cmavo in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, lujvo

contrasted with words, rafsi

conventional meaning for cu'o, Miscellany

conventional meaning for frinu, Miscellany

definition, lujvo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

forms of, rafsi

four-letter

requirement for y-hyphen, rafsi

lack of

effect on forming lujvo, rafsi

level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, rafsi

long, rafsi

multiple for each gismu, Considerations for making lujvo

multiplicity of for single gismu, rafsi

possible forms for construction of, rafsi

rationale for assignments of, rafsi

rules for combining to form lujvo, lujvo

selection considerations in making lujvo, rafsi

short, rafsi

uniqueness in gismu referent of, rafsi

use of, rafsi

rafsi assignments

non-reassignability of, rafsi

rafsi for numbers, rafsi

rafsi form

effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, lujvo

rafsi fu'ivla, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

rafsi space, rafsi

rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

rakso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ralju, cmene

ralju zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Ralph

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

ranti bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

rat eats cheese

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumti tcita

rat eats cheese in park

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

ratni nejni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rats are brown

example, Masses and sets

rats in park

example, Special mekso selbri

rau, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

re, cmavo, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation

re ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

re da, A few notes on variables

re karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re le ci mlatu, Grouping of quantifiers

re le mu prenu, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lei djacu, Quantified descriptions

re lo karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lo ro karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers, selbri variables

re prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

re'i, Vocative scales

re'imi'e, Vocative scales

re'inai, Vocative scales

re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

re-ordering logical variables with se, Dropping the prenex

real world

contrasted with hypothetical world

example, Discursives

real world point of view, Discursives

reboi ci pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

Received Pronunciation, IPA For English Speakers

reciprocal

expression of mathematical, Signs and numerical punctuation

reciprocal pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

reciprocity

expressing with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

recital rooms, Dependent places

Red Pony

example, sumti qualifiers

red pony

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

redundancy

effect on vocative design, Vocative scales

reference

ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, What are you pointing at?

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

quick-tour version, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

to relativized sumti with ke'a, What are you pointing at?

use of relative clause for, What are you pointing at?

reference frame

specifying for direction tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference frame for directions in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference grammar, What is this book?

referent

of operand, Miscellany

referring to with la'e, sumti qualifiers

referent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

referent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

reflexive pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

regularly

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

relation of first places in logical connection of observatives

rationale, Compound bridi

relationship

active/static/attributive compared, The concept of the bridi

as basis of sentence, Introductory

objects of, Introductory

relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

relative clause

compared with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

effect of omission of ke'ake'a on, What are you pointing at?

restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

use for reference, What are you pointing at?

relative clause scope

extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses

as part of name, Relative clauses and descriptors

effect of commas in English, Incidental relative clauses

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

impact of indefinite sumti on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of la on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of LAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

impact of NAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

kinds of, Incidental relative clauses

list of cmavo for, Index of relative clause cmavo

on connected sumti, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on names, Relative clauses and descriptors

on number, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

on quotation, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

placement with vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

relative clauses within, Relative clauses within relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental, Incidental relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, Incidental relative clauses

syntax with indefinite sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors

use in restricting existential claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use in restricting universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

relative clauses and indefinite sumti

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and LAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and NAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and names

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and possessive sumti

development history, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on complex sumti

Lojban contrasted with English, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses on indefinite sumti

syntax considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses on lo

syntax suggestion, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses with possessive sumti

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

relative phrase

as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, Relative phrases

compared with possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

connecting to relative clause with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

rationale for, Relative phrases

syntax of, Relative phrases

relative phrases

contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

improving preciseness with modals, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative phrases with modals

compared to relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

relativity theory

relation to Lojban tense system, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relativized sumti

definition, What are you pointing at?

in relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses

remei bruna, Non-logical connectives

remembered

example, Evidentials

remna fetsi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

remna girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

remna nakni, Some types of symmetrical tanru

repeating decimals

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

marking start of repeating portion, Signs and numerical punctuation

representing lerfu

lu contrasted with me'o, References to lerfu

reroi, Sub-events

respectively

example, Non-logical connectives

specifying with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

with different relationships, More about non-logical connectives

restricted claims

definition, Restricted claims: da poi

restricted variable

compared with indefinite description, Variables with generalized quantifiers

restrictive relative clause

definition, Incidental relative clauses

resume

contrasted with begin, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

revelation

example, Evidentials

reverse Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

definition, Reverse Polish notation

marker, Reverse Polish notation

number of operands, Reverse Polish notation

operands of, Reverse Polish notation

parentheses in operands of, Reverse Polish notation

terminator, Reverse Polish notation

use of parentheses in, Reverse Polish notation

with too few operands, Reverse Polish notation

with too many operands, Reverse Polish notation

reviewers of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

rhetorical question, Miscellaneous indicators

ri, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ri goi ko'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

ri'a do, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ri'agi, Other modal connections

ri'e, Attitudinal modifiers

ri-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri-series pro-sumti, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ricfu, Compound bridi

rich and German

example, More about non-logical connectives

ricrxaceru, fu'ivla

right-grouping in tanru

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

right-grouping rule

definition of, Complex tanru grouping

righteous indignation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

rinka, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection

rirxe xirma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi dakli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi patxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

risna, Miscellaneous indicators

risnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

riximu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

rixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

effect of order when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

ro da, Universal claims

ro da poi klama, The problem of “any”

ro DA poi prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro la su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers

ro le su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le'e su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

ro'anai, Emotional categories

example, Emotional categories

ro'e, Emotional categories

ro'inre'o, brivla, rafsi

ro'ire'o, rafsi

ro'irre'o, rafsi

ro'o, More about non-logical connectives

ro'ole'o, Attitudinal modifiers

ro'u, Compound indicators

rock face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

roger

example, Vocative scales

roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso

ROI selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

scalar negation of, Tense negation

rokci bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokci cinfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci derxi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci renro, rafsi

rokci zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokre'o, rafsi

romai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

romaji

as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

Roman Empire, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

room which he built

example, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ropno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rounded down

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded up

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded/unrounded vowels, Basic Phonetics

RP

as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation

ru, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ru'a, Indicators, Evidentials

compared with e'u, Evidentials

ru'e, Attitudes as scales

ru'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'o, Alien alphabets

ru'o.abupyky, lerfu words as pro-sumti

rug

Persian

example, rafsi

runner shoe

example, tanru

rusko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ry, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ry., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

S

sa, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with sei, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with to'i, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'asa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'enai, Discursives

sa'i, Vectors and matrices

sa'unai, Discursives

sadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sai, More about non-logical connectives

saicli, The lujvo-making algorithm

said John

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sakli, rafsi

saktrxaceru, fu'ivla

salad ingredients

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

salci, rafsi

samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sanli, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Sapir-Whorf effects

and emotional indicators, Tentative conclusion

sarcasm

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

saske, fu'ivla

sau'e, cmavo

scalar attitude, Attitudes as scales

scalar negation

effect on selbri, Scalar negation of selbri

scalar negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

scalar negation of non-logical connective, More about non-logical connectives

scalar negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

scale

granular contrasted with continuous, Special mekso selbri

scale of redness

example, Special mekso selbri

scale selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

school building

example, Dependent places

schooner

example, Lojban content words: brivla

scientific names

rules for, cmene

scientific notation

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

score

as 20-year span, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

as alternate base for years, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

se, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI

as grammatical in JOI compounds, Non-logical connectives

in logical connective to exchange sentences, Logical connection of bridi

order in logical connectives with na, Logical connection of bridi

use with operators, Miscellany

using to re-order logical variables, Dropping the prenex

se batci, Dropping the prenex

se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

se dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

se jbopli, Selecting places

se kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se ke blanu zdani [ke'e], Conversion: SE

se ke te, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se klama, tanru, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

place structure of, Conversion: SE

se pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI

se pinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se pinxe be zi'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se remei, More about non-logical connectives

se se gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

SE selma'o, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Subscripts: XI

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on place structure numbering, Conversion: SE

effect on selbri place structure, Conversion: SE

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

for converting place structure, Conversion: SE

rationale for no 1st place conversion, Conversion: SE

scope of, Conversion: SE

word formation of cmavo in, Conversion: SE

se te, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se te klama, Conversion: SE

se writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

se xance minde, Anomalous lujvo

se zdani, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

se'a, Attitudinal modifiers

se'e, Computerized character codes

and number base convention, Computerized character codes

se'i, Attitudinal modifiers

se'o, Evidentials

se'u, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as elidable terminator for soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

elidability considerations, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

se.u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seba'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

section numbering, Other uses of mekso

see with eye

example, Modal selbri

see with left eye

example, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

segi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

sei, Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sei ... se'u, A sample dialogue

seja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seju, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seka'a, Modal tags: BAI

sel-, Anomalous lujvo

selbri, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as part of description, The three basic description types

brivla as, Lojban content words: brivla

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting into an operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting operator into, Other uses of mekso

definition, Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

omitting with co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

place structure of, Introductory

place structure of converted operator, Other uses of mekso

relation to bridi, Lojban content words: brivla

scalar negation of, Scalar negation of selbri

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri from sumti, selbri based on sumti: me

selbri list for quick tour, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

selbri logical variables, selbri variables

selbri place structure

effect on operator formed by, Using Lojban resources within mekso

selbri placement among sumti

effect of multiple quantification on, Using naku outside a prenex

selbri questions

quick-tour version, Questions

selbri variables

form when not in prenex, selbri variables

prenex form as indefinite description, selbri variables

quantified, selbri variables

selbri-first bridi

effect on sumti places, Standard bridi form: cu

effect on use of cu, Tagging places: FA

specifying first sumti place in with fa, Tagging places: FA

selcadzu klama, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selci lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

seldzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

self-orientation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

selkemdzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkemsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

selma'o, cmavo

cross-reference list of

selma'o catalog,

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

selnelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

selsel, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Anomalous lujvo

selselgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selseljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selsinxa, sumti qualifiers

selsku, Anomalous lujvo

seltau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

compared with English adjective, lujvo

compared with English adverb, lujvo

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

filling sumti places in, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

seltcita sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also modal sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

selter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selti'i, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

semto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sentence

basic Lojban, Introductory

sentences

close grouping, Sentences: I

connecting non-logically, More about non-logical connectives

connecting with tense, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

separator for joining, Sentences: I

tenseless

quick-tour version, Tenses

separate questions

quick-tour version, Questions

separately tensed sentences

contrasted with tense connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

sepi'o, Modal tags: BAI

sequence

as an abstract list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, sumti qualifiers

sequence of events

expressing non-time-related sequences, More about non-logical connectives

sequence of tense rules

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

seri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seri'agi, Other modal connections

set

as specified by members, Non-logical connectives

by listing members with ce, Non-logical connectives

compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming set, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with mass formed from set, Special mekso selbri

set of all rats

example, Special mekso selbri

set of rats

example, sumti qualifiers

set operations, More about non-logical connectives

setese, Conversion: SE

sets

properties of, Masses and sets

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

use in Lojban place structure, Masses and sets

sexixa, Subscripts: XI

sexual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

sexual teacher

male

example, lujvo-making examples

sfofa, IPA For English Speakers

sfofy, IPA For English Speakers

shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

shell worm

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

shellfish, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Sherman tank

example, rafsi

shift

single-letter

grammar of, Upper and lower cases

shift word

for single letter, Upper and lower cases

scope, Upper and lower cases

shift words

canceling effect, Alien alphabets

for face, Alien alphabets

for font, Alien alphabets

ship sank

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

shoehorn, Dependent places

shook stick

example, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

short rafsi, rafsi

short rafsi form

compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

si, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

si'a, Discursives

si'e, Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary

si'o, Minor abstraction types

signed numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

signs on numbers

grammar, Signs and numerical punctuation

sikcurnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sikcurnu silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silka curnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silna jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Simon says

example, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti

simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

since, fu'ivla

sinful

example, Attitudinal modifiers

single consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

single-letter shift

as toggle, Upper and lower cases

single-word quotation, Quotation summary

singular me

example, Special mekso selbri

sinso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sinxa, sumti qualifiers

sirxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sister pregnant

example, Discursives

sisti, Metalinguistic negation forms

six-shooter

example, Sub-events

size

order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

skami pilno, lujvo

skari, Metalinguistic negation forms

skoto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slaka, The universal bu

slaka bu, The universal bu

slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

slinku'i test

definition, fu'ivla

slovo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slowdown, Types of event abstractions

smacu terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

smiley face

example, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

sneak in

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

snime nanmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

snow falls

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

snowball's chance

example, Special mekso selbri

so'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'e, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'i, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

so'o, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'u, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

social butterfly

example, tanru

Socrates

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals

softo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi sai, lujvo

soi vo'a vo'e, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi with one following sumti

convention, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soidji, Abstract lujvo

solji carce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji djine, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solji sicni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solri, cmene

solxrula, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solxrula grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

some do not go to school

example, Using naku outside a prenex

some relationship

example, selbri variables

somebody

contrasted with somebody else, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves self

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves somebody

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody's dog

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something

contrasted with someone, Restricted claims: da poi

expressing using "su'o", Variables with generalized quantifiers

unspecified definite with "zo'e", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something is loved by everybody

example, Negation boundaries

something sees everything

example, Universal claims

something sees me

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sonci manti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sonci tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sounds

clarity of, Basic Phonetics

complex, Basic Phonetics

difficult, Basic Phonetics

sounds for letters

Lojban contrasted with English, Basic Phonetics

source languages

use in creating gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

south face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sow grain

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sowed grain

example, Tense questions: cu'e

space

as time-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with time in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

space intervals

compared with time intervals in continuity, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

space location

as part of tense system (see also tense

spatial tense), Introductory

space tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

space/time metaphor

expressing direction mapping for, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spageti, fu'ivla

spaghetti, fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

Spanish ch

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Spanish ll

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

spano, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

spatial contours

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with temporal event contours, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

expressing, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial directions

list of, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

spatial information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

spatial interval modifiers

order in tense, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial intervals

expressing degree of continuity over, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial tense

4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

as an imaginary journey, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as optional in English, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

compared with temporal tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, Dimensionality: VIhA

definition, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

four-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

linear, Dimensionality: VIhA

one-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

order relative to temporal, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

planar, Dimensionality: VIhA

reference frame, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

referent of, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

three-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

two-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tense intervals

order of size and dimensionality in, Dimensionality: VIhA

order of VEhA and VIhA in, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

order of direction and distance specifications, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

spatrkoka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

spatrkoka lanka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

speaker's state of knowledge, Discursives

speaker-listener cooperation, Questions

speaker-relative viewpoint

contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

specific descriptions, The three basic description types

specific terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

specificity

expressing with po, Relative phrases

speech rhythm

for grouping in English, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

spelling out words

Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

spiritual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

spraile, fu'ivla

SQL

example, Acronyms

square brackets

use of in notation, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

sralo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

srana, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

srito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

stali, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

standard bridi form

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

standard for subjective numbers

specifying, Special mekso selbri

standard pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

starting marker, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

state abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

state abstractor, Types of event abstractions

state event

described, Types of event abstractions

steady speed, Types of event abstractions

steci, Relative phrases

stereotypical

as not derogatory in Lojban, Descriptors for typical objects

compared with typical, Descriptors for typical objects

stereotypical objects, Descriptors for typical objects

stero, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Steven Mark Jones

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

sticky modals

canceling, Sticky modals

definition, Sticky modals

fi'o proscribed from, Sticky modals

sticky tenses

and CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canceling, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect of nau on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on future tense meaning, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

from part of a multiple tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

stidi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stidi flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stop

contrasted with finish, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with pause, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

stories

flow of time in, Story time

story tense

Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, Story time

story time

as a convention for inferring tense, Story time

definition, Story time

rationale for, Story time

tenseless sentences in, Story time

with no initial sticky time, Story time

stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

effect of buffer vowel on, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

effect of syllabic consonants on, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

example, Emotional categories

final syllable

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

irregular marked with upper-case, Upper and lower cases

levels of, Syllabication And Stress

on cmavo, cmavo

primary, Syllabication And Stress

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

secondary, Syllabication And Stress

showing non-standard, Orthography

stressed syllable

compared with stressed vowel, Syllabication And Stress

stressed vowel

compared with stressed syllable, Syllabication And Stress

stroke cat then rabbit

example, Tensed logical connectives

structure of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

structure of this book, What is this book?

structure words, cmavo

stura, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

su, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

su'a, Evidentials, Discursives

su'anai, Evidentials

su'e, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'i, Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

su'i zy, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'i zy., Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

as implicit quantifier for quotations, Quantified sumti

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'o bu'a, selbri variables

su'o ci cutci, Indefinite descriptions

su'o le ro, The syntax of vocative phrases

su'o lo ro, Quantified descriptions

su'o lo'e ro, Quantified descriptions

su'opa, Variables with generalized quantifiers

su'ore, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'u, Minor abstraction types

su'u jenai ni, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

su'ujeninai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

sub-subscripts, Subscripts

subjective amounts

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subjective numbers

effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for portion selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for probability selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for scale selbri, Special mekso selbri

rationale for effect on place structure, Special mekso selbri

specifying standard for, Special mekso selbri

subjective portions

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subordinate clause tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Esperanto, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Russian, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subordinate clauses

tense usage rules in English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subscripted topics, Paragraphs: NIhO

subscripting, Subscripts: XI

subscripts

and fuzzy truths, Subscripts: XI

and names, Subscripts: XI

and paragraph separators, Subscripts: XI

and pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

and sumti re-ordering, Subscripts: XI

and tense, Subscripts: XI

before main expression, Subscripts

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

external grammar of, Subscripts

for sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

internal grammar of, Subscripts

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical, Subscripts: XI

multiple as sub-subscript, Subscripts

multiple for same base word, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

on ke'a for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

terminator for, Subscripts

to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

use with logical variables, A few notes on variables

subscripts on lerfu words

effect on elidability of boi, Subscripts

subsets

expressing with outer quantifiers, Quantified descriptions

subtraction operator

contrasted with negative sign, Special numbers

subtypes of words, brivla

sudysrasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cunmi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cutci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sumti, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as having implicit quantifiers, Quantified sumti

as objects in place structure slots, Introductory

beginning with "ke", Grouping of afterthought connectives

between descriptor and description selbri, Possessive sumti

classified by types of objects referred to, Individuals and masses

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

descriptions as, The five kinds of simple sumti

dropping trailing unspecified, Standard bridi form: cu

explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, Tagging places: FA

for individual objects, Individuals and masses

for mass objects, Individuals and masses

for set objects, Individuals and masses

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

irrelevant to relationship, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

kinds of, The five kinds of simple sumti

multiple in one place with FA, Tagging places: FA

names as, The five kinds of simple sumti

numbers as, The five kinds of simple sumti

omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

pro-sumti as, The five kinds of simple sumti

quotations as, The five kinds of simple sumti

re-ordering with FA, Tagging places: FA

relation with bridi, The concept of the bridi

sumti cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

sumti connection

afterthought, sumti connection

forethought, sumti connection

sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

sumti logical connection, sumti connection

compared with bridi logical connections, sumti connection

contrasted with tanru logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

rationale for, sumti connection

sumti modal connection, Other modal connections

sumti place

additional

selma'o catalog,

sumti placement

variant

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

sumti qualifiers

as short forms for common special cases, sumti qualifiers

elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

external syntax of, sumti qualifiers

for negation, sumti qualifiers

internal syntax of, sumti qualifiers

list of, sumti qualifiers

sumti questions

quick-tour version, Questions

sumti reordering

quick-tour version, Varying the order of sumti

sumti tcita, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

based on event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on spatial contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense direction, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

definition (see also modal tag), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and modal tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and tense tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita based on dimension, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on event contours

relation of main bridi to sumti process in, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval properties, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval size, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti with lo

compared to indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

sumti with tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti with tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

sumti-based description

definition, sumti-based descriptions

inner quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

outer quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

sumti-based descriptions with le

as increasing restricting to in-mind, sumti-based descriptions

Sun

the

example, cmene

sunburn

example, Property abstractions

superfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

superscripts, Subscripts

supervising

as a contribution to mass action, Non-logical connectives

supper

example, rafsi

supplementary information, Dependent places

Susan

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

susu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

sutra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri

sutra cadzu, selbri and tanru negation

sword blade, lujvo with more than two parts.

sy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sy., brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

syllabaries

lerfu word representation, What about Chinese characters?

syllabic consonant

effect on stress determination, cmene

syllabic consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

effect on stress, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final in word, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

syllabic l

considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic m

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic n

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic pronunciations of consonants

in fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

in fu'ivla category attachment

example, fu'ivla

syllabic r

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabication

and names, Syllabication And Stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

examples of, Syllabication And Stress

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

variants of

example, Syllabication And Stress

syllable break

contrasted with pause, The Special Lojban Characters

representation in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

symbol

for operand, Miscellany

referring to with lu'e, sumti qualifiers

symmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical tanru types

both separately true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

one or other true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using crucial/typical parts, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using more inclusive class, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical veljvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sympathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

ta, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

ta'apei, Vocative scales

ta'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation

ta'onai, Discursives

ta'u, Discursives

ta'unai, Discursives

tables

format of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

tadni girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tagged sumti termsets

connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, More about non-logical connectives

TAhE selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

scalar negation of, Tense negation

tai, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tail-terms

definition, Compound bridi

Take care!

example, Vocatives and commands

Talk!

example, Vocatives and commands

talker

example, tanru

taller

example, The concept of the bridi

tamdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tamsmi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tan(pi/2) = infinity

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tanjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tank

Sherman

example, rafsi

tanru, tanru, Simple tanru

ambiguity in, lujvo

ambiguity of, lujvo, Simple tanru

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

and conversion

quick-tour version, tanru

and creativity, lujvo

as ambiguous, Simple tanru

asymmetrical, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

combination of, lujvo

containing mathematical expressions, Other kinds of simple selbri

default left-grouping of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

definition, Simple tanru

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

expanding, Discursives

explanation of, lujvo

explicating, Discursives

explicitly defining, Discursives

expression of, lujvo

meaning of, Simple tanru

place structure of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

place structures of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

possible meanings of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

primary meaning of, Simple tanru

purpose, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

reducing logically connected sumti to

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

simple, Simple tanru

to lujvo, lujvo

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

tanru and conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

tanru connection

connotation of non-logical, Non-logical connectives

tanru connection grouping

guheks unmarked tanru, Logical connection within tanru

tanru conversion

effect on place structure

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru default grouping

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru grouping

complex, Complex tanru grouping

effect of jeks, Logical connection within tanru

effect of tanru inversion on, Inversion of tanru: co

guheks compared with jeks, Logical connection within tanru

three-part, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

with ke, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

with ke and bo, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

tanru grouping with JA+BO

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on tanru grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

in complex tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple, Inversion of tanru: co

rule for removing, Inversion of tanru: co

where allowed, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru inversion and place structure, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru logical connection

contrasted with sumti logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

tanru nested within tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

tarmi, fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tarmi simsa, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tarmrnintegrale, fu'ivla

tatru litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tau, Upper and lower cases

tavla, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti

tavla be do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

taxfu dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcarlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

tcati kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

te, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

te klagau, Selecting places

te klama, Conversion: SE

te se klama, Conversion: SE

te'a, Simple infix expressions and equations

te'o, Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

te'u, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

technical terms, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

teci'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tei, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

tei .abu .ebu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei .ibu jy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei fy. ibu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei sy. zy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

teka'a, Modal tags: BAI

telephone conversation

hello, Vocative scales

television, IPA For English Speakers

template, Minor abstraction types

temporal direction

exception in meaning when following ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

temporal information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

temporal tense

as mandatory in English, Introductory

compared with spatial tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

historical definition, Introductory

interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, Introductory

order relative to spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

quantified with direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

real relationship to time in English, Introductory

temporal tense elision

compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

temporal tenses

compared with spatial tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ten

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

tense

aorist, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

as observer-based, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

as subjective perception, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

connecting sentences in with, Tense relations between sentences

contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, Tense negation

effect of different position in sentence, Introductory

effect of sticky tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

emphasizing by position in sentence, Introductory

explanation of presentation method, Introductory

expressing movement in, Movement in space: MOhI

handling multiple episodes, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

in forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

interval contrasted with point, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with native languages, Introductory

numerical, Other uses of mekso

on embedded bridi, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

order of direction

distance and interval in, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

order of direction specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of distance specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of movement specification in, Movement in space: MOhI

order of spatial interval modifiers in , Space interval modifiers: FEhE

order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

overriding to speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

point contrasted with interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

position in sentence alternative, Introductory

position of in sentence, Introductory

quantified, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation

scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, Tense negation

scalar negation of with NAhE, Tense negation

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

scope of, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

selbri types applicable to, Introductory

space-time dimension for intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

static contrasted with moving, Movement in space: MOhI

subscripting, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

with both temporal and spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

with ku, Introductory

tense afterthought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense and na

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

tense as sumti tcita

contrasted with tense inside sumti, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

tense connected sentences

contrasted with separately tensed sentences, Tense relations between sentences

forethought mode, Tense relations between sentences

importance of bo in, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection

equivalent meanings, Tense relations between sentences

expansions of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of bridi-tails

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sentences

contrasted with sumti tcita form, Tense relations between sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sumti

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense conversion

accessing original first place with fai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

of temporal tenses, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

use in sumti descriptions, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

with jai, Conversion of simple selbri

tense direction

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

tense direction/distance as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense distance

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense forethought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense in scope of sticky tense

compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense inside sumti

contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense on main bridi

effect on embedded bridi tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect on embedded sumti with tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense questions

by using logical connective question, Tense questions: cu'e

methods of asking, Tense questions: cu'e

tense questions with ma, Tense questions: cu'e

tense selma'o

summary of, Summary of tense selma'o

tense sentence connection

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

tense specification

effect on "cu", Introductory

effect on elidability of terminators, Introductory

tense system

and space location, Introductory

tense tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

tense with sumti tcita

asymmetry of, Tense relations between sentences

tense-or-modal questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

tensed connectives

in mathematical expressions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in jek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

with ke…ke'e, Tensed logical connectives

with tu'e…tu'u, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected bridi-tails, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sentences, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sumti, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tenseless sentences in story time, Story time

tenses

compared with modals in syntax, Tenses versus modals

connected

with negation, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

contradictory negation of with nai, Tense negation

contrasted with modals in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought logical connections, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

grouping of connectives in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

logically connected with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

multiple in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

negating, Tense negation

non-logical connection of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

non-logical connection of for sub-events, Sub-events

possible groupings of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

use as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

tenses with elided CAhA

meaning, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

terbi'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terbi'a jurme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terci'e, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tergu'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergu'i ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

terlanme jitro gerku, Anomalous lujvo

terlantroge'u, Anomalous lujvo

term

definition, Termset logical connection

terminators

eliding ku in non-logical connections, Non-logical connectives

termset

effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

formation, Termset logical connection

termset logical connection

unequal length, Termset logical connection

termset modal connection, Other modal connections

termsets

compared to fa'u, Non-logical connectives

non-logical connection of, More about non-logical connectives

tertau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

terter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

terto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

tesete, Conversion: SE

texete, Conversion: SE

text

division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

sub-division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

text quotation

as internally grammatical, Quotation summary

syntax of, Quotation summary

tezu'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

thank you

example, Vocative scales

the

contrasted with a/an, Miscellaneous indicators

example, Miscellaneous indicators

for talking about numbers themselves, Simple infix expressions and equations

the destination

example, Conversion: SE

the go-er

example, Conversion: SE

The men are women

example, The three basic description types

the two of you

example, sumti-based descriptions

thingy

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

this

adjective expression with ti noi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective expression with vi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as utterance reference in English, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pronoun expression with ti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this boat

example, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this book

author of, Acknowledgements and Credits

contributors to, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

examples of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

goal of, What is this book?

reviewers of, Acknowledgements and Credits

structure of, What is this book?

this/that in English

compared with ti-series pro-sumti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

three bears

example, sumti-based descriptions

three cats white

and two big

example, A few notes on variables

three dogs bite two men

example, Grouping of quantifiers

Three Kings

example, selbri based on sumti: me

three of four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three or four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three rats

example, Special mekso selbri

thus

example, Evidentials

ti, Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as pronoun expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti mlatu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

ti noi

as adjective expression for this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti'e, Evidentials

ti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ti'o, Explicit operator precedence

ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ti-series pro-sumti

3 degrees of distance with, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as pointing referents only, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

compared with English this/that, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

conversational convention for, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

problems in written text, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tilde

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

time

as part of tense system (see also tense

temporal tense), Introductory

as space-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with space in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

time tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

time travel, Movement in space: MOhI

times

explicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

implicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

tinju'i, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

tirna, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

title

specifying with tu'e…tu'u, Sentences: I

title of book

example, sumti qualifiers

tixnu be mi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, No more to say: FAhO

to movie

house

office: example, Tagging places: FA

to the market from the office, Termset logical connection

to'a, Upper and lower cases

to'e, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation

to'ebo, sumti negation

to'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'i ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

to'u, Discursives

to-do list

example, More about non-logical connectives

toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Tolkien

and non-standard Lojban orthography, Oddball Orthographies

tolmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tomorrow

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

too

example, Discursives

too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita

too many rats

example, Special mekso selbri

topic-comment

description, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

topic/comment

multiple sentence, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tosmabru test, The lujvo-making algorithm

toward her right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward my right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward right

contrasted with on right, Movement in space: MOhI

traji, Comparatives and superlatives

transfinite cardinal

example, Special numbers

transformations with logical connectives

steps, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

traveling salesperson

example, Modal tags: BAI

tricrxaceru, fu'ivla

tricrxaceru sakta, fu'ivla

tricu, fu'ivla

tricu stedu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

triumph, Types of event abstractions

trkaile, fu'ivla

troci, Inversion of tanru: co

troci co klama, Inversion of tanru: co

truncation of number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

truth

in imperative sentences, Truth questions and connective questions

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

16 possible, Logical connection and truth tables

commutative, The Four basic vowels

creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, The Four basic vowels

fundamental 4 in Lojban, The Four basic vowels

relation to logical connectives, The Four basic vowels

table of logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

truth questions, Miscellaneous indicators

answering "no", Truth questions and connective questions

answering "yes", Truth questions and connective questions

as yes-or-no questions, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with connection questions, Truth questions and connective questions

simple, Truth questions and connective questions

truth table

explanation, Logical connection and truth tables

truth tables

abbreviated format, Logical connection and truth tables

for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, The Four basic vowels

list of 16 in abbreviated form, Logical connection and truth tables

notation convention, Logical connection and truth tables

truth-value abstractions

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction

try the door

example, Lojban sumti raising

try to go

example, Inversion of tanru: co

ts-sound in Russian

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

tsys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

tu, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

archaic English yon as equivalent of, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tu'a, sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising

as being deliberately vague, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for forming abstractions, sumti qualifiers

tu'a le vorme, Lojban sumti raising

tu'e, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

effect on di'e, More about non-logical connectives

use in lists, More about non-logical connectives

tu'o, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

tu'o va'a, Reverse Polish notation

tu'u, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tumla spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tumla vacri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tuple birka, Some types of symmetrical tanru

turdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

twice today

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

two brothers

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

two dogs are white

example, Quantified descriptions

ty, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ty., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty.bu, Alien alphabets

types and subtypes of words, brivla

typical

compared with stereotypical, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Englishman

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Lojban user

example, Masses and sets

typical objects

and instantiation, Descriptors for typical objects

determining characteristics of, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Smith

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

typical value

contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

u'e, cmavo

u'u, Propositional attitude indicators

ugh

example, More about non-logical connectives

UI selma'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

umlaut

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

unabridged dictionary, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

unconditional signal, No more to say: FAhO

unconnected tanru

contrasted with logically connected version, Logical connection within tanru

undemonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

under compulsion

example, Modal selbri

under conditions

example, Event abstraction

underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

unequal termset connection

compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, Termset logical connection

unfilled places of inverted tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

Unicode, Computerized character codes

union

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

union of sets

compared with or, More about non-logical connectives

units of measurement

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

universal

mixed claim with existential, Universal claims

universal claims

dangers of using, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Universal claims

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

unqualified sumti

contrasted with qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

unreduced fractions

use in granular scales, Special mekso selbri

unreduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

unspecified breed

example, Dependent places

unspecified direction

temporal contrasted with in spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

unspecified emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified level of emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified route

example, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified sumti

non-trailing, Standard bridi form: cu

using zo'e as place-holder for, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified trailing sumti

dropping, Standard bridi form: cu

unstated emotion, Compound indicators

unusual characters

words for, The universal bu

unvoiced consonants

contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

unvoiced vowel glide

apostrophe as, The Special Lojban Characters

upper-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

upper-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

utterance

expressing relation to discourse, Discursives

utterance ordinal

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

utterance pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

utterances

non-bridi, Questions and answers

uy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

V

V

as a symbol for a single vowel, Introductory

va, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

VA selma'o

and distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

relation of words to ti

ta, tu, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

va'a, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso

va'e, Special mekso selbri

va'i, Discursives

contrasted with ke'u, Discursives

va'inai, Discursives

vague abstraction, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractor, Minor abstraction types

vague relationship

modal tag for, Modal tags: BAI

valid speech

marking as error with jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators

vanju kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

variables

logical, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

vau, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on elidability ku'o, Possessive sumti

vau for shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

ve, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ve klama, Conversion: SE

contrasted with pluta, Conversion: SE

ve'abe'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ve'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ve'o, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

vecnu, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI

vector

components of, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

vector indicator, Vectors and matrices

terminator for, Vectors and matrices

vectors

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

vei, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

veka'a, Modal tags: BAI

veljvo, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

velvel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

vemau, Comparatives and superlatives

veme'a, Comparatives and superlatives

vensa djedi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verba jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

veterinarian

example, Ordering lujvo places.

vexixa, Subscripts: XI

vi, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses

as adjective expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

vi'a, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'e, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'o

contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

vi'u, Dimensionality: VIhA

vice versa

English

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vindu firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

vinji rebla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

virtue

example, Attitudinal modifiers

viska, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

viska le, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

viska lo, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

vo, Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation

vo'a, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'a-series pro-sumti

use in expressing reciprocity with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'e, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'i, Pro-sumti summary

vo'o, Pro-sumti summary

vo'u, Pro-sumti summary

voboi mu pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

voboi renomei, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

vocative phrase

effect of position on meaning, The syntax of vocative phrases

elidable terminator for, The syntax of vocative phrases

explicit quantifiers prohibited on, The syntax of vocative phrases

forms of, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit descriptor on, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit quantifiers on, The syntax of vocative phrases

purpose of, The syntax of vocative phrases

with complete sumti, The syntax of vocative phrases

with sumti without descriptor, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase terminator

elidability of, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase with name

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrase with selbri

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrases

as a free modifier, The syntax of vocative phrases

relative clauses on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative word

phrase following, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocatives

and definition of "you", Vocative scales

contrasted with "la", Vocative scales

definition, Vocative scales

grammar overview, Vocative scales

notation convention symbol "X", Vocative scales

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

rationale for redundancy, Vocative scales

voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voiced consonants

contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

voiced/unvoiced consonants

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

vorme, Lojban sumti raising

vowel

buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel buffer

contrasted with y sound, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel pairs

contrasted with diphthongs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Vowel Pairs

grouping of, Vowel Pairs

involving y, Vowel Pairs

list of, Vowel Pairs

use of apostrophe in, Vowel Pairs

vowel-initial words

necessity for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

vowels

contrasted with consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

length of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

vu, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

vu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

vu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for creating sequence, sumti qualifiers

vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

vu'u, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

VUhU operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

vukro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

VV string

as a symbol for a double vowel, Introductory

vy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

vy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

vy.bu, Alien alphabets

W

walk to market

example, Conversion of simple selbri

want to be a soldier

example, The syntax of abstraction

wash self

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

weapon against self

example, Dropping the prenex

went and bought

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

what is your name

example, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

when

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when else

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when/where/how

example, Tense questions: cu'e

where

example, Tense questions: cu'e

whether criminal

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

whole time interval

expressing, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

window

example, The six types of logical connectives

wine-dark sea, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

word "abu"

example, References to lerfu

word "bu", The universal bu

word classes, Introductory

word forms

as related to grammatical uses, Introductory

in Lojban (see also morphology), Introductory

word quotation

as morphologically valid, Quotation summary

internal grammar of, Quotation summary

words not in the dictionary, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

wrong concept, Dependent places

X

x sub b,d

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

x sub k

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

X-ray

example, rafsi

x-sub-3

example, Subscripts

x1

in place structure notation, Introductory

notation convention

quick-tour version, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

xa rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

xaceru, fu'ivla

xagmau, Comparatives and superlatives

xagrai, Comparatives and superlatives

xamgu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Comparatives and superlatives

xampo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xamsi gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xance, Anomalous lujvo

xancypliminde, Anomalous lujvo

xanmi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xanplimi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

xaroi, Sub-events

xaskemcakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xasycakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xatsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xazdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xe, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI

xe klama, Conversion: SE

xebro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xecto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xeka'a, Modal tags: BAI

xekri, Notes on gismu place structures

xelklama, Tenses as sumti tcita

xelso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xelxel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xetexe, Conversion: SE

xexso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI

xindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xirma zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xismu, gismu

xispo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xo, Number questions, Questions and answers

xrabo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xriso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xrula tricu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

xu, The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers

xunre, Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation

xunre pastu nixli, The syntax of vocative phrases

xurdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xutla bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

xy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

xy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

xy. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Y

y

considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, Introductory

letter

between letters of consonant pair, brivla

prohibition from fu'ivla, fu'ivla

use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, Consonant Clusters

y sound

contrasted with vowel buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

y-hyphen

and consonant cluster determination, lujvo

and stress determination, lujvo

use of, lujvo

yes/no questions, Miscellaneous indicators

quick-tour version, Questions

yielding the floor, No more to say: FAhO

yon

as archaic English equivalent of tu, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

you

defining, Vocative scales

you're welcome

fi'i contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

je'e contrasted with fi'i, Vocative scales

you-cmavo

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

you-talk

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

younger

example, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

za'a, Indicators, Evidentials

za'e, Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, Considerations for making lujvo

za'i, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'u, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

zabna, Attitudinal modifiers

ZAhO selma'o, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

zai, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

zarci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types

zbasu, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zdani, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zdani co blanu, Inversion of tanru: co

zdani lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani linji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani tcadu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

zdani turni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

effect on following PU direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eba, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eca, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'epu, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'i, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

ze'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zei, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zemo'o, Utterance ordinals: MAI

zenba, Comparatives and superlatives

zepti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zerle'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zerle'a nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zernerkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

zero

relation to negation boundary, Negation boundaries

zero to one

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

zetro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zgike nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ZI selma'o

compared with VA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

compared with English and, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with logical connectives, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'o, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti

as creating new selbri, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zi'o rafsi

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

Zipf's Law, Considerations for making lujvo

zmadu, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

zo, The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zo .bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zo .djan., Other uses of mekso

zo .djan. si .djordj., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo le'u, List of cmavo interactions

zo'e, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as place-holder for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

as place-holder for unspecified sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with FA for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

contrasted with da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

zo'e-series

compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'e-series pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'i, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zo'o, Discursives

zo'obu, The universal bu

zo'u, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

zoi, The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zoi X. text .X, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zu'a, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes

derivation of word, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

zu'a ca'u, Movement in space: MOhI

zu'aku, Tense relations between sentences

zu'i, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zu'o, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

zukte, Notes on gismu place structures

zuljamfu, rafsi

zuljma, rafsi

zunle, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

zunle jamfu, rafsi

zunlyjamfu, rafsi

zunlyjma, rafsi

zy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

zy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

Lojban Phrases Index

Symbols

"

"

word for, The universal bu

"&"

word for, The universal bu

"."

word for, The universal bu

"a" is letteral

example, References to lerfu

"because"

English word

four varieties of, Modal sentence connection: the causals

"la"

contrasted with vocatives, Vocative scales

"less"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"me"

effect of MOI on, Special mekso selbri

"more"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"no" quantifier

expanding, Negation boundaries

"of"

in English

compared with do'e, Modal tags: BAI

"or"

"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both", Logical connection and truth tables

"there is a Y"

expression

notation convention, Negation boundaries

"z" instead of "'"

in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

$, Computerized character codes

' symbol

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

definition (see also apostrophe), The Special Lojban Characters

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

(n+1)-th rat

example, Special mekso selbri

* ... le zarci fa'u le briju, Questions and answers

*gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

*reboi ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

+1 + -1 = 0

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

-1

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

-cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?

-ek

in name for logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives

-er

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

-hood, Abstract lujvo

-ity, Property abstractions

-mei, Special mekso selbri

-nai, Modal negation, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation, What are attitudinal indicators?, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

-ness, Property abstractions

-ng

Lojban contrasted with English, Syllabication And Stress

-roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

-to'e-, Expressing scales in selbri negation

... lo gerku, Quantified descriptions

.a, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.a'abu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.a'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.a'o, What are attitudinal indicators?

.a'u, More about non-logical connectives

.a'ucu'i, Propositional attitude indicators

.abu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.abu by. cy., Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

.abubu, The universal bu

.ai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Vocative scales

.ai,in bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.akut. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.alef. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.alfas., Alien alphabets

.alfas. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.au, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.azys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.bet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.betas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.bravos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.brevis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.bukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.cas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.cin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cirkumfleks. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.ctas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.curuk. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cyVAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daled. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.dasei,as. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.deltas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.dobros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.e, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

contrasted with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

.e speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

.e'ebu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.ebu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ecarn. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ei, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.eibu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.eicai, Attitudes as scales

.eicu'i, Attitudes as scales

.einai, Attitudes as scales

.eiro'u, Emotional categories

.eiru'e, Attitudes as scales

.eisai, Attitudes as scales

.ekos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.eksreis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.Epsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.etas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fokstrot. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.friytys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.gamas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.gapmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gapyjin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gimel. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.glagolis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.golf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.grav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.i, cmavo, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.i la nas., cmene

.i'anai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'inai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.ia, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.iabu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ianai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives

.iankis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ibaubo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.ibu, cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ie, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Vocative scales

.ie ge'eru'e, Compound indicators

.iecu'i, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ienai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ier. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieriys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieru'e, Compound indicators

.ierys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iestys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ii, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales

.ii.iinai, The space of emotions

.iige'e, Miscellaneous indicators

.ija, bridi negation and logical connectives

.ije, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables

.ije seri'a, Mixed modal connection

.ije,is. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ijebabo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.ijeseri'abo, Mixed modal connection

.indias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.io, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.iotas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.iri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.iseri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.itord. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.iubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iucai, Propositional attitude indicators

.iud. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ius. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.izu'abo, Tense relations between sentences

.jivet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.juliet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kaf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kakos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.kamats. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kapas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.keBEK. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kilos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.kubuts. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kuf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.limas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.liudi,ies. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.lymdas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.LYmed. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.maik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.makron. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.midgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.myslites. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.naciys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.novembr. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.nun. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.nus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.o'obu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o'ufu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.o'unairo'a, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'i, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'o, Emotional categories

.obu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ogoniek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.oi, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators

.oicai, Propositional attitude indicators

.oinai, Compound indicators

.oinaicu'i ro'ucai, Compound indicators

.omegas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.Omikron. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.onai, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

.onys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.oskar. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.paPAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.patax. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.pokois. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.pritygal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.psiles. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.re'akut. bu [re akut.], Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.rec. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.relmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.riytsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.romios. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.seDIlys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.seGOL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.sieras. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.sigmas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.sin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.slovos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.taf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tangos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.taus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tcriyviys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tildes. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tseirex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tyvriydos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.u, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.u'u, Pure emotion indicators

.u'ubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.u'unai, Attitudinal modifiers

.ua, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.uanai, Miscellaneous indicators

.ubu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ue, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.ui, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

.ui .ui .ui, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uibu, The universal bu

.uicai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.uiskis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.Uniform. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.uo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.Upsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.uu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.uuse'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.uuse'inai, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.vav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.vedis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.viktas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.xatcek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.xerys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.xet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xirik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.xolem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xoTEL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.y'y, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.y'y., Vowel Pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.y'y.bu, Alien alphabets

.y., cmavo, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions

.y.bu, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ybu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.zai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.zemlias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.zetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.zulgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.zulus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

1 + 1 = 2

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

10^20

example, Infix operators revisited

12-point

example, Alien alphabets

123

example, Lojban numbers

2 + 2

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

2/7

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

3 * 10^8

example, Infix operators revisited

3 grams

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

3.1415

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

4-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

5-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

9 out of ten

example, Special mekso selbri

A

a, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

example, Miscellaneous indicators

A

selma'o catalog,

A gives B to C

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A gives BC

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A loves B

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A selma'o, sumti connection, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

a'e, Propositional attitude indicators

a/an

contrasted with the, Miscellaneous indicators

abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ABC base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

abduction

example, Evidentials

Abraham Lincoln

example, Truth questions and connective questions

absolute laws, Why have lujvo?

abstract description, Lojban sumti raising

abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo

abstraction bridi

contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, Other kinds of simple selbri

effect on claim of bridi, Modal sentence connection: the causals

abstraction conversion, Lojban sumti raising

abstraction of sentences

contrasted with quotation, Predication/sentence abstraction

abstractions

achievement, Types of event abstractions

activity, Types of event abstractions

concept, Minor abstraction types

creating new types, Minor abstraction types

event, Event abstraction

experience, Minor abstraction types

forethought connection in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

grammatical uses, The syntax of abstraction

grouping of connectives in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

idea, Minor abstraction types

implicit in sumti, Event abstraction

logical connection of, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

making concrete, Lojban sumti raising

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

place structure, The syntax of abstraction

point-event, Types of event abstractions

process, Types of event abstractions

simplification to sumti with jai, Lojban sumti raising

simplification to sumti with tu'a, Lojban sumti raising

speaking

writing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

state, Types of event abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Event abstraction

truth-value and fuzzy logic, Truth-value abstraction: jei

vague, Minor abstraction types

with knowing

believing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

with wonder

doubt, etc., Indirect questions

accent mark

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

accent marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

accented letters

considered as distinct from unaccented, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Acer

example, fu'ivla

achievative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

achievement abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

achievement event

described, Types of event abstractions

acronym

definition, Acronyms

acronym names from lerfu words

assigning final consonant, Acronyms

acronyms

as lerfu strings using "me", Acronyms

using names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

acronyms names based on lerfu words

omitting bu, Acronyms

using "z" instead of "'" in, Acronyms

activity abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

activity abstractor, Types of event abstractions

activity event

described, Types of event abstractions

actual events

explicitly expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

actual stop

contrasted with natural end, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

actuality

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implying, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

addition

a mathematical operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition operator

contrasted with positive sign, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition problems

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

adjective ordering, Logical connection within tanru

adjective-noun combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adjectives

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

adverb-verb combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adverbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

affirmative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

afraid of horse

example, Relative clauses and descriptors

after sleep

example, Propositional attitude indicators

afterthought bridi connectives

contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought connection

contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

afterthought connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with forethought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought sentence connection

modal contrasted with tense, Tenses versus modals

afterthought tense connection

contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

ai, Quotation summary, Non-decimal and compound bases

ailment, Ordering lujvo places.

akut. bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

aleph null

example, Special numbers

Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

algebra of functions

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

alienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

aliens

communication with, Tentative conclusion

all-th

example, Special mekso selbri

allowable diphthongs

in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo, fu'ivla

in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

alpha

example, Alien alphabets

alphabet

Latin used for Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Lojban, Orthography

words for letters in

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alphabetic order, Orthography

alphabets

words for non-Lojban letters

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alternative guidelines, Why have lujvo?

always and everywhere

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ambiguity of tanru, Simple tanru

American dollars, Computerized character codes

American Indian languages and evidentials, Evidentials

Amharic writing, What about Chinese characters?

ampersand

example, The universal bu

ampersand character

word for, The universal bu

Amsterdam

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

an

example, Miscellaneous indicators

anaphora

definition, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-bridi go'i-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti ri-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti vo'a-series as, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

anaphoric pro-bridi

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

anaphoric pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

and

as non-logical connective, Non-logical connectives

compared with but, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with cross-product, More about non-logical connectives

and earlier

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and then, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

example, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

animal doctor

example, Ordering lujvo places.

animal patient, Ordering lujvo places.

animals

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

anomalous ordering of lujvo places, lujvo with more than two parts.

answers

go'i for yes/no questions, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to operator questions, Other uses of mekso

to place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

to tense-or-modal questions, Tense questions: cu'e

antecedent

for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

for pro-bridi as full bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

antecedent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

antecedent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

anticipated

example, Evidentials

any

as a restricted universal claim, The problem of “any”

as a translation problem, The problem of “any”

as a universal claim

later restricted, The problem of “any”

as an existential claim, The problem of “any”

expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, The problem of “any”

any box, The problem of “any”

anyone

contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

anyone who goes

walks

example, The problem of “any”

aorist

definition, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

apostrophe

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

as not a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

as preferable over comma in names, The Special Lojban Characters

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

purpose of, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

type of letter in word-formation, The Special Lojban Characters

use in vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

Appassionata

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

approximate numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

expressing some exactness of, Approximation and inexact numbers

approximately 40

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Arabian Nights, Paragraphs: NIhO

Arabic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

argument tags

based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), Tenses as sumti tcita

Armstrong

example, Syllabication And Stress

Arnold

example, cmene

arthropod, Dependent places

article

number, Simple infix expressions and equations

articles

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

Artur Rubenstein

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

ASCII

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

aspect

expressing, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

natural languages compared with respect to, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

assignable pro-sumti

explicit cancellation of by rebinding, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

assumption

example, Evidentials

asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

definition, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

asymmetrical tanru types

activity + implement-used, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cause + effect, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic-time + event, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic/detail + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

effect + causative agent, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

elements-in-set + set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

energy-source + powered, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

general-class + sub-class, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

inhabitant + habitat, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

locus-of-application + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

miscellaneous, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + component/detail, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + place-sold, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + usual-container, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-giving-characteristic + other-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-measured + standard-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-action + action, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

possessor + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + producer, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + source, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

set + element-of-set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

similar-appearance-object + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source + product, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source-material + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

typical-place + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

undesired-object + protection-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

whole + part, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

at least

contrasted with more than

less than, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at least two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most

contrasted with more than

at least, less than, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Athens, Types of event abstractions

attend school

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

attitude

avoidance of expression, Miscellaneous indicators

scalar, Attitudes as scales

attitudes

beginning, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

ceasing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

continuing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

empathy contrasted with sympathy, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

expressing changes in, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal

example of scale effect, Attitudes as scales

signaling as non-propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

attitudinal answers

plausibility, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal categories, Emotional categories

example of effect, Emotional categories

mnemonic for, Emotional categories

rationale, Emotional categories

attitudinal indicator

unspecified, Compound indicators

attitudinal indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

conventions of interpretation, Compound indicators

placement of "nai" in, Compound indicators

placement of scale in, Compound indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers

attitudinal questions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking about specific attitude, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking intensity, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal scale

as axis in emotion-space, The space of emotions

neutral compared with positive + negative, The space of emotions

seven-position, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone usage, Attitudes as scales

usage, Attitudes as scales

attitudinal scales

rationale for assignment, Attitudes as scales

attitudinals

a- series, Propositional attitude indicators

affecting whole grammatical structures, The uses of indicators

and logic, What's wrong with this picture?

at beginning of text, The uses of indicators

attributing emotion to others, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

benefit in written expression, The uses of indicators

categories with nai, Emotional categories

categories with scale markers, Emotional categories

complexity, Attitudinal modifiers

compound, What are attitudinal indicators?

contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

contrasted with bridi, Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions

contrasted with discursives, Discursives

contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, The space of emotions

design benefit, The space of emotions

e- series, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional contrasted with propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional/propositional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

exceptions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

external grammar, The uses of indicators

grammar of internal compounding, Compound indicators

grammar of placement in bridi, The uses of indicators

i- series, Propositional attitude indicators

internal grammar

complete, Compound indicators

logical language and, Propositional attitude indicators

negative, Attitudes as scales

neutral, Attitudes as scales

non-speaker attitudes, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

order of, The space of emotions

placement for prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

placement in sentences with "nai", Compound indicators

positive, Attitudes as scales

prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

propositional contrasted with emotional, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional effect on claim, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional/emotional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

rationale for, Propositional attitude indicators

referent uncertainty, The uses of indicators

scale of, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone categories, Emotional categories

word-form for primary, What are attitudinal indicators?

au, Non-decimal and compound bases

audio-visual isomorphism, Orthography

audio-visually isomorphic, Sentences: I

auditoriums, Dependent places

author of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

Avon

example, Modal tags: BAI

B

ba, Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

ba'a, Evidentials

ba'acu'i, Evidentials

ba'anai, Evidentials

ba'e, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

ba'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as futureward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

back-counting pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

background noise, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

BAhE

selma'o catalog,

bai, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection

BAI

selma'o catalog,

BAI cmavo

rationale for selection, Modal tags: BAI

bai ke, Modal selbri

BAI ki ku, Sticky modals

BAI modal tags

rationale for, Modal tags: BAI

BAI selma'o, Modal conversion: JAI

as short forms for fi'o constructs, Modal tags: BAI

effect of conversion on, Modal tags: BAI

form of cmavo in, Modal tags: BAI

bai tavla, Modal selbri

bai'ai, cmavo

bajra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

bakni rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakni verba, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakrecpa'o, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bakri, rafsi

balsoi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo

balvi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals

bangu, Lojban names

banli, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

banli sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

bapli tavla, Modal selbri

bapu, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

barda, Simple tanru

base

assumed, Non-decimal and compound bases

changing permanently, Non-decimal and compound bases

non-constant, Non-decimal and compound bases

specifying, Non-decimal and compound bases

vague, Non-decimal and compound bases

base greater than 16

compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing numbers in, Non-decimal and compound bases

two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

base point

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

base varying for each digit

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

base-20 arithmetic

remnants of, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

basis

example, Evidentials

basti, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

basygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

batci, Dropping the prenex

bau, Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals

bavla'i, lujvo with more than two parts.

bavlamdei, lujvo with more than two parts.

baxso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

be, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

be lo, Minor abstraction types

be'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?

effect of ku on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect of relative clauses on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

be'u, Attitudinal modifiers

beach

example, Property abstractions

bear wrote story

example, The three basic description types

Bears wrote book

example, Individuals and masses

beautiful dog

example, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

beefsteak, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Beethoven

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

beetle

example, Dependent places

beetles, Dependent places

begin

contrasted with resume, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

beginning point

spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

bei, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

being alive

example, Types of event abstractions

bemro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bengo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bersa tixnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

berti merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

better

example, Comparatives and superlatives

between Dresden and Frankfurt

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

beverage

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect on following operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

bi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'u, Miscellaneous indicators

bi'unai, Miscellaneous indicators

bibliography, Informal Bibliography

bicycle race

example, Minor abstraction types

bifce jisra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce lakse, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

big boat

example, lujvo

big nose

example, What are you pointing at?

big nose-pores

example, What are you pointing at?

big person

example, What are you pointing at?

big red dog

example, Logical connection within tanru

BIhI selma'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Bill Clinton

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

bilma, rafsi

binary system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

bindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

birka, Relative phrases

bisycla, brivla

blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

blabi karce, Incidental relative clauses

blaci, rafsi

blaci kanla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo sidju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blakanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

blanu bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je zdani, Logical connection within tanru

blanu kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu zdani, Logical connection within tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blanu zdani ponse, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blari'o, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti

blaselkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blokle, lujvo-making examples

blolei, lujvo-making examples

bloti, lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

bloti klesi, lujvo-making examples

blue

as sad

example, Miscellaneous indicators

blue and red

example, Non-logical connectives

blue house

example, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru

blue-eyed

example, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for right-grouping in tanru, Complex tanru grouping

in jeks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in joiks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

right-grouping, Grouping of afterthought connectives

bo and forethought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

BO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

boat class

example, lujvo-making examples

boat sailed

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

boi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI

effect on elidability of me'u, Special mekso selbri

eliding from lerfu strings, lerfu words as pro-sumti

exception before MAI, Other uses of mekso

exception before MOI, Special mekso selbri

exception before ROI, Other uses of mekso

required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, lerfu words as pro-sumti

bold

example, Alien alphabets

bomb destroyed fifty miles

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

bone bread

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

books about Lojban, Informal Bibliography

borrowing

four stages of, fu'ivla

borrowing from other language

fu'ivla as, brivla

borrowings

fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

most common form for, fu'ivla

Stage 1, fu'ivla

Stage 2, fu'ivla

Stage 3, fu'ivla

Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, fu'ivla

Stage 4, fu'ivla

using foreign-language name, fu'ivla

using lojbanized name, fu'ivla

Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

both dogs

example, Indefinite numbers

bound variable pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

bovine

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bracketed remark, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

brackets

use in IPA notation, Basic Phonetics

bradi, The gismu creation algorithm

brazo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

breathe

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

bredi, The gismu creation algorithm

bridi, The concept of the bridi, Syllabication And Stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions

building from selbri and sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with predication, The concept of the bridi

concept of, The concept of the bridi

definition, Lojban content words: brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

effect of alternate form on sumti order, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of using non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

exception to sumti place structure in, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving end sumti places unspecified in, Standard bridi form: cu

logical connection with negation, Logical connection of bridi

logical connective for, Logical connection of bridi

non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

omitting the first sumti place, Standard bridi form: cu

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

relation to selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

selbri-first as exceptional, Standard bridi form: cu

standard form of, Standard bridi form: cu

bridi cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

bridi connection

use of imperatives in, Truth questions and connective questions

use of truth questions in, Truth questions and connective questions

bridi logical connection

compared with sumti logical connections, sumti connection

bridi negation

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

compared with negation between sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, Negation boundaries

naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, Negation boundaries

relative order with tense, Tenses and bridi negation

two forms of, Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

bridi questions

quick-tour version, Questions

bridi valsi, lujvo, rafsi

bridi-based comparison

contrasted with comparison with relative phrase

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

bridi-tail

definition, Compound bridi

bridi-tail logical connection

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

bridi-tails

eliding vau in, Compound bridi

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

bridyvalsi, lujvo

bridyvla, lujvo

brie

example, fu'ivla

brife molki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

briju ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

brito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

brivalsi, lujvo

brivla, Examples of brivla, Syllabication And Stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

consonant pairs in, brivla

definition, brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

from tanru, lujvo

properties of, brivla

recognition of, brivla

relation to bridi, The concept of the bridi

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

subtypes of, brivla

types, Lojban content words: brivla

types of

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

brivla as selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

brivla equivalents, Other kinds of simple selbri

brivla form

contrasted with cmavo form, brivla

contrasted with cmene form, brivla

broda, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

broda-series for pro-bridi

compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as abstract pattern, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as sample gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with no assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

word-form rationale, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

brode, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

brodi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodo, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodu, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

Brooklyn

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

brothers

example, Non-logical connectives

Brown

James Cooke, Acknowledgements and Credits

and "letteral", What's a letteral, anyway?

John

example, cmene

brudi, The gismu creation algorithm

bu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions

and compound cmavo, The universal bu

effect of multiple, The universal bu

effect on preceding word, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for extension of lerfu word set, The universal bu

grammar of, The universal bu

interaction with ba'e, The universal bu

interaction with language shift, Alien alphabets

omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

bu'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'a zo'u, selbri variables

bu'a-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

bu'e, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'i, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'o, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'ocu'i, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'onai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compared with ca, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

bubu, The universal bu

budjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

buffer vowel, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

and stress, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

shortening of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

bukpu spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Bulgarian

example, fu'ivla

but

compared with and, Truth questions and connective questions

example, Discursives

but/and equivalence, Indicators

butter is soft

example, Individuals and masses

butterfly

social

example, tanru

by, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

by., rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti

by. cy., lerfu words as pro-sumti

C

C string

as a symbol for a single consonant, Introductory

C/C string

as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, Introductory

C/CC string

as a symbol for a consonant triple, Introductory

ca, Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

compared with bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

rational for, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ca ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca'e, Evidentials

ca'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cabna, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

cadzu, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu cipni, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cadzu klama, Conversion of simple selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu le bisli, Modal selbri

cafne, Lojban sumti raising

cagyce'u, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cagyce'u zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

CAhA selma'o

making sticky, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

order in tense construct, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

cai, Attitudes as scales

cakcinki, Dependent places

calculator mathematics

as default in Lojban, Simple infix expressions and equations

calku, Dependent places

calku cinki, Dependent places

calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

can see

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

canceling letter shifts, Alien alphabets

cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment

with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

capital letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

use of, Orthography

capitalization

for unusual stress in names, cmene

use in names, cmene

use of, cmene

car goer

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

cardinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

cardinality

definition, Masses and sets

property of sets, Masses and sets

carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

carried piano

example, Non-logical connectives

carry sack

example, Mixed modal connection

carry sack and dog

example, Tensed logical connectives

carry the piano

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Cartesian product

with tenses, Sub-events

Carthage destroyed

example, Evidentials

carvi dirgo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi taxfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

case

upper/lower specification, Upper and lower cases

casnu, More about non-logical connectives

cat of plastic

example, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Catherine

example, cmene

Cathy

example, cmene

causals

claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, Modal sentence connection: the causals

gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

cause death

example, Lojban sumti raising

cave

example, Story time

CC string

as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, Introductory

CCVVCV fu'ivla

and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ce, cmavo, Non-logical connectives

ce'a, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

ce'e, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

ce'i, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

ce'o, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Amount abstractions

use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

cedilla

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

cei for broda-series assignment

compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

centi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cerni bumru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cessitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cevni jenmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni prenu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni zekri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ch-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

chapter numbering, Other uses of mekso

chapter titles

intent of, What is this book?

character codes

definition, Computerized character codes

character encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

characters

definition, Computerized character codes

special, The Special Lojban Characters

Chelsea Clinton, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

chemical elements

use of single-letter shift for, Upper and lower cases

Chief

example, cmene

child on ice

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Chilean desert

example, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

Chinese characters

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on pinyin spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

choose from

example, Non-logical connectives

Chrysler

example, selbri based on sumti: me

ci, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation

ci da, A few notes on variables

ci gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci lo gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ci'e, Metalinguistic negation forms

ci'u, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

CIA

example, Acronyms

cidja, fu'ivla

cidja barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cidjrspageti, fu'ivla

cifi'uxa, Special mekso selbri

cifnu degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinctu, lujvo-making examples

cinfo, Notes on gismu place structures

cinfo jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinfo kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinki, Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures

cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

cipnrstrigi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

circumflex

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cirla, fu'ivla

ciste, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

citmau, Comparatives and superlatives

citno, Comparatives and superlatives

citno zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

ckana boxfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Dependent places

ckule dinju, Dependent places

ckunu tricu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cladakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakfu xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

clamshells, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

clani, lujvo with more than two parts.

clarity of sounds, Basic Phonetics

Classical Greek aorist tense

compared with Lojban tense, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

cliva, Dependent places

closed interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

closings

letter, Vocative scales

cmaci, fu'ivla

cmacrnintegrale, fu'ivla

cmacrntegrale, fu'ivla

cmalu, Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

cmalu bo nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, Complex tanru grouping

cmalu nixli ckule, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

cmalu valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cmaro'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmaro'i dargu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmavo, Variant bridi structure, Syllabication And Stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

compound, cmavo

contrasted with rafsi in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, lujvo

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, cmavo

experimental, cmavo

for experimental use, cmavo

lack of relation of form to grammatical use, cmavo

rules for pause after Cy-form, Rules for inserting pauses

simple, cmavo

stress on, Syllabication And Stress, cmavo

structure of, cmavo

cmavo and gismu

major, gismu

cmavo as selbri

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

cmavo be zo do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

cmavo form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmavo without rafsi

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

cmene, cmene

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

and analyzability of speech stream, cmene

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

authority for, cmene

avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, cmene

consonant clusters permitted in, cmene

definition, cmene

examples of, cmene

final letter in, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

proscribed syllables in, cmene

purpose of, cmene

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

rules for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

stress in, cmene

unusual stress in, cmene

cmene form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmima, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation

co'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

as selbri place-holder, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

rationale for word form, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'e-series pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'i, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'o, Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

co'o la xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'o le xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

cobra

example, fu'ivla

coffee mixed with tea

example, More about non-logical connectives

coffee or tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

coi, Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases

coi doi djan., Vocative scales

COI selma'o, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Relative clauses in vocative phrases, Vocative scales

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

effect on referent of "do", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

effect on referent of "mi", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ordering multiple with mi'e, Vocative scales

coico'o, Vocative scales

coin heads

example, Special mekso selbri

coinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Coleoptera, Dependent places

color standards, Notes on gismu place structures

comma

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

effect on relative clause in English, Incidental relative clauses

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

main use of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

command

contrasted with observative form, Standard bridi form: cu

commands

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

commas in numbers

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of other notation conventions, Signs and numerical punctuation

with elided digits, Signs and numerical punctuation

common abstractor, Event abstraction

commutative truth functions, The Four basic vowels

comparative lujvo

against former state, Comparatives and superlatives

and seltau presupposition, Comparatives and superlatives

potential ambiguity in, Comparatives and superlatives

standardized meanings, Comparatives and superlatives

comparatives

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

comparison

claims related to based on form, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

comparison with relative phrase

contrasted with bridi-based comparison

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

completitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

complex logical connection

grouping strategies contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex logical connectives

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex movements

expressing, Movement in space: MOhI

complex negation

examples, Scalar negation of selbri

complex numbers

expressing, Special numbers

components contrasted with mass

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

compound base

definition, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing digits in, Non-decimal and compound bases

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

compound bridi

definition, Compound bridi

logical connection of, Compound bridi

more than one sumti in common, Compound bridi

multiple with bo, Multiple compound bridi

multiple with ke…ke'e, Multiple compound bridi

one sumti in common, Compound bridi

separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

compound bridi with more than one sumti in common

with common sumti first, Compound bridi

with vau, Compound bridi

compound cmavo

compared with sequence of simple cmavo, cmavo

definition, cmavo

recognition of, cmavo

compound emotions, The space of emotions

compound letters

native language

representing as distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

compound logical connectives

components, The six types of logical connectives

naming convention, The six types of logical connectives

compound of gismu

lujvo as, brivla

compound spatial tense

as direction with-or-without distance, Compound spatial tenses

beginning with distance only, Compound spatial tenses

effect of different ordering, Compound spatial tenses

explanation of, Compound spatial tenses

with direction and distance, Compound spatial tenses

compound subscript, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

compound temporal tense

beginning with distance only, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compound tense

compared with multiple tenses in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Compound spatial tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, Compound spatial tenses

compound tense ordering

Lojban contrasted with English, Compound spatial tenses

computer interaction, No more to say: FAhO

concept abstraction, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractor, Minor abstraction types

concrete terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

condescension

example, Attitudinal modifiers

confusion

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

confusion about what was said, Miscellaneous indicators

conjunctions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

connected tenses

negation of compared with negation in connective, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

connecting operands

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting operators

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection

non-distributed, Non-logical connectives

of sumti

selma'o catalog,

simultaneously modal and logical, Mixed modal connection

connection of operands

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

precedence over operator, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection of operators

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connective answers

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connective question answers

contrasted with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

connective question cmavo

departure from regularity of, Truth questions and connective questions

connective questions

answering, Truth questions and connective questions

compared with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

table by constructs connected, Constructs and appropriate connectives

consonant

definition, Consonant Clusters

effect on syllable count, Consonant Clusters

consonant clusters

buffering of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

definition of, Consonant Clusters

more than three consonants in, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant pairs

in brivla, brivla

initial, Initial Consonant Pairs

letter y within, brivla

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

consonant triples, Initial Consonant Pairs

restrictions on, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant-final words

necessity for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

consonants

contrasted with vowels, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final, Consonant Clusters

position of, Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

syllabic, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

voiced/unvoiced equivalents, Consonant Clusters

voicing of, Consonant Clusters

continents

gismu for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

continues

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuous

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

contradictory negation

using naku before selbri, Using naku outside a prenex

contradictory negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

contradictory negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

contributors to this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

conversion

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

definition, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on BAI, Modal tags: BAI

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

modal, Modal conversion: JAI

of BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

of operator places, Miscellany

scope of, Conversion: SE

swapping non-first places, Conversion: SE

swapping with modal place, Modal conversion: JAI

conversion and tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion into sumti from mekso, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of operand into operator, Miscellany

conversion of operator into operand, Miscellany

conversion of operator into selbri, Other uses of mekso

conversion of selbri into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of selbri into operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sentence with quantified variables

technique, Using naku outside a prenex

conversion of sumti into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

conversion with ke, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion with se

effect of naku negation boundary on, Using naku outside a prenex

converted selbri

as different selbri from unconverted, Conversion: SE

as resetting standard order, Conversion: SE

compared with selbri with FA in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted with other similar selbri, Conversion: SE

contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, Conversion: SE

definition, Conversion: SE

forming with SE, Conversion: SE

in descriptions, Conversion: SE

place structure of, Conversion: SE

retention of basic meaning in, Conversion: SE

to access non-first place in description, Conversion: SE

cpina rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

creative understanding, Why have lujvo?

credits for pictures, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

cribe, The three basic description types

cribe rectu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

crisa citsi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

critu lunra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cross product

with tenses, Sub-events

cross-dependency, Dependent places

cross-product

contrasted with and, More about non-logical connectives

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

ctcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ctigau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

ctile jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cu, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions

as selbri separator, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of selbri-first bridi on, Tagging places: FA

effect of tense specification, Introductory

effect on elidability of ku, The three basic description types

effect on elidable terminators, Standard bridi form: cu

necessity of, Standard bridi form: cu

need for

quick-tour version, Description sumti

omission of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

use of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

usefulness of, Standard bridi form: cu

cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers

combining with other tense cmavo, Tense questions: cu'e

cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions

cu'o, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

cu'u, cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

cukta barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cukta vasru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cultural knowledge

example, Evidentials

cultural words

rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

culturally dependent lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

cunso, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cup's friend

example, Relative phrases

curious, Predication/sentence abstraction

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

curnu jalra, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

cutci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

cuxna, Non-logical connectives

cy, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Cy-form cmavo

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

cy., cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

cycles, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Cyrillic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da, Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with zo'e, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da poi, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi

da poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

DA selma'o, Subscripts: XI

da viska mi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da zo'u, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

default number for, Indefinite numbers

da'amei, brivla

da'amoi terbasna, Syllabication And Stress

da'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

da'i, Discursives

da'inai, Discursives

da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions

for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

syntax of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

da'u, Pro-sumti summary

da-series

after third, Subscripts: XI

da-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadysli junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dai, cmene, Lojban names, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

dakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

dalmikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daxivo, Subscripts: XI

de, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

de'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

de'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

de'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

de'u, Pro-sumti summary

decimal point

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of different notations, Signs and numerical punctuation

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

decti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

deduction

example, Evidentials

default operator precedence

contrasted with mekso goal, Simple infix expressions and equations

deference

example, Attitudinal modifiers

definable pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

sequences of lerfu words as, Pro-sumti summary

definite numbers

combined with indefinite, Indefinite numbers

dei, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

dejni, Multiple compound bridi

dekto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

delno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

demonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

demonstrative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

DeMorgan's Law

and bridi-tail logical connection, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and internal naku negations, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and logically connected sentences, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

sample applications, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci genja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci pesxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denpa, The universal bu

denpa bu, The universal bu

denpabu, The universal bu

denPAbu, The universal bu

dereferencing a pointer

with la'e, sumti qualifiers

derivational morphology

definition, Introductory

derogatory terms, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

descriptions

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

as based on first place of following selbri, Conversion: SE

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

components of, The three basic description types

importance of selbri first place in, The three basic description types

non-specific, The three basic description types

quick-tour version, Description sumti

specific, The three basic description types

types of, The three basic description types

use of SE in, Conversion: SE

descriptions with lo

teddy bear contrasted with real bear, The three basic description types

descriptor

as part of description, The three basic description types

descriptors

implicit quantifiers for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

purpose of, The three basic description types

Devanagari

example, Alien alphabets

dexivo, Subscripts: XI

di, cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

di'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

di'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives

effect of tu'e/tu'u on, More about non-logical connectives

di'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with la'edi'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with ta, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

diacritic marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

diacritical marks

as lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

considered as forming distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

order of specification within tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem of position, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem with multiple on one lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

specifying with tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

dictionary

superior authority of, Disclaimers

die after living

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

digit questions, Number questions

digit string

definition of, Other uses of mekso

digits

cmavo for, Lojban numbers

names from, Miscellany

rafsi for, Miscellany

rationale for having 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

digits beyond 9

word pattern, Non-decimal and compound bases

dikca tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dimension

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

dimensionality

of walking, Dimensionality: VIhA

order with size in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensionality of interval

as subjective, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensioned numbers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

dinju, fu'ivla

diphthongs

classification of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

contrasted with vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

English analogues of, English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

IPA for, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

list of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

specific to cmene, cmene

specific to names, cmene

direct address, Vocative scales

direction

following interval in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interaction with movement specification in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

reference frame for, Movement in space: MOhI

specification with FAhA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

directions

multiple with movement, Movement in space: MOhI

disambiguated instance, The meaning of lujvo

disclaimers, Disclaimers

discourse

commentary on, Discursives

expressing utterance relation to, Discursives

gesture markers, Discursives

tone of voice markers, Discursives

discrete

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

discursive indicator, Paragraphs: NIhO

discursives

as metalinguistic claims, Discursives

contrasted with attitudinals, Discursives

definition, Discursives

discourse commentary, Discursives

discourse management, Discursives

embedded, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

expressing how things are said, Discursives

knowledge, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

quick-tour version, Indicators

su'a as, Evidentials

word-level, Discursives

discursives for consecutive discourse, Discursives

contrasted, Discursives

discursives for managing discourse flow, Discursives

discuss in language

example, More about non-logical connectives

distance

order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

specification with VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

distribution of quantified sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

ditto

example, Discursives

diversified species, Notes on gismu place structures

djacu barna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu dertu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

djacu dunda, Modal sentence connection: the causals

djedi, lujvo with more than two parts.

djica, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

djine, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

djinrnintegrale, fu'ivla

djuno, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

DNA

example, Acronyms

do, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

do brode, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

do klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do nelci mi, Tenses versus modals

do'a, Discursives

do'anai, Discursives

do'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

compared with English "of", Modal tags: BAI

do'i, cmene, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

do'o, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

do'u, The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales

doctor and then rich

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

dog bites

example, Dropping the prenex

dog breathes, Restricted claims: da poi

dog house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

dog or cat

example, Truth questions and connective questions

doghouse

example, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo

dogs bite

example, Grouping of quantifiers

doi, Vocatives and commands, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, The syntax of vocative phrases, Lojban names, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

doi .io, Vocative scales

doi .ionai, Vocative scales

doi frank., Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

doi ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

DOI selma'o, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

doinai, Vocative scales

Dong

example, Ordering lujvo places.

donma'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

donri nicte, Some types of symmetrical tanru

donta'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dotco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

double negation

and naku, Using naku outside a prenex

double negatives

effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, Negation boundaries

double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

doubled consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

Doyle

example, Lojban names

dream

example, Evidentials

du, Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary

as an exception within GOhA selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

compared with me in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

contrasted with dunli, The identity predicate: du

contrasted with mintu, The identity predicate: du

derivation of, The identity predicate: du

grammar of, Simple infix expressions and equations

meaning of, The identity predicate: du

rationale for selection of selma'o for, The identity predicate: du

with complex mekso on both sides, Simple infix expressions and equations

du'e, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

du'e ratcu, Special mekso selbri

du'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

du-, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dubjavmau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

dubjavme'a, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

ducks swim

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

dunda, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

dunda gi'abo lebna, Multiple compound bridi

dunli, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

dunra nicte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

dy.bu, Alien alphabets

dzipo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

E

e, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

contrasted with pi'u, More about non-logical connectives

e'e, Attitudinal modifiers

e'o, Vocative scales

contrasted with pe'u, Vocative scales

e'u, Syllabication And Stress, Evidentials

compared with ru'a, Evidentials

Earl

example, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

eat in airplane

example, Movement in space: MOhI

eat themselves

example, Indefinite numbers

editorial commentary, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

with "sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

ei, Non-decimal and compound bases

Einsteinian

space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, Dimensionality: VIhA

ek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

eks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in sumti forethought logical connection, sumti connection

elementary schools, Dependent places

Elgin

Suzette Haden and evidentials, Evidentials

elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

elided tense

meaning of, Introductory

elimination process, Ordering lujvo places.

ellipsis

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

elliptical pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical value

contrasted with typical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

embarrassment

example, Emotional categories

embedded bridi tenses

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

emotional categories, Emotional categories

emotional indicators

noticeable effects of, Tentative conclusion

emotional scale, Attitudes as scales

emotions

compound, The space of emotions

cultural bias of expression, Tentative conclusion

insights, The space of emotions

recording using indicators, Tentative conclusion

research using indicators, Tentative conclusion

when expressed, The space of emotions

empathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

emphasis

changing by using non-standard form of bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

marking

selma'o catalog,

end of file, No more to say: FAhO

endpoints

inclusion in interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

engineering

example, Some simple Lojban bridi

English "we"

contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

English prepositions

contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

Englishman in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

enough currency

example, Indefinite numbers

enough-th

example, Special mekso selbri

equivalents to brivla, Other kinds of simple selbri

erasure

multiple word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

names, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

quotes, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

total, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

error marking

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

ete, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

event abstractions, Event abstraction

types, Types of event abstractions

event contours

achievative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as characteristic portions of events, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

as timeless in perspective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cessative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

completitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

definition, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

division of the event into, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

inchoative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

initiative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

interruption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

order with respect to TAhE and ROI, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pausative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

points associated with, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

strings of, Sub-events

superfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

syntax of, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

temporal contrasted with spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

event contours as sumti tcita

contrasted with direction and distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

event types

described, Types of event abstractions

event-relative viewpoint

contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

events

considered as a process, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

duration, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

everybody loves something

example, Negation boundaries

everyone

contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

everyone bitten by dog, Dropping the prenex

everything

expressing with "ro da", Universal claims

everything breathes

example, Restricted claims: da poi

everything loves everything

example, Universal claims

everything sees me

example, Universal claims

everything sees something

example, Universal claims

evidentials

ba'a scale, Evidentials

definition, Evidentials

grammar, Evidentials

in English, Evidentials

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

inspiration for, Evidentials

ja'o contrasted with su'a, Evidentials

ka'u contrasted with se'o, Evidentials

placement in bridi, Evidentials

quick-tour version, Indicators

rhetorical flavor, Evidentials

scales, Evidentials

se'o contrasted with ka'u, Evidentials

su'a contrasted with ja'o, Evidentials

exact number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

example of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples

structure of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples in this book, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

except from 10 to 12

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

existential

mixed claim with universal, Universal claims

existential claims

definition, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

existential variable

in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, The problem of “any”

in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, The problem of “any”

expanding "no" quantifier, Negation boundaries

experience abstraction, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractor, Minor abstraction types

experienced

example, Evidentials

experimental cmavo

definition, cmavo

forms for, cmavo

exponential notation

with base other than 10, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

exporting negation to prenex

"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, Using naku outside a prenex

internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", Using naku outside a prenex

external bridi negation

compared to internal bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

extrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

fa, Tagging places: FA

FA in selbri

compared with converted selbri in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted converted selbri with in structure, Conversion: SE

FA selma'o

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

as a reminder of place in place structure, Tagging places: FA

avoidance of complex usage of, Tagging places: FA

compared with zo'e for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure order, Tagging places: FA

effect on subsequent non-tagged places, Tagging places: FA

for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, Tagging places: FA

for putting more than one sumti in a single place, Tagging places: FA

syntax of, Tagging places: FA

FA tags and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

fa'a, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

fa'o, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

fa'u, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

compared to termsets, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, Non-logical connectives

face

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

fadni, Masses and sets

fagri, Why have lujvo?

fagri dapma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fagri festi, Why have lujvo?

fagyfesti, Why have lujvo?

FAhA selma'o, Tense negation

and direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

use in specifying space/time mapping direction, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fai, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo

as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

effect on numbering of place structure places, Modal conversion: JAI

false statement

implications of, Logical connection of bridi

fancy A

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy E

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy O

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy U

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

far away from the nearby park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

fasnu, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

fast talker

example, tanru

fast-talker shoe

example, tanru

father

example, The concept of the bridi

father mother

example, lujvo

fau, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

faxixa, Subscripts: XI

fe, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fe'a, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

fe'e, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fe'omi'e, Vocative scales

fe'u, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri

femti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

fenki litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

festi, Why have lujvo?

festi lante, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fetsygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

fewsome

example, Special mekso selbri

fi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi

fi'a, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers

effect on subsequent untagged sumti, Tagging places: FA

fi'a do, Tagging places: FA

fi'e, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'i, Vocative scales

fi'o, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals

and modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

as modal tag, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on following selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

mixed modal connection with, Mixed modal connection

proscribed for sticky modals, Sticky modals

restriction on use, Other modal connections

use in adding places to place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o constructs

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o kanla le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o modal followed by selbri

effect on eliding fe'u, Modal selbri

fi'o modals

negation of by negating selbri, Modal negation

usage in relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'o pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o pilno fe'u, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno [fe'u], Modal tags: BAI

fi'o tag

relation of modal sumti following to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri

meaning of, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o-, Other modal connections, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Mixed modal connection, Modal conversion: JAI

fi'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

Fido

example, Dropping the prenex

field rations

example, lujvo

figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

place structure, Miscellaneous indicators

figurative speech, Miscellaneous indicators

filso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

final syllable stress

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

finish

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finished

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finpe nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

finti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

first rat

example, Special mekso selbri

firstly

example, Other uses of mekso

fish eat

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

fish on right

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

flashbacks in story time

example, Story time

fleas, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

flexible vocabulary, brivla

floating point numbers

expressing, Infix operators revisited

flow of discourse

managing with discursives, Discursives

fo, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri

fo'a, Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'e, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'i, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'o, Pro-sumti summary

fo'u, Pro-sumti summary

foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

foldi smacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

folk quantifiers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

font

example, Alien alphabets

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

food

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

foreman of a jury

example, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

forethought bridi connection

as grammatically one sentence, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi connectives

contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule for tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connection

contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

observatives, Multiple compound bridi

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought connections

modal compared with tense in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connectives

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with afterthought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

with tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connectives and bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

forethought intervals

GAhO position, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

forethought logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

forethought logical connectives in tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

forethought modal sentence connection, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first bridi in, Other modal connections

relation to modal of second bridi in, Other modal connections

forethought modal sentence connection for causals

order of cause and effect, Other modal connections

forethought tanru connection, Logical connection within tanru

forethought tense connection

contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

forethought tense connection of bridi-tails

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sumti

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought termsets

logical connection of, Termset logical connection

formal requirement

example, Attitudes as scales

former market

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

former state, Comparatives and superlatives

formulae

expressing based on pure dimensions, Using Lojban resources within mekso

four "e"s

example, References to lerfu

Four score and seven

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

fourteen "e"s, What's a letteral, anyway?

fraction

meaning with elided numerator and denominator, Special numbers

fractions

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

numerator default, Signs and numerical punctuation

fragmentary text, Miscellaneous indicators

Frank is a fool

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

fraso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

free modifiers

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

friend's cup

example, Relative phrases

friko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

frinu, Miscellany

from one to two o'clock

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

fu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fu'a, Reverse Polish notation

fu'e, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

fu'ivla

algorithm for constructing, fu'ivla

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as Stage 3 borrowings, fu'ivla

as Stage 4 borrowings, fu'ivla

categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, fu'ivla

considerations for choosing basis word, fu'ivla

consonant clusters in, fu'ivla

construction of, fu'ivla

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, fu'ivla

disambiguation of, fu'ivla

form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

form of, fu'ivla

initial consonant cluster in, fu'ivla

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rules for formation of, fu'ivla

stress in, fu'ivla

uniqueness of meaning in, fu'ivla

use of, fu'ivla

with invalid diphthongs, fu'ivla

fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

for distinguishing fu'ivla form, fu'ivla

for distinguishing specialized meanings, fu'ivla

selection consideration for, fu'ivla

fu'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fukpi valsi, fu'ivla

fully reduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

function f of x

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

function name

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

future event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

futureward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, Truth-value abstraction: jei

fy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

fy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany

fy. le'u si si si, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GA selma'o, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ga'e, Upper and lower cases

ga'e .abu, Upper and lower cases

ga'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gadri, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti

GAhO position in forethought intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

GAhO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

galfi, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

galtu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

ganai, Forethought bridi connection

ganlo, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gapru, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures

gasnu lo citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

gau, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ge, lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

ge ... gi, Modal selbri

ge'a, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

ge'a gei, Reverse Polish notation

ge'e, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators

ge'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

ge'o, Alien alphabets

ge'u, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases

effect of following logical connective on elidability, Relative phrases

elidability of from relative phrases, Relative phrases

ge'u-zdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'urzdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'uzda, lujvo-making examples

gei, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

as a binary operator, Infix operators revisited

as a ternary operator, Infix operators revisited

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

gek

definition, Forethought bridi connection

gek bridi connectives

contrasted with ijeks, Forethought bridi connection

gekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

geks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in forethought sumti connection, sumti connection

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

General American, IPA For English Speakers

general sumti

contrasted with operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

general terms, Notes on gismu place structures

gento, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

gerku, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo

gerku bo kavbu, Complex tanru grouping

gerku zdani, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo

gerkyzda, lujvo-making examples

gerkyzdani, lujvo-making examples

German rich man

example, Grouping of afterthought connectives

gerselzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

gerzda, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

gerzdani, lujvo-making examples

Gettysburg Address

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

gi, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GI selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

gi'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'e, Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'i, Questions and answers

gi'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gicmu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

gigdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

GIhA selma'o, Compound bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

gihek

definition, Compound bridi

giheks

syntax of, Compound bridi

gik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Forethought bridi connection

giks

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

girls' school

little

example, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

girzu, lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

gismu, The concept of the bridi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

algorithm for, lujvo-making examples

and cmavo

major, gismu

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as partitioning semantic space, gismu

basic rafsi for, rafsi

coined, The gismu creation algorithm

conflicts between, gismu

creation

and transcription blunders, The gismu creation algorithm

considerations for selection after scoring, The gismu creation algorithm

proscribed gismu pairs, The gismu creation algorithm

scoring rules, The gismu creation algorithm

cultural, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

definition, gismu

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

ethnic, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

examples of, gismu

exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, The gismu creation algorithm

for countries, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for Lojban source languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

geographical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

length of, gismu

level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, rafsi

Lojban-specific, The gismu creation algorithm

place order

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

place structures, Notes on gismu place structures

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for choice of, gismu

religious, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rules for, gismu

scientific-mathematical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

selection of, gismu

source of, gismu

source-language weights for, The gismu creation algorithm

special, gismu

too-similar, The gismu creation algorithm

gisnu, gismu

give

example, The concept of the bridi

give or receive

example, Tagging places: FA

giving the horse

example, Property abstractions

gizmu, gismu

gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

glico, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

glottal stop

as pause in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

glue in lujvo

n-hyphen as, lujvo

r-hyphen as, lujvo

y-hyphen as, lujvo

go, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to market

example, Introductory

go to Paris or Rome

example, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

go to the store

example, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

go'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'a-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i, Examples of brivla, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations

as affirmative answer to yes/no question, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with mo in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

contrasted with mi'u, Discursives

go'i cei broda, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i ra'o

contrasted with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i with xu

quick-tour version, Questions

go'i-series pro-bridi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

as main-bridi anaphora only, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

assigning for permanent reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sub-clauses on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sumti of referent bridi on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

referent of, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'ixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'u, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

goal of this book, What is this book?

gocti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

goer table

example, Simple tanru

goer-house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

GOhA selma'o, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as component in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

as selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri

goi, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, Relative phrases

use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use in assigning name, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti

use in speech contrasted with writing, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi for ko'a-series assignment

compared with cei for broda-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

good house

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

gotro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

grammatical categories

use of upper case for, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

grammatical terms

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

grana mudri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grasp water

example, Other modal connections

great soldier

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

Greek alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Greek-Americans own restaurants, Descriptors for typical objects

gripau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

grouping

of connection in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

of connection in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

grouping parentheses, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

grutrceraso, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grutrceraso jbama, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

gu, cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'e, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

gu'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gugde ciste, Some types of symmetrical tanru

GUhA selma'o, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

guhek

definition, Logical connection within tanru

guheks

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

guheks for tanru connection

rationale, Logical connection within tanru

gy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

gy., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

H

had earlier

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

hands in pockets

example, Relative phrases

handwriting

example, Alien alphabets

han^{4}zi^{4}, What about Chinese characters?

happiness

example, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

happy face

example, The universal bu

has a heart

example, Property abstractions

have never

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

having

of properties, Property abstractions

healthy

example, Questions

hearsay

example, Evidentials

heartburn

example, Miscellaneous indicators

Hebrew alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Helvetica font

example, Alien alphabets

hepatitis

example, rafsi

hereafter known as

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

hesitation sound, Hesitation: Y

hexadecimal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, The lujvo scoring algorithm

hiragana

contrasted with kanji, What about Chinese characters?

example, Alien alphabets

hit cousin

example, Discursives

hit nose

example, Discursives

hits

example, The concept of the bridi

Hollywood

example, Descriptors for typical objects

hospitality

example, Vocative scales

hours

minutes

seconds: example, Non-decimal and compound bases

huh?

example, Miscellaneous indicators

hundred

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

husband and wife

example, Evidentials

hyphen letter

definition, rafsi

hyphens

use of, rafsi

hyphens in lujvo

proscribed where not required, The lujvo-making algorithm

hypothetical world, Propositional attitude indicators

contrasted with real world

example, Discursives

hypothetical world point of view, Discursives

I

i, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball Orthographies, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

regarding forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection

I selma'o, Logical connection of bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

i'a, Pure emotion indicators

i'e, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators

IBM

example, Acronyms

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

ice'o

contrasted with .ibabo, More about non-logical connectives

idea abstraction, Minor abstraction types

idea abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

identity

expressing with po'u, Relative phrases

identity predicate, The identity predicate: du

if

English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, Logical connection of bridi

expressing hypothetical world, Discursives

expressing real world, Discursives

meaning in logical connections, Logical connection of bridi

if coffee

bring tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

if … then

compared with only if, Logical connection of bridi

logical connectives contrasted with other translations, Forethought bridi connection

ijek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

ijek bridi connectives

contrasted with geks, Forethought bridi connection

ijek logical connectives

connecting bridi, Logical connection of bridi

ijeks

syntax of, Logical connection of bridi

ijoik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, More about non-logical connectives

imaginary journey

and spatial tense, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

ending point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sentence connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sumti connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin of in tense-connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

stages of in compound tenses, Compound spatial tenses

starting at a different point, Tenses as sumti tcita

starting point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita

with interval direction, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

imaginary journey origin

with sticky tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

imperatives

and truth, Truth questions and connective questions

attitude, Attitudinal modifiers

English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implausible, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

implicit quantifier

for quotations, Quantified sumti

on quotations

discussion of, Quantified sumti

importance of point

scale with ra'u, Discursives

in the aftermath

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

inalienable

distinguishing from alienable, Relative phrases

inalienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

inchoative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

incidental association

expressing with ne, Relative phrases

incidental identification

expressing with no'u, Relative phrases

incidental relative clause

as a parenthetical device, Incidental relative clauses

definition, Incidental relative clauses

inclusion

property of sets, Masses and sets

indefinite description

as needing explicit outer quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

compared with restricted variable, Variables with generalized quantifiers

definition, Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers

indefinite numbers

combined with definite, Indefinite numbers

indefinite portions

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indefinite pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite sumti

as implicit quantification, Using naku outside a prenex

compared to sumti with lo, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

indefinite values

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indicator scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

evolutionary development of, Tentative conclusion

grammar for compounding, Compound indicators

meaning when compounded, Compound indicators

placement of, Propositional attitude indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

ramifications, Tentative conclusion

rationale for selection, Tentative conclusion

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

types of, What are attitudinal indicators?

indirect question, Miscellaneous indicators

indirect question involving sumti, Indirect questions

indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

indirect questions without "kau", Indirect questions

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

individual

example, Special mekso selbri

individual descriptors

different implicit outer quantifiers among, Quantified descriptions

individual objects

multiple, Individuals and masses

individuals

expressing relation with mass formed, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set formed, Special mekso selbri

individuals into mass

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals into set

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals of set

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

indivisible, Types of event abstractions

induction

example, Evidentials

inexact numbers with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

inexact portions with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

infant ducks

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inferior

example, Attitudinal modifiers

infinity

example, Special numbers

infix notation mixed with Polish, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

inflammable

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

initial consonant pairs

list of, Initial Consonant Pairs

initiative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

innate capabilities

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate capability

expressing explicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate properties

extension of from mass to individuals, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

extension to individuals not actually capable, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inner product, Vectors and matrices

inner quantifier

contrasted with outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

explicit, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

inner sumti

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

integral

architectural concept

example, fu'ivla

mathematical concept

example, fu'ivla

integrale, fu'ivla

interactions between quantifiers and negation

effect, Negation boundaries

interjections

quick-tour version, Indicators

intermediate abstraction, Lojban sumti raising

intermittently

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

internal bridi negation

compared to external bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

internal naku negations

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

internal world, Propositional attitude indicators

International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), Basic Phonetics

intersect, Minor abstraction types

intersection

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

intersection of sets

compared with and, More about non-logical connectives

interval

closed, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

followed by direction in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

inclusion of endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

open, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with direction and distance in tense, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval continuousness

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

interval direction

specifying, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval properties

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

strings of, Sub-events

interval size

as context-dependent, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

unspecified, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

vague, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

interval spread

expressing English "intermittently", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

mutually contrasted, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negation with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

with unspecified interval, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intervals

effect of nai on, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as center and distance, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressing by endpoints with bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

forethought, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

spread of actions over, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing by using place in some selbri, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

introduce oneself, Vocative scales

invalid diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

invalid speech

marking as error with na'i, Miscellaneous indicators

inversion of quantifiers

definition, Negation boundaries

in moving negation boundary, Negation boundaries

inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary

rationale for, Negation boundaries

invertebrate, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

inverted tanru

effect on sumti after the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on sumti before the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

inverting quantifiers

with movement relative to fixed negation, Using naku outside a prenex

with movement relative to naku, Using naku outside a prenex

IPA, Basic Phonetics

IPA pronunciation

description, IPA For English Speakers

irony

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

irrational number

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

irrelevant

specifying of sumti place, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

isomorphism

audio-visual, Orthography

IT

as notation convention in relative clause chapter, What are you pointing at?

italic

example, Alien alphabets

iy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

J

j-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

ja, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

JA selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

ja'a, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

ja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ja'o, Evidentials

jai, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

for modal conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

jai with tense

as equivalent of SE in grammar, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

jai without modal

meaning, Modal conversion: JAI

jalra curnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

James

example, Consonant Clusters

jamfu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jane

example, cmene

Japanese hiragana

example, Alien alphabets

Japanese katakana

example, Alien alphabets

jargon

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

jdari bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jdaselsku, Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo

jdika, Comparatives and superlatives

je, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

je'a, Affirmations

je'e, Vocative scales

contrasted with vi'o, Vocative scales

je'enai, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

je'i, Questions and answers

je'o, Alien alphabets

je'u, Discursives

je'unai, Discursives

jegvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei

jek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

jeks

connecting abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

jelca, Miscellaneous indicators

jenai, Tense questions: cu'e

jerxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Jesus, Minor abstraction types

example, Minor abstraction types

jgalu grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ji, Questions and answers

ji'a, Discursives

ji'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

effect of placement, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

ji'u, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'uku, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'una'iku, Metalinguistic negation forms

jibni, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Jim

example, cmene

jinvi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

jipci gunse, Some types of symmetrical tanru

jipci pimlu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jipci sovda, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jitro, Anomalous lujvo

jmive munje, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jo, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

jo'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

jo'e, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

jo'i, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso

precedence of, Vectors and matrices

jo'o, Alien alphabets

jo'u, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce'o, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with joi, Non-logical connectives

result of connection with, Non-logical connectives

John and Sam

example, The concept of the bridi

John Brown

example, cmene

John is coming

example, What are attitudinal indicators?

John Paul Jones

example, Lojban names

John says that George goes to market

example, Tenses in subordinate bridi

joi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu

joi grammar

contrasted with eks, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with jeks, Non-logical connectives

JOI selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

joibu, The universal bu

joigik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joigiks

connection types, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Non-logical connectives

joiks

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

use of "se" in, Non-logical connectives

jokes, What is this book?

jordo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ju, Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

ju'a, Evidentials

ju'apei, Evidentials

ju'i .djan., Vocative scales

ju'i lobypli, Vocative scales

ju'o, Discursives

ju'u, Non-decimal and compound bases

grammar of, Non-decimal and compound bases

jubme tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jundi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

jungo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

junla dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jupiter life

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

juror 5

example, Possessive sumti

jy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

K

ka, cmene, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo

ka'a, Modal tags: BAI

ka'e, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ka'o, Special numbers

as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, Special numbers

ka'u, Evidentials

kabri palta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

kadno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kai, Metalinguistic negation forms

kalri, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

kalselvi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kalselvi'i gapci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kambla, Abstract lujvo

kanji, What about Chinese characters?

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on romaji spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

kanla denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanro, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

karce, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce klama, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce xislu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

karcykla, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karda mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

katakana

example, Alien alphabets

Kate

example, cmene

Katrina

example, cmene

kau, Indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

ke, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for conversion of tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

for expanding scope of scalar negation, Scalar negation of selbri

ke in sumti grouping

where allowed, Grouping of afterthought connectives

ke'a, Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ambiguity when omitted, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

and abstract descriptions, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

as referent for relativized sumti, What are you pointing at?

contrasted with ri in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

effect of omission of, What are you pointing at?

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

non-initial place use in relative clause, What are you pointing at?

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

subscripting for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ke'a with subscript

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'axipa, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I

ke'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ke'o, Vocative scales

compared to ki'a, Vocative scales

ke'u, Discursives

contrasted with va'i, Discursives

ke'unai, Discursives

kei, Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo

KEI selma'o

eliding, The syntax of abstraction

kelvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kensa bloti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kept on too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

kerfa silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ketco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ki, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o

with no tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

ki ku, Sticky modals

ki'a, cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms

compared to ke'o, Vocative scales

ki'o, Signs and numerical punctuation

ki'u, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection

killing Jim, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

kilto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kismu, gismu

kissing Jane

example, Event abstraction

kisto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kixipa, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

klama, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI

place structure of, Introductory

klama le zarci, Modal selbri, Compound bridi

klama zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

klamau, Comparatives and superlatives

klesi, lujvo-making examples

kliti cipni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

know

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

know who

contrasted with know that, Indirect questions

example, Indirect questions

knowledge discursives, Discursives

compared with propositional attitudes, Discursives

ko, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions

in later selbri place in imperative, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

in sub-clause of main bridi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for commands, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for imperatives, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ko'a, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'a goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series

after tenth, Subscripts: XI

ko'a-series for pro-sumti

compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

as assignable, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assignment with goi as symmetrical, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'e, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'i, Pro-sumti summary

ko'o, Pro-sumti summary

ko'u, Pro-sumti summary

kobra, fu'ivla

kolme terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Korean

example, fu'ivla

kosta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

krasi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

krecau, selbri and tanru negation

krici, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

krinu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

ktraile, fu'ivla

ku, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

as elidable terminator for descriptions, The three basic description types

effect of following selbri on elidability of, The three basic description types

effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect on of omitting descriptor, Indefinite descriptions

quick-tour version, Description sumti

uses of, The three basic description types

with tense, Introductory

KU selma'o

quick-tour version, Description sumti

ku'a, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

ku'a'e, cmavo

ku'e, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ku'i, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions

ku'o, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi

effect of vau on elidability, Possessive sumti

elidability for relative clauses, What are you pointing at?

kuarka, fu'ivla

kuldi'u, Dependent places

kurji, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

ky, Syllabication And Stress, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

ky. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky.bu, Alien alphabets

Kzinti

communication with, Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen

use of, fu'ivla

la, Words that can act as sumti, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Acronyms, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

compared with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lai in implications, Individuals and masses

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, The three basic description types

la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la .apasionatas, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .apasionatas., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .atlantas., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA

la alis., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la bastn., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

la betis., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la ckiipyris., Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la cribe, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses

la djan., Words that can act as sumti, Indirect questions, Pure emotion indicators, Multiple compound bridi, Other uses of mekso

la djan. nanmu, Logical connection of bridi

la djeimyz. ninmu, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection

la djein., sumti qualifiers

la djordj, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la djordj., Explicit magnitudes, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la frank. .e la djordj., Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la lojban., The five kinds of simple sumti, Modal conversion: JAI

la me zoi, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la meiris., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la meris., Words that can act as sumti

la nu,IORK., Tagging places: FA

la pacac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la plas., cmene

la recac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la rik., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

LA selma'o, Conversion: SE

contrasted with LE in use of name-words, Lojban names

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

la tcarlis., Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

la'e, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le selsinxa bele selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

la'e di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'e lu

compared with me'o, References to lerfu

la'edi'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'i, Rules for inserting pauses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as set counterpart of lai, Masses and sets

la'o, fu'ivla, cmene, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

interaction with bu, The universal bu

la'u, Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms

la-series descriptors

compared with le-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

Láadan evidentials, Evidentials

labmau, rafsi

ladru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru botpi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Lady

example, cmene

LAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lai, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as mass counterpart of lai, Individuals and masses

contrasted with la in implications, Individuals and masses

lambda calculus

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lange'u, Anomalous lujvo

language shift

based on name + bu, Alien alphabets

choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, Alien alphabets

compound, Alien alphabets

effect on following words, Alien alphabets

formation of shift alphabet name, Alien alphabets

interaction with bu, Alien alphabets

rationale for, Alien alphabets

standardization of, Alien alphabets

languages

abbreviations for, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lanme, Anomalous lujvo

lanme gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lantro, Anomalous lujvo

lanzu tumla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Laplace

example, cmene

large meal

example, Attitudinal modifiers

large-base decimal fraction

expressing, Non-decimal and compound bases

latent component, Anomalous lujvo

Latin

alphabet of Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Latin alphabet, Orthography

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

latmo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lau, Punctuation marks

effect on following lerfu word, Punctuation marks

LAU selma'o

grammar of following BY cmavo, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

le, Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

and specificity, The three basic description types

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

compared with English the, The three basic description types

compared with la in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with lo in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in truth requirement, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

in false-to-fact descriptions, The three basic description types

meaning of in the plural, Individuals and masses

le bersa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le berti, Modal tags: BAI

le bi'u nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le bi'unai nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le blanu zdan., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le blanu zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le briju, Termset logical connection

le ci cribe, sumti-based descriptions

le ci nanmu, Quantified descriptions

le cribe, Acronyms

le ctuca, Miscellaneous indicators

le cukta, Other modal connections, Multiple compound bridi

le dargu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

le gerku, Quantified descriptions, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of lujvo

le gerku poi blabi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

le go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

le jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei

le karce, Incidental relative clauses, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le karce po mi, Possessive sumti

le li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

le mi karce, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti

le mi pendo, Relative phrases

le mlatu cu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le mlatu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nanmu, The three basic description types, Miscellaneous indicators, Grouping of quantifiers

le nanmu joi, Non-logical connectives

le ni, Amount abstractions

le ni ... kei be, Amount abstractions

le ninmu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le ninmu cu morsi, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nu, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tense relations between sentences, Tenses versus modals, Event abstraction, Property abstractions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

definition, Event abstraction

le pluta, Conversion: SE

le re do, sumti-based descriptions

le remna, The three basic description types

le ri kumfa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

le se du'u ..., Predication/sentence abstraction

le se go'i ku, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

le se nelci, Event abstraction

le selbri [ku], Varying the order of sumti

LE selma'o, Conversion: SE, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

contrasted with LA in use of name-words, Lojban names

le selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le si'o mi go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le si'o mi klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le sutra tavla, Description sumti

le sutra tavla ku, Description sumti

le sutra te tavla ku, Description sumti

le tavla ku, Description sumti

le tcidu, The five kinds of simple sumti

le te jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le tricu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le ve jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le ve klama, Conversion: SE

le ve klama be fo da, Conversion: SE

le vecnu, Description sumti

le verba, Tense relations between sentences

le vi rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le xekri mlatu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le xunre cmaxirma, sumti qualifiers

le zarci, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, selbri and tanru negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers

le zdani, Inversion of tanru: co, The meaning of lujvo

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau, Tagging places: FA

le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

le'a, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

le'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to le'i, Descriptors for typical objects

le'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

le'i, Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

as set counterpart of lei, Masses and sets

relationship to le'e, Descriptors for typical objects

le'o, Attitudinal modifiers

le'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

le-series cmavo

as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

le-series descriptors

compared with la-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

learning Lojban

magnitude of task, gismu

lebna, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

left-grouping rule

definition of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

legal jargon

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

legal system, Truth-value abstraction: jei

lei, cmene, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with loi in specificity, Individuals and masses

lei cinfo, Individuals and masses

lemon tree

example, Simple tanru

Length * Width * Depth = Volume

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

Lepidoptera

example, tanru

lerfu, fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?

as assignable pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu word, What's a letteral, anyway?

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

reference to, References to lerfu

referring to with me'o, References to lerfu

lerfu as pro-sumti

contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

explicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

implicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu juxtaposition interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu shift scope

exception for mathematical texts, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu string

as function name, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as mathematical variable, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti

assumption of reference, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as pro-sumti assigned by goi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifier, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as selbri, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as subscript, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as utterance ordinal, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

definition, lerfu words as pro-sumti

interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu strings

as acronyms using "me", Acronyms

as pro-sumti

for multiple sumti separated by boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifiers

avoiding interaction with sumti quantified, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

in mathematical expressions, Simple infix expressions and equations

interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, Simple infix expressions and equations

uses in mathematics, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

with numerical selbri, Special mekso selbri

lerfu valsi, What's a letteral, anyway?

lerfu word

contrasted with lerfu, What's a letteral, anyway?

for "'", A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu word cmavo

list of auxiliary, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

lerfu word set extension

with bu, The universal bu

lerfu words

as a basis for acronym names, Acronyms

composed of compound cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

composed of single cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

consonant words contrasted with vowel words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

effect of systematic formulation, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for consonants, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for vowels, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

formation rules, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

list of proposed

notation convention, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Lojban coverage requirement, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

proposed for accent marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

proposed for diacritic marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for noisy environments, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

proposed for radio communication, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

table of Lojban, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

using computer encoding schemes with se'e, Computerized character codes

vowel words contrasted with consonant words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words ending with "y"

pause after

rationale, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words for vowels

pause requirement before, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words with numeric digits

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

lervla, What's a letteral, anyway?

less than

contrasted with more than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

less than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

letter

alphabet, What's a letteral, anyway?

contrasted with word for the letter, What's a letteral, anyway?

letter encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

letteral

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

letters

non-Lojban

representation of diacritical marks on, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

representation with consonant-word + bu, Alien alphabets

representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, Alien alphabets

representation with language-shift, Alien alphabets

representation with names, Alien alphabets

sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, Alien alphabets

symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, Alien alphabets

li, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

as converter of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

contrasted with me'o, Other uses of mekso

relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

terminator for, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

li ci, The five kinds of simple sumti

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mi, Quotation summary

li mu su'i li pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mu su'i pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li ro, Indefinite numbers

LI selma'o, Number summary

li'i, Minor abstraction types

li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

li'osa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

libjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lijda, Anomalous lujvo

lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

likes more than

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

likygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

likyri'a, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lined up, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

linguistic behavior, Predication/sentence abstraction

linguistic drift, What is this book?

linguistic drift in Lojban

possible source of, Considerations for making lujvo

linji zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

linked arguments, Questions and answers

linked sumti

definition, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

in tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and FA tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Linnaean names

rules for, cmene

lion in Africa

example, Descriptors for typical objects

lions in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

list

as a physical object, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with sequence, Non-logical connectives

example, Non-logical connectives

list of things to do

example, More about non-logical connectives

liste, Non-logical connectives

listen attentively

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lists

use of tu'e/tu'u in, More about non-logical connectives

literally, Miscellaneous indicators

litki, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

litru, Dependent places

livgyterbilma, rafsi

living things

example, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Livingston

example, Evidentials

LLG, Acknowledgements and Credits

lo, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in truth requirement, The three basic description types

contrasted with loi and lo'i, Masses and sets

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

lo cribe, Acronyms

lo forca, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo gerku zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

lo klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo liste, Non-logical connectives

lo mitre be li mu, Explicit magnitudes

lo porsi, Non-logical connectives

lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lo prenu noi blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

lo rinka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lo rupnu, Multiple compound bridi

lo se klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo smuci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo xe klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo zarci, The three basic description types

lo zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with na'a, Alien alphabets

lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to lo'i, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri

as set counterpart of loi, Masses and sets

contrasted with lo and loi, Masses and sets

relationship to lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects

with elided quantifiers, Special mekso selbri

lo'i cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i lei, lujvo-making examples

lo'i ratcu, Special mekso selbri

lo'ikle, lujvo-making examples

lo'irlei, lujvo-making examples

lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect of logical connective on elidability of, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

lo'u, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

lo'u ... le'u, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, No more to say: FAhO

lo-series cmavo

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

lo-series description

caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, Quantified descriptions

logic

and attitudinals, What's wrong with this picture?

limits of, What's wrong with this picture?

resolving ambiguities of "nobody", What's wrong with this picture?

logic and Lojban

more aspects, Conclusion

logical connection

effect on elidability of lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in abstractions

inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

contrasted with unconnected version, Logical connection within tanru

expandability of, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with bo, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with ke, Logical connection within tanru

inside abstractions

contrasted with outside, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

interaction with tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, Logical connection within tanru

of bridi-tails

forethought, Multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

of forethought termsets, Termset logical connection

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of more than 2 sentences

all or none, More than two propositions

forethought, More than two propositions

things to avoid, More than two propositions

of observatives

relation of first places, Compound bridi

of selbri, Compound bridi

of sumti

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

restriction on ke, Grouping of afterthought connectives

of tanru

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, Logical connection within tanru

termsets, Termset logical connection

transformation between forms, sumti connection

with bo

precedence, Grouping of afterthought connectives

logical connection of abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

logical connection of more than 2 sentences

mixed "and" and "or", More than two propositions

logical connectives, Logical connection and truth tables

associative, More than two propositions

bridi-tail connection, Compound bridi

cmavo

format for each selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, Relative phrases

equivalence relation on 3 sentences, More than two propositions

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, Forethought bridi connection

non-associative, More than two propositions

observative sentence connection, Compound bridi

pairing from left, More than two propositions

rationale for multiple sets in grammar, The six types of logical connectives

recipes

simplified for logic chapter discussion, bridi negation and logical connectives

relation to truth functions, The Four basic vowels

relative precedence with me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

right-grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

selma'o

enumerated, The six types of logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

table by truth function value, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tensed, Tensed logical connectives

logical connectives and bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives and negation

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

ambiguity of, Logical connection within tanru

effect on formal logical manipulations, Logical connection within tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

usefulness of, Logical connection within tanru

logical connectives within negation

effects of expansion on, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logical language

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

Logical Language Group

example, lujvo-making examples

relation to Lojban, What is Lojban?

logical variables

creating more by subscripting, A few notes on variables

effect of global substitution, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

effect of order in prenex, Universal claims

effect of using multiple different, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

explicitly placing in outer prenex, The problem of “any”

for selbri, selbri variables

implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, The problem of “any”

notation convention, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

when not in main bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with multiple appearances in bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with poi

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

with ro

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

logically connected sentences

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logically connected tenses

definition, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

expansion to sentences, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

logji, Lojban names

logji bangu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

logji bangu girzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangri, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygri, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugir, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugri, lujvo-making examples

Loglan, Informal Bibliography

logograms

words for, The universal bu

loi, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

as mass counterpart of lo, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lei in specificity, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lo and lo'i, Masses and sets

loi cinfo, Individuals and masses

loi jdini, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Lojban

features of, What is Lojban?

history of, What is Lojban?

stability of, What is this book?

Lojban alphabet, Orthography

Lojban letters

IPA for pronouncing, Basic Phonetics

list with IPA pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

lojban., brivla

lojbangir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangri, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygri, lujvo-making examples

Lojbanistan, What is this book?

lojbaugir, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugri, lujvo-making examples

lojbo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

long ago and far away

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

long rafsi

definition, rafsi

long rafsi form

compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

long-sword

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

loose association

expressing with pe, Relative phrases

Lord

example, cmene

lotkle, lujvo-making examples

lotlei, lujvo-making examples

Lottie

example, Lojban names

love more

example, Property abstractions

lower case letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

lower-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

lower-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

lower-case word

effect on following lerfu words, Upper and lower cases

lu, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

lu do cadzu le bisli li'u, Quantified sumti

lu e'osai li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti

lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lu'a, Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e, sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le sinxa bele sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

lu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'u, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising

as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

lubno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lujvo, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

abbreviated, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

abstract, Abstract lujvo

algorithm for, The lujvo-making algorithm

and consonant pairs, rafsi

and plausibility, Considerations for making lujvo

and seltau/tertau relationship, The meaning of lujvo

and the listener, Considerations for making lujvo

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as suppliers of agent place, Notes on gismu place structures

asymmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

based on multiple tanru, Considerations for making lujvo

cmavo incorporation, Why have lujvo?

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

compared with tanru, Why have lujvo?

consideration in choosing meaning for, Considerations for making lujvo

considerations for retaining elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

construction of, lujvo

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

design consideration for relationship, The meaning of lujvo

dropping elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

dropping SE rafsi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

examples of making, The lujvo scoring algorithm

from cmavo with no rafsi, rafsi

from tanru, lujvo

fully reduced, rafsi

guidelines for place structure, Why have lujvo?

interpreting, The meaning of lujvo

invention of, lujvo

meaning drift of, Considerations for making lujvo

meaning of, lujvo

multiple forms of, lujvo

place structure of figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for, Why have lujvo?

recognizing, rafsi

rules for formation of, lujvo

scored examples of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

scoring of, The lujvo-making algorithm

selection of best form of, The lujvo-making algorithm

shorter for more general concepts, Considerations for making lujvo

summary of form characteristics, rafsi

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguity of, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguous decomposition of, lujvo

unreduced, rafsi

unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, fu'ivla

with zei, rafsi

zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lujvo creation

interaction of KE with NAhE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

interaction of KE with SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

use of multiple SE in, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

lujvo form

consonant cluster requirement in, rafsi

final letter of, rafsi

hierarchy of priorities for selection of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

number of letters in, rafsi

requirements for hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

lujvo place order, Ordering lujvo places.

asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

based on 3-or-more part veljvo, lujvo with more than two parts.

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

rationale for standardization, Ordering lujvo places.

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

superlatives as exceptions, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo place structure

"ni" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

"nu" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

basis of, Selecting places

comparative lujvo, Comparatives and superlatives

cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dependent places, Dependent places

dropping "KE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping "KEhE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dropping dependent places

caveat, Dependent places

dropping dependent seltau places, Dependent places

dropping dependent tertau places, Dependent places

dropping redundant places, The meaning of lujvo

effect of "SE", Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

explicated walk-through, The meaning of lujvo

guidelines, Why have lujvo?

multi-place abstraction lujvo, Abstract lujvo

notation conventions, The meaning of lujvo

rationale for standardization, Selecting places

selecting tertau, Dependent places

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

when first place redundant with non-first, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant plus others, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lukewarm food

example, sumti qualifiers

lunra tarci, Some types of symmetrical tanru

ly, cmene, Lojban names, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ly'i, cmene, Lojban names

ly., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Lyra

example, Lojban names

M

ma, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Questions and answers

as sumti question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

for tense questions, Tense questions: cu'e

ma'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ma'i, Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri

ma'o, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany

potential ambiguity caveat, Miscellany

ma'o fy. [te'u], Miscellany

ma'o fy.boi, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ma'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

mabla, Attitudinal modifiers

magic square

example, Vectors and matrices

mai, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mo'o, Other uses of mekso

MAI selma'o

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

male sexual teacher

example, lujvo-making examples

mampa'u, lujvo

mamta, rafsi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

mamta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mamta patfu, lujvo

man biting dog, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

man or woman

example, Logical connection and truth tables

man-woman

example, Logical connection within tanru

manhole

example, Compound spatial tenses

manskapi, Acknowledgements and Credits

manti zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

manysome

example, Special mekso selbri

maple sugar

example, fu'ivla

maple trees

example, fu'ivla

marathon, Types of event abstractions

Mars road

example, Conversion: SE

mass

compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with set in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set forming, Special mekso selbri

joining elements into a, Non-logical connectives

mass contrasted with components

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

mass name

use of, Individuals and masses

mass object

and logical reasoning, Individuals and masses

as dependent on intention, Individuals and masses

contrasted with multiple individual objects, Individuals and masses

properties of, Individuals and masses

mass objects

peculiarities of English translation of, Individuals and masses

masses

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

mathematical equality

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical expression

referring to, Other uses of mekso

mathematical expressions

connectives in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

tensed connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

mathematical expressions in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

mathematical intervals, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mathematical notation

and omitted operators, Introductory

and operator precedence, Simple infix expressions and equations

infix, Simple infix expressions and equations

international uniqueness of, Introductory

mathematical operators, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical texts

effect on lerfu shift scope, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical variables

lerfu strings as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematics

use of lerfu strings in, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

matne, Individuals and masses

matrices

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

matrix

as combination of vectors, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, Vectors and matrices

with more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

matrix column operator, Vectors and matrices

matrix row operator, Vectors and matrices

mau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mayan mathematics

as a system with base larger than 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri

compared with du in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

explicitly specifying, Vocative scales

place structure of, selbri based on sumti: me

used with names, selbri based on sumti: me

me dy ny. .abu, Acronyms

me la pinpan. bolci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

me'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

me'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'i re, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'o, Number summary, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

compared with la'e lu, References to lerfu

contrasted with li, Other uses of mekso

contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

relation to li compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

me'u, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri

relative precedence with logical connectives, selbri based on sumti: me

me'u moi, Special mekso selbri

me/du equivalence, selbri based on sumti: me

measurements

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

meat slice

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

medieval weapon, lujvo with more than two parts.

megdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mei, Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

place structure formed for objective indefinites, Special mekso selbri

mekso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

and literary translation, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

complex used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

design goals, Introductory

mekso chapter

completeness, Introductory

table notation convention, Introductory

mekso goal

coverage, Introductory

expandable, Introductory

for common use, Introductory

for mathematical writing, Introductory

precision, Introductory

unambiguous, Introductory

mekso goals

and ambiguity, Introductory

and non-mathematical expression, Introductory

mathematical notation form, Introductory

melbi, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping

melbi cmalu nixli ckule, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

meljo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

melting, Notes on gismu place structures

membership

property of sets, Masses and sets

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

mental discomfort

example, Emotional categories

merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms

metalinguistic comment

with embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels or reference, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

metalinguistic words

quick-tour version, Indicators

mexno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mi, Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e, More about non-logical connectives

mi bevri le dakli, Mixed modal connection

mi jo'u do, More about non-logical connectives

mi joi do, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Tense relations between sentences

mi klama le zdani, Tense relations between sentences

mi nelci do, Mixed modal connection, Tenses versus modals

mi nelci la djein., Mixed modal connection

mi vasxu, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

mi'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'e, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales

contrasted with other members of COI, Vocative scales

effect of ordering multiple COI, Vocative scales

mi'enai, Vocative scales

mi'enai .djan., Vocative scales

mi'erxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mi'o, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'u, Discursives

contrasted with go'i, Discursives

mi-series

of pro-sumti, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi-series pro-sumti

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mice

example, Minor abstraction types

midju, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

mikri, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

milti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

minde, Anomalous lujvo

minkemxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mintu

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

mirli nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

misinterpretation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

misro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mitsubishi

example, What about Chinese characters?

mixed claim

definition, Universal claims

mixed modal connection

afterthought, Mixed modal connection

as proscribed in forethought, Mixed modal connection

definition, Mixed modal connection

of bridi-tails, Mixed modal connection

of sentences, Mixed modal connection

of sumti, Mixed modal connection

mixed with

example, Non-logical connectives

mlatu, Logical connection within tanru

mlatu kalci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mleca, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

mo, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers

as selbri question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

mo'a, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

mo'e, Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

mo'i, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

mo'o, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mai, Other uses of mekso

mo'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

modal bridi-tail connection, Other modal connections

modal causals

implication differences, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal cmavo

basis in gismu place structure, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

regular form for derivation, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

table with English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal cmavo table

format of, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal connection

simultaneous with logical, Mixed modal connection

modal connection of selbri

using bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

modal connectives

fi'o prohibited in, Other modal connections

modal conversion

access to original first place with fai, Modal conversion: JAI

grammar of, Modal conversion: JAI

place structure of, Modal conversion: JAI

with no modal specified, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion with fi'o, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion without modal

as vague, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversions

in descriptions, Modal conversion: JAI

modal followed by selbri

compared with tanru modification in meaning, Modal selbri

contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, Modal selbri

effect on eliding cu, Modal selbri

modal operand connection, Other modal connections

modal place

definition, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

on description selbri, Modal tags: BAI

rationale for term name, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

relation of to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal place relation

importance of first place in, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal sentence connection, Modal sentence connection: the causals

condensing, Other modal connections

effect on modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

forethought, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

relation to modal of second sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

with other than causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal sumti

and FA marking, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

as first place of modal tag selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also seltcita sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

leaving vague, Modal selbri

position in bridi, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

unspecified, Modal selbri

modal sumti connection, Other modal connections

modal tag

definition (see also sumti tcita), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri as, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

for vague relationship, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags

contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

modal-or-tense question

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

modal-or-tense questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

modals

compared with tenses in syntax, Tenses versus modals

contradictory negation of, Modal negation

contrasted with tenses in semantics, Tenses versus modals

expanding scope over inner modal connection, Modal selbri

expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e, Modal selbri

expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u, Modal selbri

expanding scope over non-logical connection, Modal selbri

for causal gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

improving relative phrase preciseness with , Modal relative phrases; Comparison

making long-scope, Sticky modals

making sticky, Sticky modals

negation of, Modal negation

scalar negation of, Modal negation

termset connection, Other modal connections

modals often attached with relative phrases

list, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

modifier

seltau as, Simple tanru

modifying brivla (see also seltau), lujvo

moi, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

MOI selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

use of boi before, Special mekso selbri

mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mokca, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

moklu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu stedu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

molro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mon Repos

example, Dependent places

more than

contrasted with less than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

more than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

morko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

morphology

conventions for, Introductory

definition, Introductory

derivational, Introductory

simplicity of, Introductory

symbolic conventions for discussing, Introductory

mother father

example, lujvo

movement

order in tense constructs, Movement in space: MOhI

time, Movement in space: MOhI

with multiple directions, Movement in space: MOhI

movement specification

interaction with direction in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

mrostu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mrostu mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mu, Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation

mu'e, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

mu'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mu'onai, Vocative scales

mudri siclu, rafsi

mudri xarci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudri zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudsiclu, rafsi

mudysiclu, rafsi

mukti, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

multiple conversion

avoiding, Conversion: SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple indefinite sumti

effect of re-ordering in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

expressing with equal scope, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indefinite sumti scope

in termset, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indicators, The uses of indicators

multiple individual objects

contrasted with mass object, Individuals and masses

meaning of, Individuals and masses

multiple letters

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

multiple logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

multiple ma

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple mo

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple quantification

effect on selbri placement among sumti, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple questions in one bridi

expressing, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple relative clauses

attaching with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

connecting different kinds with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

multiple SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple speakers, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

multiple sumti in one place

avoiding, Tagging places: FA

meaning, Tagging places: FA

multiple tanru inversion

effect on grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple tenses

effect of order in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

muslo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mutce bo barda, Complex tanru grouping

my, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

example, Possessive sumti

my chair

example, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

my., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

myth

example, Evidentials

N

n people

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

n-hyphen

contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

na, Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

order in logical connectives with se, Logical connection of bridi

na and tense

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na go'i, Questions

na writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

na'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with lo'a, Alien alphabets

na'e, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms

before gu'e, Scalar negation of selbri

contrasted with na'e ke, Scalar negation of selbri

na'e barda bloti, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'e brablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'ebo, sumti qualifiers, sumti negation

na'eke, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions

na'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

na'inai, Miscellaneous indicators

na'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

na'u, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

use in asking operator questions, Other uses of mekso

na'u mo, Other uses of mekso

na'u nu'a, Other uses of mekso

na'ujbi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

NAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Tense negation, Miscellany

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

nai, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions

effect on intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

effect on joiks, More about non-logical connectives

placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, Forethought bridi connection

placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, Forethought bridi connection

naja, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

naje, Tense questions: cu'e

nakni cinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakni ke cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

naku, The three basic description types, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

as creating a negation boundary, Using naku outside a prenex

compared with sumti in grammar, Using naku outside a prenex

effect on moving quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex

in linked sumti places, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple in sentence, Using naku outside a prenex

outside of prenex, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation

rationale for considering an advanced technique, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation boundary

effect on conversion with se, Using naku outside a prenex

naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

as expansion of noda, Negation boundaries

naku zo'u, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nakykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

nalbrablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

nalmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

namcu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

name equivalent for typical

rationale for lack of, Descriptors for typical objects

name words

recognition of, Lojban names

name-words

limitations on, Lojban names

pause requirements before, Lojban names

permissible consonant combinations, Lojban names

names

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

authority for, cmene

borrowing from other languages, Lojban names

examples of, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

in vocative phrase, Lojban names

multiple, Lojban names

pause requirement in lerfu words, The universal bu

purpose of, cmene

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

stress in, cmene

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

two kinds of, Lojban names

unusual stress in, cmene

uses of, Lojban names

using rafsi, Lojban names

with LA descriptor, Lojban names

names from vowel-final base

commonly used consonant endings, Lojban names

names in Lojban (see also cmene), cmene

names with la

implicit quantifier for, Lojban names

naming predicate, The three basic description types

nan, cmavo

nanba spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, Logical connection within tanru, selbri variables

nanmu je ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

nanvi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

NATO

example, Acronyms

natural end

continuing beyond, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with actual stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

nau, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on sticky tenses, Tenses in subordinate bridi

syntax, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Navajo

example, fu'ivla

nazbi kevna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ne, Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

compared with pe, Relative phrases

near the faraway park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

near the park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

nearby in time

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Nederlands

example, cmene

need any box, The problem of “any”

negated intervals

meaning of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a sentence

and truth value, Logical connection and truth tables

negation

complex examples, Scalar negation of selbri

form for emulating natural language negation, Using naku outside a prenex

of operand, Miscellany

of operator, Miscellany

of tenses, Tense negation

negation and logical connectives

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation between sentences

compared with bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

meaning of, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation boundary

and zero, Negation boundaries

effect of moving, Negation boundaries

negation cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

negation in prenex

effects of position, Negation boundaries

negation manipulation

"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

negation of fi'o modals

by negating selbri, Modal negation

negation of modals, Modal negation

contradictory, Modal negation

scalar, Modal negation

negation of tenses

meaning of, Tense negation

negation sumti qualifiers

meanings of, sumti qualifiers

negations with logical connectives

effects on expansion of sentence, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

negative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

negative numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

negative sign

contrasted with subtraction operator, Special numbers

negator

movement from bridi to sumti, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nei, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

nelci la djan., Compound bridi

nelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

new notation, The meaning of lujvo

New York city

example, Relative phrases

New York state

example, Relative phrases

Newport News

example, Lojban names

news

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

ni, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni citno, Comparatives and superlatives

ni klama, Abstract lujvo

ni'e, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni'enu'a, Miscellany

ni'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ni'igi, Other modal connections

ni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

ni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'oni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

nibli, Modal sentence connection: the causals

nicte ckule, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nilkla, Abstract lujvo

nimre, Simple tanru

ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

ninmu bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nitcu, The problem of “any”

nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

nixli bo ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

nixli tuple, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

no, Syllabication And Stress, IPA For English Speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases

no'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

no'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

no'ebo, sumti negation

no'i, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'ino'i, Paragraphs: NIhO

no'o, Indefinite numbers

no'u, Relative phrases

compared with po'u, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'u, Relative phrases

nobli, cmene

nobli bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nobody

ambiguous interpretations of, What's wrong with this picture?

interpretation of, What's wrong with this picture?

Lojban contrasted with English, What's wrong with this picture?

noda, Negation boundaries

expanding to naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

noi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

noi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

noi le mi pendo cu ponse, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

noi nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

noi sipna, Possessive sumti

noisy environments

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

nolraitru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nolraitru prije, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nolraitru ralju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

non-, selbri and tanru negation

non-logical connection

and elidability of terminators, Non-logical connectives

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

distinguishing from connection of sumti, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into mass, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into set, Non-logical connectives

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of sumti

distinguishing from connection in tanru, Non-logical connectives

of termsets, More about non-logical connectives

non-logical connectives

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

including tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

sentence, More about non-logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

un-ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

non-logical forethought termsets

connecting tagged sumti, More about non-logical connectives

non-logically connected tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

non-Lojban quotation, Quotation summary

non-Lojban text

rules for pause with, Rules for inserting pauses

non-restrictive relative clause

definition (see also incidental relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

non-specific descriptions, The three basic description types

non-standard orthographies

caveat, Oddball Orthographies

Cyrillic, Oddball Orthographies

Tengwar, Oddball Orthographies

nonagenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

nonce word

marking

selma'o catalog,

normal circumstances, Event abstraction

normle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

notation conventions

for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

nothing sits

example, Negation boundaries

nouns

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

Nth rat

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nth rat

example, Special mekso selbri

Nthly

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nu, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI

definition, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

nu citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka kei gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka [kei], Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu kalri kei gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nu klama [kei], Abstract lujvo

NU selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

nu'a, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso

use in answering operator questions, Other uses of mekso

nu'e, Vocative scales

nu'i, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

nu'u, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

null operand

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

null operator

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

number article

explanation of use, Simple infix expressions and equations

number questions, Number questions

answers to, Number questions

number sumti

syntax of, Number summary

with li, Number summary

with li contrasted with me'o, Number summary

with me'o, Number summary

with me'o contrasted with li, Number summary

number words

pattern in, Lojban numbers

numbers

as compound cmavo, Lojban numbers

as grammatically complete utterances, Number questions

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

expressing simple, Lojban numbers

greater than 9, Lojban numbers

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

on logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

rafsi for, rafsi

special, Special numbers

talking about contrasted with using for quantification, Simple infix expressions and equations

using for quantification contrasted with talking about, Simple infix expressions and equations

numeric digits in lerfu words

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

undefined, Special numbers

numerical selbri

alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, Special mekso selbri

based on non-numerical sumti, Special mekso selbri

complex, Special mekso selbri

grammar, Special mekso selbri

restriction on numbers used for, Special mekso selbri

special, Special mekso selbri

with lerfu strings, Special mekso selbri

use of "me" with, Special mekso selbri

numerical tenses

effect on use of boi, Other uses of mekso

nuncti, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunctikezgau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunkalri gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkla, Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI

nunklama, Abstract lujvo

nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunsoidji, Abstract lujvo

nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nuzba tanbo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ny, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ny., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. su'i pa, Special mekso selbri

ny.mai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

NYC

example, Acronyms

O

o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

o'onai, Attitudinal modifiers

o'onaivu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

o'u, cmavo, Emotional categories

o'unaire'e, Emotional categories

o'unairo'u, Emotional categories

observation

example, Evidentials

observation evidential

contrasted with observative , Evidentials

observative

contrasted with observation evidential, Evidentials

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

observative form

contrasted with command, Standard bridi form: cu

observative with elided CAhA

convention, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

observatives

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

ocean shell

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

octal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

octogenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

Old McDonald

example, The Special Lojban Characters

old topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

omission of descriptor

effect on ku, Indefinite descriptions

omitting terminators

perils of, Scalar negation of selbri

on right

contrasted with toward right, Movement in space: MOhI

on two occasions

example, Sub-events

on verge

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

once and future king

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

One

the

example, cmene

one-third of food, Special mekso selbri

only

example, Discursives

only if

compared with if … then, Logical connection of bridi

only once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

open interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand

converting from operator, Miscellany

converting into operator, Miscellany

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting sumti into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operand connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand modal connection, Other modal connections

operands

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

contrasted with general sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

too few for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

too many for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

operator

converting from operand, Miscellany

converting into operand, Miscellany

converting into selbri, Other uses of mekso

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operator derived from selbri

effect of selbri place structure on, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator left-right grouping

as Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence

and mathematical notation, Simple infix expressions and equations

effect of pragmatic convention, Simple infix expressions and equations

generalized explicit specification, Simple infix expressions and equations

in Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

plans for future, Explicit operator precedence

rationale for default left-grouping, Simple infix expressions and equations

scope modification with bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations

specifying by parenthesis, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence in other languages, Simple infix expressions and equations

operators

analogue of tanru in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

list of simple, Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

operators of VUhU

grammar of operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

opinion

example, Evidentials

opposite-of-minus

example, Miscellany

order of variables

in moving to prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ordered sequence

by listing members, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with mass, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, Non-logical connectives

ordinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

ordinal tense, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

orthography

non-standard, Oddball Orthographies

relation to pronunciation, Orthography

outer product, Vectors and matrices

outer quantifier

contrasted with inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

outer quantifiers

for expressing subsets, Quantified descriptions

rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

outer sumti

prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

owe money

example, Multiple compound bridi

P

pa, cmene, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri

pa da, A few notes on variables

pa no, Non-decimal and compound bases

PA selma'o

exception on use of boi with MOI, Special mekso selbri

members with rafsi, Miscellany

pa'e, Discursives

pa'enai, Discursives

pacraistu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacraistu zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

pagbu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

pai, Special numbers

pamoi, Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri

pante tavla, rafsi

panzi nanmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

panzi ninmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

paragraph separation

spoken text, Paragraphs: NIhO

written text, Paragraphs: NIhO

paragraphs

effects on scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

separator, Paragraphs: NIhO

parasitic worms

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

pareci, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

parentheses

for complex mekso used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

parenthesis

mathematical, Simple infix expressions and equations

partial quotation, Miscellaneous indicators

parts of speech, Introductory

paso, Non-decimal and compound bases

passive voice, Varying the order of sumti

past event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

pastward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

paternal grandmother

example, lujvo

patfu mamta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

patta'a, rafsi

patyta'a, rafsi

pau, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers

placement in sentence, Miscellaneous indicators

paunai, Miscellaneous indicators

pausative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pause

and cmene, Rules for inserting pauses

and consonant-final words, Rules for inserting pauses

and Cy-form cmavo, Rules for inserting pauses

and final-syllable stress, Rules for inserting pauses

and non-Lojban text, Rules for inserting pauses

and vowel-initial words, Rules for inserting pauses

between words, Rules for inserting pauses

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with syllable break, The Special Lojban Characters

proscribed within words, Rules for inserting pauses

representation of in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

requirement between stressed syllables, cmavo

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

pause before name

effect of doi, Vocative scales

effect of vocatives of COI, Vocative scales

pauses

before vowels, cmavo

rules for, Rules for inserting pauses

pe, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

as loose association, Relative phrases

compared with ne, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a sranapoi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

pe mi, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

pe'a, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'e, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

pe'i, Indicators, Evidentials

pe'ipei, Evidentials

pe'o, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

pe'u

contrasted with e'o, Vocative scales

peace symbol, Computerized character codes

pei, cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers

peipe'i, Evidentials

pelnimre, Simple tanru

pelnimre tricu, Simple tanru

pelxu, Simple tanru

percent

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

perfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perils of omitting terminators, Scalar negation of selbri

period

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

within a word, The Special Lojban Characters

Persian rug

example, rafsi

person's arm

example, Relative phrases

personal pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

personal pronouns

with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with mi-series for I/you, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

personal pronouns for he/she/it/they

English contrasted with Lojban in organization, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Pete

example, cmene

petso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pevrisnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

Pheidippides, Types of event abstractions

phonetic alphabet, Basic Phonetics

Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

physical distress

example, Emotional categories

pi, Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany

pi'a, Vectors and matrices

pi'e, Non-decimal and compound bases

pi'i, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation

pi'o, Modal tags: BAI

pi'u, Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, More about non-logical connectives

use in connecting tenses, Sub-events

piano-moving

example, Individuals and masses

picti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pictures

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo

pilno-, Modal tags: BAI

pimu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le'i nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pinca litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pino'o, Indefinite numbers

pinsi nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pinyin

as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

pirau, Indefinite numbers

piro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

piro la'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro le'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro lo'i ro, Quantified descriptions

piso'a, Indefinite numbers

piso'u, Indefinite numbers

pisu'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lai su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lei su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o loi ro, Quantified descriptions

pixra cukta, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

place of eating

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

place structure

adding new places to with modal sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition, Introductory

definition of, The concept of the bridi

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

effect of modal conversion on, Modal conversion: JAI

empty slots in, Introductory

explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, Tagging places: FA

gismu, Notes on gismu place structures

instability of, Introductory

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

notation conventions, Introductory

re-ordering by conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

place structure and tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

place structure of selbri

determining, Introductory

place structure order

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

place structures

omitting places with FA, Tagging places: FA

omitting places with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

plant grows

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

plants

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

plausibility

in abbreviated lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

playgrounds, Dependent places

pleases, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

plise tapla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pluja valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pluka, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

plural

Lojban equivalent of, Approximation and inexact numbers

plural masses

possible use for, Quantified descriptions

plurals

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, The three basic description types

plurals with le

meaning of, Individuals and masses

pluta, Conversion: SE

contrasted with ve klama, Conversion: SE

po, Relative phrases

as restrictive possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a se steci sranapoi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with English possession, Relative phrases

contrasted with pe, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'e, Relative phrases

po do, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

po mi, Relative phrases

po'e, Relative phrases

as intrinsic possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci sranapoi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

po'o, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

po'u, Relative phrases

as identity, Relative phrases

compared with no'u, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a dupoi ke'a du, Relative phrases

contrasted with no'u, Relative phrases

relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, Relative phrases

poi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex

discussion of translation, What are you pointing at?

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

syntax of, What are you pointing at?

poi blabi, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

poi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

poi du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

poi ninmu, Relative clauses and descriptors

poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

poi se cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

poi-, Relative phrases

point

event considered as, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

point-event abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

point-event abstractor, Types of event abstractions

pointing

reference by, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pointing cmavo

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

police lineup, Number questions

Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

Polish notation mixed with infix, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

politeness

thank you and you're welcome, Vocative scales

you're welcome, Vocative scales

polno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponse, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

portion

on set contrasted with on individual, Quantified descriptions

portion selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

porto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

positive numbers

explicit expression, Signs and numerical punctuation

positive sign

contrasted with addition operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

possessed in relative phrases

compared with possessor, Relative phrases

possession

expressing with po, Relative phrases

intrinsic

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

quick-tour version, Possession

possession not ownership

quick-tour version, Possession

possessive sumti

compared with relative phrase, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of ku, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on, Possessive sumti

syntax allowed, Possessive sumti

with relative clauses on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti and relative clauses

development history, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti with relative clauses

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

possessor in relative phrases

compared with possessed, Relative phrases

possessor sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

posydji, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

potential

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

potential events

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

prayer

example, Ordering lujvo places.

precedence

mathematical default, Simple infix expressions and equations

precise erasures, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

predicate answers, Questions and answers

predication

as a relationship, The concept of the bridi

compared with bridi, The concept of the bridi

Preem Palver

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

pregnant sister

example, Discursives

prenex

considerations for dropping, Dropping the prenex

dropping for terseness, Dropping the prenex

effect of order of variables in, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

internal to a bridi, The problem of “any”

purpose of, Dropping the prenex

removing when numeric quantifiers present, Variables with generalized quantifiers

syntax of, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

prenex manipulation

exporting na from left of prenex, bridi negation and logical connectives

importing na from selbri, bridi negation and logical connectives

moving naku past bound variable, bridi negation and logical connectives

rules, bridi negation and logical connectives

prenex scope

for sentences joined by .i, A few notes on variables

for sentences joined by ijeks, A few notes on variables

in abstractions, A few notes on variables

in embedded bridi, A few notes on variables

in relative clauses, A few notes on variables

informal, A few notes on variables

prenu, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations

prenu so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

prepositions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

pretty

English ambiguity of, Complex tanru grouping

pretty little girls' school

forty ways, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

previous topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

pride of lions

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

primitive roots

gismu as, brivla

principle of consistency

of logical-if statements, Logical connection of bridi

pritu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

pro-bridi

as abbreviation for bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

pro-bridi assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-bridi rafsi

as producing context-dependent meanings, lujvo based on pro-sumti

pro-sumti

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

classes of, Pro-sumti summary

compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

contrasted with description, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

for listener(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

for speaker(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

ko'a-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu as, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu string

effect on reference to lerfu itself, References to lerfu

lerfu strings

interaction with quantifiers and boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rafsi for, lujvo based on pro-sumti

referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

series, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

typical, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

unspecified, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

pro-sumti assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-sumti for "we"

contrasted with English "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others

as masses, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

relation to joi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for utterances, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pro-sumti rafsi

anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, lujvo based on pro-sumti

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

probability .5

example, Special mekso selbri

probability selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

values, Special mekso selbri

process abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

process abstractor, Types of event abstractions

process event

described, Types of event abstractions

pronouncement

example, Evidentials

pronouns

as anaphora, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronouns in English

as independent of abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as noun abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronunciation

IPA for Lojban, Basic Phonetics

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

relation to orthography, Orthography

standard, Basic Phonetics

properties

place structure, Property abstractions

property abstraction

specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

property abstractions

specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, Property abstractions

specifying determining place with ce'u, Property abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Property abstractions

use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

property description, Property abstractions

property of loving

example, Property abstractions

proposed law, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

proposed lerfu words

as working basis, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

propositional

of attitudinals, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional attitudes, Predication/sentence abstraction

compared with knowledge discursives, Discursives

protocol

computer communications using COI, Vocative scales

parliamentary using COI, Vocative scales

using vocatives, Vocative scales

psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

pu, Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

pu bajra, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

pu ge, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

pu naje ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

PU selma'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation

compared with FAhA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

PU tenses

contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as pastward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'u, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

puba, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puki, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puku, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

punai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punai je ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punctuation

in numbers, Signs and numerical punctuation

punctuation lerfu words

interaction with different alphabet systems, Punctuation marks

mechanism for creating, Punctuation marks

rationale for lau, Punctuation marks

punctuation marks

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

purci, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

purdi bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purdi vorme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

puxipa, Subscripts: XI

puxire, Subscripts: XI

py, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

py., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

py. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Q

quack

example, Alien alphabets

quadratic formula

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

qualified sumti

contrasted with unqualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

quality and quantity

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

quantification

before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, Quantified descriptions

quantificational pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantification rules, Pro-sumti summary

quantified space, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified sumti

different types contrasted for scope for distribution, Grouping of quantifiers

quantified temporal tense

definition, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negating with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tense with direction

Lojban contrasted with English in implications, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tenses

"once" contrasted with "only once", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

caveat on implication of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

quantifier

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

on previously quantified variable, A few notes on variables

quantifier scope

in multiple connected sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

quantifiers

effect of moving naku, Using naku outside a prenex

with logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

with sumti, Quantified sumti

quark

example, fu'ivla

question pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

questions

answering with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

connection, Truth questions and connective questions

digit, Number questions

fill-in-the-blank, Questions and answers

marking in advance, Miscellaneous indicators

multiple, Questions and answers

number, Number questions, Questions and answers

operator, Other uses of mekso

place structure position, Tagging places: FA

quick-tour version, Questions

rhetorical, Miscellaneous indicators

selbri, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

sumti, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

truth, Questions and answers

with "xu", Miscellaneous indicators

quick runner

example, Simple tanru

quotation

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction

four kinds, Quotation summary

implicit quantifier for, Quotation summary

quotations

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

implicit quantifier for, Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen

contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

ra, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'a, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'e, Signs and numerical punctuation

ra'i, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'u, Discursives

scale of importance, Discursives

ra'ucu'i, Discursives

ra'unai, Discursives

ractu mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

radio communication

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

radix

decimal (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

radno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi, gismu, lujvo

as fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti

considerations restricting construction of, rafsi

contrasted with cmavo in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, lujvo

contrasted with words, rafsi

conventional meaning for cu'o, Miscellany

conventional meaning for frinu, Miscellany

definition, lujvo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

forms of, rafsi

four-letter

requirement for y-hyphen, rafsi

lack of

effect on forming lujvo, rafsi

level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, rafsi

long, rafsi

multiple for each gismu, Considerations for making lujvo

multiplicity of for single gismu, rafsi

possible forms for construction of, rafsi

rationale for assignments of, rafsi

rules for combining to form lujvo, lujvo

selection considerations in making lujvo, rafsi

short, rafsi

uniqueness in gismu referent of, rafsi

use of, rafsi

rafsi assignments

non-reassignability of, rafsi

rafsi for numbers, rafsi

rafsi form

effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, lujvo

rafsi fu'ivla, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

rafsi space, rafsi

rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

rakso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ralju, cmene

ralju zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Ralph

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

ranti bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

rat eats cheese

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumti tcita

rat eats cheese in park

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

ratni nejni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rats are brown

example, Masses and sets

rats in park

example, Special mekso selbri

rau, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

re, cmavo, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation

re ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

re da, A few notes on variables

re karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re le ci mlatu, Grouping of quantifiers

re le mu prenu, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lei djacu, Quantified descriptions

re lo karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lo ro karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers, selbri variables

re prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

re'i, Vocative scales

re'imi'e, Vocative scales

re'inai, Vocative scales

re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

re-ordering logical variables with se, Dropping the prenex

real world

contrasted with hypothetical world

example, Discursives

real world point of view, Discursives

reboi ci pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

Received Pronunciation, IPA For English Speakers

reciprocal

expression of mathematical, Signs and numerical punctuation

reciprocal pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

reciprocity

expressing with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

recital rooms, Dependent places

Red Pony

example, sumti qualifiers

red pony

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

redundancy

effect on vocative design, Vocative scales

reference

ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, What are you pointing at?

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

quick-tour version, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

to relativized sumti with ke'a, What are you pointing at?

use of relative clause for, What are you pointing at?

reference frame

specifying for direction tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference frame for directions in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference grammar, What is this book?

referent

of operand, Miscellany

referring to with la'e, sumti qualifiers

referent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

referent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

reflexive pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

regularly

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

relation of first places in logical connection of observatives

rationale, Compound bridi

relationship

active/static/attributive compared, The concept of the bridi

as basis of sentence, Introductory

objects of, Introductory

relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

relative clause

compared with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

effect of omission of ke'ake'a on, What are you pointing at?

restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

use for reference, What are you pointing at?

relative clause scope

extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses

as part of name, Relative clauses and descriptors

effect of commas in English, Incidental relative clauses

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

impact of indefinite sumti on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of la on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of LAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

impact of NAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

kinds of, Incidental relative clauses

list of cmavo for, Index of relative clause cmavo

on connected sumti, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on names, Relative clauses and descriptors

on number, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

on quotation, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

placement with vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

relative clauses within, Relative clauses within relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental, Incidental relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, Incidental relative clauses

syntax with indefinite sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors

use in restricting existential claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use in restricting universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

relative clauses and indefinite sumti

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and LAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and NAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and names

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and possessive sumti

development history, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on complex sumti

Lojban contrasted with English, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses on indefinite sumti

syntax considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses on lo

syntax suggestion, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses with possessive sumti

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

relative phrase

as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, Relative phrases

compared with possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

connecting to relative clause with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

rationale for, Relative phrases

syntax of, Relative phrases

relative phrases

contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

improving preciseness with modals, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative phrases with modals

compared to relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

relativity theory

relation to Lojban tense system, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relativized sumti

definition, What are you pointing at?

in relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses

remei bruna, Non-logical connectives

remembered

example, Evidentials

remna fetsi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

remna girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

remna nakni, Some types of symmetrical tanru

repeating decimals

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

marking start of repeating portion, Signs and numerical punctuation

representing lerfu

lu contrasted with me'o, References to lerfu

reroi, Sub-events

respectively

example, Non-logical connectives

specifying with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

with different relationships, More about non-logical connectives

restricted claims

definition, Restricted claims: da poi

restricted variable

compared with indefinite description, Variables with generalized quantifiers

restrictive relative clause

definition, Incidental relative clauses

resume

contrasted with begin, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

revelation

example, Evidentials

reverse Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

definition, Reverse Polish notation

marker, Reverse Polish notation

number of operands, Reverse Polish notation

operands of, Reverse Polish notation

parentheses in operands of, Reverse Polish notation

terminator, Reverse Polish notation

use of parentheses in, Reverse Polish notation

with too few operands, Reverse Polish notation

with too many operands, Reverse Polish notation

reviewers of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

rhetorical question, Miscellaneous indicators

ri, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ri goi ko'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

ri'a do, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ri'agi, Other modal connections

ri'e, Attitudinal modifiers

ri-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri-series pro-sumti, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ricfu, Compound bridi

rich and German

example, More about non-logical connectives

ricrxaceru, fu'ivla

right-grouping in tanru

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

right-grouping rule

definition of, Complex tanru grouping

righteous indignation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

rinka, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection

rirxe xirma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi dakli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi patxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

risna, Miscellaneous indicators

risnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

riximu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

rixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

effect of order when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

ro da, Universal claims

ro da poi klama, The problem of “any”

ro DA poi prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro la su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers

ro le su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le'e su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

ro'anai, Emotional categories

example, Emotional categories

ro'e, Emotional categories

ro'inre'o, brivla, rafsi

ro'ire'o, rafsi

ro'irre'o, rafsi

ro'o, More about non-logical connectives

ro'ole'o, Attitudinal modifiers

ro'u, Compound indicators

rock face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

roger

example, Vocative scales

roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso

ROI selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

scalar negation of, Tense negation

rokci bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokci cinfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci derxi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci renro, rafsi

rokci zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokre'o, rafsi

romai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

romaji

as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

Roman Empire, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

room which he built

example, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ropno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rounded down

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded up

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded/unrounded vowels, Basic Phonetics

RP

as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation

ru, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ru'a, Indicators, Evidentials

compared with e'u, Evidentials

ru'e, Attitudes as scales

ru'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'o, Alien alphabets

ru'o.abupyky, lerfu words as pro-sumti

rug

Persian

example, rafsi

runner shoe

example, tanru

rusko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ry, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ry., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

S

sa, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with sei, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with to'i, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'asa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'enai, Discursives

sa'i, Vectors and matrices

sa'unai, Discursives

sadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sai, More about non-logical connectives

saicli, The lujvo-making algorithm

said John

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sakli, rafsi

saktrxaceru, fu'ivla

salad ingredients

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

salci, rafsi

samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sanli, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Sapir-Whorf effects

and emotional indicators, Tentative conclusion

sarcasm

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

saske, fu'ivla

sau'e, cmavo

scalar attitude, Attitudes as scales

scalar negation

effect on selbri, Scalar negation of selbri

scalar negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

scalar negation of non-logical connective, More about non-logical connectives

scalar negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

scale

granular contrasted with continuous, Special mekso selbri

scale of redness

example, Special mekso selbri

scale selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

school building

example, Dependent places

schooner

example, Lojban content words: brivla

scientific names

rules for, cmene

scientific notation

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

score

as 20-year span, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

as alternate base for years, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

se, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI

as grammatical in JOI compounds, Non-logical connectives

in logical connective to exchange sentences, Logical connection of bridi

order in logical connectives with na, Logical connection of bridi

use with operators, Miscellany

using to re-order logical variables, Dropping the prenex

se batci, Dropping the prenex

se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

se dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

se jbopli, Selecting places

se kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se ke blanu zdani [ke'e], Conversion: SE

se ke te, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se klama, tanru, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

place structure of, Conversion: SE

se pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI

se pinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se pinxe be zi'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se remei, More about non-logical connectives

se se gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

SE selma'o, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Subscripts: XI

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on place structure numbering, Conversion: SE

effect on selbri place structure, Conversion: SE

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

for converting place structure, Conversion: SE

rationale for no 1st place conversion, Conversion: SE

scope of, Conversion: SE

word formation of cmavo in, Conversion: SE

se te, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se te klama, Conversion: SE

se writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

se xance minde, Anomalous lujvo

se zdani, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

se'a, Attitudinal modifiers

se'e, Computerized character codes

and number base convention, Computerized character codes

se'i, Attitudinal modifiers

se'o, Evidentials

se'u, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as elidable terminator for soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

elidability considerations, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

se.u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seba'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

section numbering, Other uses of mekso

see with eye

example, Modal selbri

see with left eye

example, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

segi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

sei, Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sei ... se'u, A sample dialogue

seja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seju, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seka'a, Modal tags: BAI

sel-, Anomalous lujvo

selbri, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as part of description, The three basic description types

brivla as, Lojban content words: brivla

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting into an operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting operator into, Other uses of mekso

definition, Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

omitting with co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

place structure of, Introductory

place structure of converted operator, Other uses of mekso

relation to bridi, Lojban content words: brivla

scalar negation of, Scalar negation of selbri

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri from sumti, selbri based on sumti: me

selbri list for quick tour, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

selbri logical variables, selbri variables

selbri place structure

effect on operator formed by, Using Lojban resources within mekso

selbri placement among sumti

effect of multiple quantification on, Using naku outside a prenex

selbri questions

quick-tour version, Questions

selbri variables

form when not in prenex, selbri variables

prenex form as indefinite description, selbri variables

quantified, selbri variables

selbri-first bridi

effect on sumti places, Standard bridi form: cu

effect on use of cu, Tagging places: FA

specifying first sumti place in with fa, Tagging places: FA

selcadzu klama, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selci lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

seldzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

self-orientation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

selkemdzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkemsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

selma'o, cmavo

cross-reference list of

selma'o catalog,

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

selnelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

selsel, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Anomalous lujvo

selselgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selseljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selsinxa, sumti qualifiers

selsku, Anomalous lujvo

seltau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

compared with English adjective, lujvo

compared with English adverb, lujvo

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

filling sumti places in, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

seltcita sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also modal sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

selter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selti'i, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

semto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sentence

basic Lojban, Introductory

sentences

close grouping, Sentences: I

connecting non-logically, More about non-logical connectives

connecting with tense, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

separator for joining, Sentences: I

tenseless

quick-tour version, Tenses

separate questions

quick-tour version, Questions

separately tensed sentences

contrasted with tense connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

sepi'o, Modal tags: BAI

sequence

as an abstract list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, sumti qualifiers

sequence of events

expressing non-time-related sequences, More about non-logical connectives

sequence of tense rules

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

seri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seri'agi, Other modal connections

set

as specified by members, Non-logical connectives

by listing members with ce, Non-logical connectives

compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming set, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with mass formed from set, Special mekso selbri

set of all rats

example, Special mekso selbri

set of rats

example, sumti qualifiers

set operations, More about non-logical connectives

setese, Conversion: SE

sets

properties of, Masses and sets

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

use in Lojban place structure, Masses and sets

sexixa, Subscripts: XI

sexual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

sexual teacher

male

example, lujvo-making examples

sfofa, IPA For English Speakers

sfofy, IPA For English Speakers

shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

shell worm

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

shellfish, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Sherman tank

example, rafsi

shift

single-letter

grammar of, Upper and lower cases

shift word

for single letter, Upper and lower cases

scope, Upper and lower cases

shift words

canceling effect, Alien alphabets

for face, Alien alphabets

for font, Alien alphabets

ship sank

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

shoehorn, Dependent places

shook stick

example, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

short rafsi, rafsi

short rafsi form

compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

si, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

si'a, Discursives

si'e, Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary

si'o, Minor abstraction types

signed numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

signs on numbers

grammar, Signs and numerical punctuation

sikcurnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sikcurnu silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silka curnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silna jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Simon says

example, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti

simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

since, fu'ivla

sinful

example, Attitudinal modifiers

single consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

single-letter shift

as toggle, Upper and lower cases

single-word quotation, Quotation summary

singular me

example, Special mekso selbri

sinso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sinxa, sumti qualifiers

sirxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sister pregnant

example, Discursives

sisti, Metalinguistic negation forms

six-shooter

example, Sub-events

size

order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

skami pilno, lujvo

skari, Metalinguistic negation forms

skoto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slaka, The universal bu

slaka bu, The universal bu

slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

slinku'i test

definition, fu'ivla

slovo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slowdown, Types of event abstractions

smacu terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

smiley face

example, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

sneak in

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

snime nanmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

snow falls

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

snowball's chance

example, Special mekso selbri

so'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'e, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'i, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

so'o, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'u, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

social butterfly

example, tanru

Socrates

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals

softo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi sai, lujvo

soi vo'a vo'e, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi with one following sumti

convention, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soidji, Abstract lujvo

solji carce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji djine, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solji sicni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solri, cmene

solxrula, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solxrula grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

some do not go to school

example, Using naku outside a prenex

some relationship

example, selbri variables

somebody

contrasted with somebody else, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves self

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves somebody

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody's dog

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something

contrasted with someone, Restricted claims: da poi

expressing using "su'o", Variables with generalized quantifiers

unspecified definite with "zo'e", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something is loved by everybody

example, Negation boundaries

something sees everything

example, Universal claims

something sees me

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sonci manti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sonci tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sounds

clarity of, Basic Phonetics

complex, Basic Phonetics

difficult, Basic Phonetics

sounds for letters

Lojban contrasted with English, Basic Phonetics

source languages

use in creating gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

south face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sow grain

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sowed grain

example, Tense questions: cu'e

space

as time-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with time in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

space intervals

compared with time intervals in continuity, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

space location

as part of tense system (see also tense

spatial tense), Introductory

space tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

space/time metaphor

expressing direction mapping for, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spageti, fu'ivla

spaghetti, fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

Spanish ch

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Spanish ll

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

spano, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

spatial contours

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with temporal event contours, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

expressing, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial directions

list of, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

spatial information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

spatial interval modifiers

order in tense, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial intervals

expressing degree of continuity over, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial tense

4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

as an imaginary journey, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as optional in English, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

compared with temporal tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, Dimensionality: VIhA

definition, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

four-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

linear, Dimensionality: VIhA

one-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

order relative to temporal, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

planar, Dimensionality: VIhA

reference frame, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

referent of, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

three-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

two-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tense intervals

order of size and dimensionality in, Dimensionality: VIhA

order of VEhA and VIhA in, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

order of direction and distance specifications, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

spatrkoka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

spatrkoka lanka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

speaker's state of knowledge, Discursives

speaker-listener cooperation, Questions

speaker-relative viewpoint

contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

specific descriptions, The three basic description types

specific terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

specificity

expressing with po, Relative phrases

speech rhythm

for grouping in English, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

spelling out words

Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

spiritual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

spraile, fu'ivla

SQL

example, Acronyms

square brackets

use of in notation, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

sralo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

srana, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

srito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

stali, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

standard bridi form

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

standard for subjective numbers

specifying, Special mekso selbri

standard pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

starting marker, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

state abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

state abstractor, Types of event abstractions

state event

described, Types of event abstractions

steady speed, Types of event abstractions

steci, Relative phrases

stereotypical

as not derogatory in Lojban, Descriptors for typical objects

compared with typical, Descriptors for typical objects

stereotypical objects, Descriptors for typical objects

stero, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Steven Mark Jones

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

sticky modals

canceling, Sticky modals

definition, Sticky modals

fi'o proscribed from, Sticky modals

sticky tenses

and CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canceling, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect of nau on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on future tense meaning, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

from part of a multiple tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

stidi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stidi flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stop

contrasted with finish, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with pause, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

stories

flow of time in, Story time

story tense

Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, Story time

story time

as a convention for inferring tense, Story time

definition, Story time

rationale for, Story time

tenseless sentences in, Story time

with no initial sticky time, Story time

stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

effect of buffer vowel on, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

effect of syllabic consonants on, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

example, Emotional categories

final syllable

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

irregular marked with upper-case, Upper and lower cases

levels of, Syllabication And Stress

on cmavo, cmavo

primary, Syllabication And Stress

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

secondary, Syllabication And Stress

showing non-standard, Orthography

stressed syllable

compared with stressed vowel, Syllabication And Stress

stressed vowel

compared with stressed syllable, Syllabication And Stress

stroke cat then rabbit

example, Tensed logical connectives

structure of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

structure of this book, What is this book?

structure words, cmavo

stura, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

su, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

su'a, Evidentials, Discursives

su'anai, Evidentials

su'e, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'i, Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

su'i zy, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'i zy., Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

as implicit quantifier for quotations, Quantified sumti

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'o bu'a, selbri variables

su'o ci cutci, Indefinite descriptions

su'o le ro, The syntax of vocative phrases

su'o lo ro, Quantified descriptions

su'o lo'e ro, Quantified descriptions

su'opa, Variables with generalized quantifiers

su'ore, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'u, Minor abstraction types

su'u jenai ni, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

su'ujeninai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

sub-subscripts, Subscripts

subjective amounts

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subjective numbers

effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for portion selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for probability selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for scale selbri, Special mekso selbri

rationale for effect on place structure, Special mekso selbri

specifying standard for, Special mekso selbri

subjective portions

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subordinate clause tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Esperanto, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Russian, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subordinate clauses

tense usage rules in English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subscripted topics, Paragraphs: NIhO

subscripting, Subscripts: XI

subscripts

and fuzzy truths, Subscripts: XI

and names, Subscripts: XI

and paragraph separators, Subscripts: XI

and pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

and sumti re-ordering, Subscripts: XI

and tense, Subscripts: XI

before main expression, Subscripts

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

external grammar of, Subscripts

for sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

internal grammar of, Subscripts

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical, Subscripts: XI

multiple as sub-subscript, Subscripts

multiple for same base word, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

on ke'a for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

terminator for, Subscripts

to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

use with logical variables, A few notes on variables

subscripts on lerfu words

effect on elidability of boi, Subscripts

subsets

expressing with outer quantifiers, Quantified descriptions

subtraction operator

contrasted with negative sign, Special numbers

subtypes of words, brivla

sudysrasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cunmi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cutci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sumti, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as having implicit quantifiers, Quantified sumti

as objects in place structure slots, Introductory

beginning with "ke", Grouping of afterthought connectives

between descriptor and description selbri, Possessive sumti

classified by types of objects referred to, Individuals and masses

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

descriptions as, The five kinds of simple sumti

dropping trailing unspecified, Standard bridi form: cu

explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, Tagging places: FA

for individual objects, Individuals and masses

for mass objects, Individuals and masses

for set objects, Individuals and masses

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

irrelevant to relationship, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

kinds of, The five kinds of simple sumti

multiple in one place with FA, Tagging places: FA

names as, The five kinds of simple sumti

numbers as, The five kinds of simple sumti

omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

pro-sumti as, The five kinds of simple sumti

quotations as, The five kinds of simple sumti

re-ordering with FA, Tagging places: FA

relation with bridi, The concept of the bridi

sumti cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

sumti connection

afterthought, sumti connection

forethought, sumti connection

sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

sumti logical connection, sumti connection

compared with bridi logical connections, sumti connection

contrasted with tanru logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

rationale for, sumti connection

sumti modal connection, Other modal connections

sumti place

additional

selma'o catalog,

sumti placement

variant

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

sumti qualifiers

as short forms for common special cases, sumti qualifiers

elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

external syntax of, sumti qualifiers

for negation, sumti qualifiers

internal syntax of, sumti qualifiers

list of, sumti qualifiers

sumti questions

quick-tour version, Questions

sumti reordering

quick-tour version, Varying the order of sumti

sumti tcita, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

based on event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on spatial contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense direction, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

definition (see also modal tag), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and modal tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and tense tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita based on dimension, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on event contours

relation of main bridi to sumti process in, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval properties, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval size, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti with lo

compared to indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

sumti with tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti with tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

sumti-based description

definition, sumti-based descriptions

inner quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

outer quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

sumti-based descriptions with le

as increasing restricting to in-mind, sumti-based descriptions

Sun

the

example, cmene

sunburn

example, Property abstractions

superfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

superscripts, Subscripts

supervising

as a contribution to mass action, Non-logical connectives

supper

example, rafsi

supplementary information, Dependent places

Susan

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

susu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

sutra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri

sutra cadzu, selbri and tanru negation

sword blade, lujvo with more than two parts.

sy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sy., brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

syllabaries

lerfu word representation, What about Chinese characters?

syllabic consonant

effect on stress determination, cmene

syllabic consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

effect on stress, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final in word, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

syllabic l

considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic m

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic n

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic pronunciations of consonants

in fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

in fu'ivla category attachment

example, fu'ivla

syllabic r

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabication

and names, Syllabication And Stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

examples of, Syllabication And Stress

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

variants of

example, Syllabication And Stress

syllable break

contrasted with pause, The Special Lojban Characters

representation in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

symbol

for operand, Miscellany

referring to with lu'e, sumti qualifiers

symmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical tanru types

both separately true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

one or other true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using crucial/typical parts, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using more inclusive class, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical veljvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sympathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

ta, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

ta'apei, Vocative scales

ta'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation

ta'onai, Discursives

ta'u, Discursives

ta'unai, Discursives

tables

format of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

tadni girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tagged sumti termsets

connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, More about non-logical connectives

TAhE selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

scalar negation of, Tense negation

tai, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tail-terms

definition, Compound bridi

Take care!

example, Vocatives and commands

Talk!

example, Vocatives and commands

talker

example, tanru

taller

example, The concept of the bridi

tamdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tamsmi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tan(pi/2) = infinity

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tanjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tank

Sherman

example, rafsi

tanru, tanru, Simple tanru

ambiguity in, lujvo

ambiguity of, lujvo, Simple tanru

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

and conversion

quick-tour version, tanru

and creativity, lujvo

as ambiguous, Simple tanru

asymmetrical, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

combination of, lujvo

containing mathematical expressions, Other kinds of simple selbri

default left-grouping of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

definition, Simple tanru

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

expanding, Discursives

explanation of, lujvo

explicating, Discursives

explicitly defining, Discursives

expression of, lujvo

meaning of, Simple tanru

place structure of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

place structures of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

possible meanings of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

primary meaning of, Simple tanru

purpose, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

reducing logically connected sumti to

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

simple, Simple tanru

to lujvo, lujvo

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

tanru and conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

tanru connection

connotation of non-logical, Non-logical connectives

tanru connection grouping

guheks unmarked tanru, Logical connection within tanru

tanru conversion

effect on place structure

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru default grouping

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru grouping

complex, Complex tanru grouping

effect of jeks, Logical connection within tanru

effect of tanru inversion on, Inversion of tanru: co

guheks compared with jeks, Logical connection within tanru

three-part, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

with ke, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

with ke and bo, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

tanru grouping with JA+BO

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on tanru grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

in complex tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple, Inversion of tanru: co

rule for removing, Inversion of tanru: co

where allowed, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru inversion and place structure, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru logical connection

contrasted with sumti logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

tanru nested within tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

tarmi, fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tarmi simsa, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tarmrnintegrale, fu'ivla

tatru litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tau, Upper and lower cases

tavla, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti

tavla be do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

taxfu dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcarlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

tcati kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

te, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

te klagau, Selecting places

te klama, Conversion: SE

te se klama, Conversion: SE

te'a, Simple infix expressions and equations

te'o, Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

te'u, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

technical terms, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

teci'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tei, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

tei .abu .ebu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei .ibu jy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei fy. ibu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei sy. zy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

teka'a, Modal tags: BAI

telephone conversation

hello, Vocative scales

television, IPA For English Speakers

template, Minor abstraction types

temporal direction

exception in meaning when following ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

temporal information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

temporal tense

as mandatory in English, Introductory

compared with spatial tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

historical definition, Introductory

interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, Introductory

order relative to spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

quantified with direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

real relationship to time in English, Introductory

temporal tense elision

compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

temporal tenses

compared with spatial tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ten

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

tense

aorist, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

as observer-based, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

as subjective perception, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

connecting sentences in with, Tense relations between sentences

contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, Tense negation

effect of different position in sentence, Introductory

effect of sticky tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

emphasizing by position in sentence, Introductory

explanation of presentation method, Introductory

expressing movement in, Movement in space: MOhI

handling multiple episodes, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

in forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

interval contrasted with point, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with native languages, Introductory

numerical, Other uses of mekso

on embedded bridi, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

order of direction

distance and interval in, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

order of direction specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of distance specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of movement specification in, Movement in space: MOhI

order of spatial interval modifiers in , Space interval modifiers: FEhE

order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

overriding to speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

point contrasted with interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

position in sentence alternative, Introductory

position of in sentence, Introductory

quantified, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation

scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, Tense negation

scalar negation of with NAhE, Tense negation

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

scope of, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

selbri types applicable to, Introductory

space-time dimension for intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

static contrasted with moving, Movement in space: MOhI

subscripting, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

with both temporal and spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

with ku, Introductory

tense afterthought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense and na

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

tense as sumti tcita

contrasted with tense inside sumti, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

tense connected sentences

contrasted with separately tensed sentences, Tense relations between sentences

forethought mode, Tense relations between sentences

importance of bo in, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection

equivalent meanings, Tense relations between sentences

expansions of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of bridi-tails

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sentences

contrasted with sumti tcita form, Tense relations between sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sumti

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense conversion

accessing original first place with fai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

of temporal tenses, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

use in sumti descriptions, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

with jai, Conversion of simple selbri

tense direction

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

tense direction/distance as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense distance

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense forethought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense in scope of sticky tense

compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense inside sumti

contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense on main bridi

effect on embedded bridi tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect on embedded sumti with tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense questions

by using logical connective question, Tense questions: cu'e

methods of asking, Tense questions: cu'e

tense questions with ma, Tense questions: cu'e

tense selma'o

summary of, Summary of tense selma'o

tense sentence connection

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

tense specification

effect on "cu", Introductory

effect on elidability of terminators, Introductory

tense system

and space location, Introductory

tense tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

tense with sumti tcita

asymmetry of, Tense relations between sentences

tense-or-modal questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

tensed connectives

in mathematical expressions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in jek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

with ke…ke'e, Tensed logical connectives

with tu'e…tu'u, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected bridi-tails, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sentences, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sumti, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tenseless sentences in story time, Story time

tenses

compared with modals in syntax, Tenses versus modals

connected

with negation, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

contradictory negation of with nai, Tense negation

contrasted with modals in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought logical connections, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

grouping of connectives in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

logically connected with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

multiple in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

negating, Tense negation

non-logical connection of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

non-logical connection of for sub-events, Sub-events

possible groupings of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

use as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

tenses with elided CAhA

meaning, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

terbi'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terbi'a jurme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terci'e, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tergu'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergu'i ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

terlanme jitro gerku, Anomalous lujvo

terlantroge'u, Anomalous lujvo

term

definition, Termset logical connection

terminators

eliding ku in non-logical connections, Non-logical connectives

termset

effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

formation, Termset logical connection

termset logical connection

unequal length, Termset logical connection

termset modal connection, Other modal connections

termsets

compared to fa'u, Non-logical connectives

non-logical connection of, More about non-logical connectives

tertau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

terter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

terto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

tesete, Conversion: SE

texete, Conversion: SE

text

division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

sub-division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

text quotation

as internally grammatical, Quotation summary

syntax of, Quotation summary

tezu'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

thank you

example, Vocative scales

the

contrasted with a/an, Miscellaneous indicators

example, Miscellaneous indicators

for talking about numbers themselves, Simple infix expressions and equations

the destination

example, Conversion: SE

the go-er

example, Conversion: SE

The men are women

example, The three basic description types

the two of you

example, sumti-based descriptions

thingy

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

this

adjective expression with ti noi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective expression with vi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as utterance reference in English, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pronoun expression with ti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this boat

example, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this book

author of, Acknowledgements and Credits

contributors to, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

examples of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

goal of, What is this book?

reviewers of, Acknowledgements and Credits

structure of, What is this book?

this/that in English

compared with ti-series pro-sumti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

three bears

example, sumti-based descriptions

three cats white

and two big

example, A few notes on variables

three dogs bite two men

example, Grouping of quantifiers

Three Kings

example, selbri based on sumti: me

three of four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three or four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three rats

example, Special mekso selbri

thus

example, Evidentials

ti, Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as pronoun expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti mlatu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

ti noi

as adjective expression for this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti'e, Evidentials

ti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ti'o, Explicit operator precedence

ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ti-series pro-sumti

3 degrees of distance with, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as pointing referents only, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

compared with English this/that, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

conversational convention for, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

problems in written text, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tilde

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

time

as part of tense system (see also tense

temporal tense), Introductory

as space-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with space in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

time tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

time travel, Movement in space: MOhI

times

explicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

implicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

tinju'i, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

tirna, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

title

specifying with tu'e…tu'u, Sentences: I

title of book

example, sumti qualifiers

tixnu be mi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, No more to say: FAhO

to movie

house

office: example, Tagging places: FA

to the market from the office, Termset logical connection

to'a, Upper and lower cases

to'e, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation

to'ebo, sumti negation

to'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'i ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

to'u, Discursives

to-do list

example, More about non-logical connectives

toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Tolkien

and non-standard Lojban orthography, Oddball Orthographies

tolmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tomorrow

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

too

example, Discursives

too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita

too many rats

example, Special mekso selbri

topic-comment

description, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

topic/comment

multiple sentence, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tosmabru test, The lujvo-making algorithm

toward her right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward my right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward right

contrasted with on right, Movement in space: MOhI

traji, Comparatives and superlatives

transfinite cardinal

example, Special numbers

transformations with logical connectives

steps, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

traveling salesperson

example, Modal tags: BAI

tricrxaceru, fu'ivla

tricrxaceru sakta, fu'ivla

tricu, fu'ivla

tricu stedu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

triumph, Types of event abstractions

trkaile, fu'ivla

troci, Inversion of tanru: co

troci co klama, Inversion of tanru: co

truncation of number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

truth

in imperative sentences, Truth questions and connective questions

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

16 possible, Logical connection and truth tables

commutative, The Four basic vowels

creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, The Four basic vowels

fundamental 4 in Lojban, The Four basic vowels

relation to logical connectives, The Four basic vowels

table of logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

truth questions, Miscellaneous indicators

answering "no", Truth questions and connective questions

answering "yes", Truth questions and connective questions

as yes-or-no questions, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with connection questions, Truth questions and connective questions

simple, Truth questions and connective questions

truth table

explanation, Logical connection and truth tables

truth tables

abbreviated format, Logical connection and truth tables

for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, The Four basic vowels

list of 16 in abbreviated form, Logical connection and truth tables

notation convention, Logical connection and truth tables

truth-value abstractions

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction

try the door

example, Lojban sumti raising

try to go

example, Inversion of tanru: co

ts-sound in Russian

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

tsys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

tu, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

archaic English yon as equivalent of, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tu'a, sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising

as being deliberately vague, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for forming abstractions, sumti qualifiers

tu'a le vorme, Lojban sumti raising

tu'e, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

effect on di'e, More about non-logical connectives

use in lists, More about non-logical connectives

tu'o, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

tu'o va'a, Reverse Polish notation

tu'u, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tumla spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tumla vacri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tuple birka, Some types of symmetrical tanru

turdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

twice today

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

two brothers

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

two dogs are white

example, Quantified descriptions

ty, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ty., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty.bu, Alien alphabets

types and subtypes of words, brivla

typical

compared with stereotypical, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Englishman

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Lojban user

example, Masses and sets

typical objects

and instantiation, Descriptors for typical objects

determining characteristics of, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Smith

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

typical value

contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

u'e, cmavo

u'u, Propositional attitude indicators

ugh

example, More about non-logical connectives

UI selma'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

umlaut

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

unabridged dictionary, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

unconditional signal, No more to say: FAhO

unconnected tanru

contrasted with logically connected version, Logical connection within tanru

undemonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

under compulsion

example, Modal selbri

under conditions

example, Event abstraction

underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

unequal termset connection

compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, Termset logical connection

unfilled places of inverted tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

Unicode, Computerized character codes

union

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

union of sets

compared with or, More about non-logical connectives

units of measurement

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

universal

mixed claim with existential, Universal claims

universal claims

dangers of using, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Universal claims

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

unqualified sumti

contrasted with qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

unreduced fractions

use in granular scales, Special mekso selbri

unreduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

unspecified breed

example, Dependent places

unspecified direction

temporal contrasted with in spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

unspecified emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified level of emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified route

example, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified sumti

non-trailing, Standard bridi form: cu

using zo'e as place-holder for, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified trailing sumti

dropping, Standard bridi form: cu

unstated emotion, Compound indicators

unusual characters

words for, The universal bu

unvoiced consonants

contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

unvoiced vowel glide

apostrophe as, The Special Lojban Characters

upper-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

upper-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

utterance

expressing relation to discourse, Discursives

utterance ordinal

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

utterance pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

utterances

non-bridi, Questions and answers

uy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

V

V

as a symbol for a single vowel, Introductory

va, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

VA selma'o

and distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

relation of words to ti

ta, tu, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

va'a, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso

va'e, Special mekso selbri

va'i, Discursives

contrasted with ke'u, Discursives

va'inai, Discursives

vague abstraction, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractor, Minor abstraction types

vague relationship

modal tag for, Modal tags: BAI

valid speech

marking as error with jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators

vanju kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

variables

logical, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

vau, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on elidability ku'o, Possessive sumti

vau for shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

ve, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ve klama, Conversion: SE

contrasted with pluta, Conversion: SE

ve'abe'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ve'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ve'o, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

vecnu, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI

vector

components of, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

vector indicator, Vectors and matrices

terminator for, Vectors and matrices

vectors

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

vei, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

veka'a, Modal tags: BAI

veljvo, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

velvel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

vemau, Comparatives and superlatives

veme'a, Comparatives and superlatives

vensa djedi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verba jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

veterinarian

example, Ordering lujvo places.

vexixa, Subscripts: XI

vi, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses

as adjective expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

vi'a, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'e, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'o

contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

vi'u, Dimensionality: VIhA

vice versa

English

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vindu firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

vinji rebla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

virtue

example, Attitudinal modifiers

viska, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

viska le, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

viska lo, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

vo, Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation

vo'a, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'a-series pro-sumti

use in expressing reciprocity with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'e, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'i, Pro-sumti summary

vo'o, Pro-sumti summary

vo'u, Pro-sumti summary

voboi mu pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

voboi renomei, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

vocative phrase

effect of position on meaning, The syntax of vocative phrases

elidable terminator for, The syntax of vocative phrases

explicit quantifiers prohibited on, The syntax of vocative phrases

forms of, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit descriptor on, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit quantifiers on, The syntax of vocative phrases

purpose of, The syntax of vocative phrases

with complete sumti, The syntax of vocative phrases

with sumti without descriptor, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase terminator

elidability of, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase with name

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrase with selbri

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrases

as a free modifier, The syntax of vocative phrases

relative clauses on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative word

phrase following, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocatives

and definition of "you", Vocative scales

contrasted with "la", Vocative scales

definition, Vocative scales

grammar overview, Vocative scales

notation convention symbol "X", Vocative scales

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

rationale for redundancy, Vocative scales

voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voiced consonants

contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

voiced/unvoiced consonants

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

vorme, Lojban sumti raising

vowel

buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel buffer

contrasted with y sound, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel pairs

contrasted with diphthongs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Vowel Pairs

grouping of, Vowel Pairs

involving y, Vowel Pairs

list of, Vowel Pairs

use of apostrophe in, Vowel Pairs

vowel-initial words

necessity for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

vowels

contrasted with consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

length of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

vu, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

vu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

vu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for creating sequence, sumti qualifiers

vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

vu'u, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

VUhU operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

vukro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

VV string

as a symbol for a double vowel, Introductory

vy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

vy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

vy.bu, Alien alphabets

W

walk to market

example, Conversion of simple selbri

want to be a soldier

example, The syntax of abstraction

wash self

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

weapon against self

example, Dropping the prenex

went and bought

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

what is your name

example, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

when

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when else

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when/where/how

example, Tense questions: cu'e

where

example, Tense questions: cu'e

whether criminal

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

whole time interval

expressing, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

window

example, The six types of logical connectives

wine-dark sea, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

word "abu"

example, References to lerfu

word "bu", The universal bu

word classes, Introductory

word forms

as related to grammatical uses, Introductory

in Lojban (see also morphology), Introductory

word quotation

as morphologically valid, Quotation summary

internal grammar of, Quotation summary

words not in the dictionary, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

wrong concept, Dependent places

X

x sub b,d

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

x sub k

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

X-ray

example, rafsi

x-sub-3

example, Subscripts

x1

in place structure notation, Introductory

notation convention

quick-tour version, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

xa rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

xaceru, fu'ivla

xagmau, Comparatives and superlatives

xagrai, Comparatives and superlatives

xamgu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Comparatives and superlatives

xampo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xamsi gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xance, Anomalous lujvo

xancypliminde, Anomalous lujvo

xanmi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xanplimi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

xaroi, Sub-events

xaskemcakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xasycakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xatsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xazdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xe, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI

xe klama, Conversion: SE

xebro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xecto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xeka'a, Modal tags: BAI

xekri, Notes on gismu place structures

xelklama, Tenses as sumti tcita

xelso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xelxel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xetexe, Conversion: SE

xexso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI

xindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xirma zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xismu, gismu

xispo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xo, Number questions, Questions and answers

xrabo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xriso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xrula tricu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

xu, The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers

xunre, Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation

xunre pastu nixli, The syntax of vocative phrases

xurdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xutla bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

xy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

xy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

xy. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Y

y

considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, Introductory

letter

between letters of consonant pair, brivla

prohibition from fu'ivla, fu'ivla

use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, Consonant Clusters

y sound

contrasted with vowel buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

y-hyphen

and consonant cluster determination, lujvo

and stress determination, lujvo

use of, lujvo

yes/no questions, Miscellaneous indicators

quick-tour version, Questions

yielding the floor, No more to say: FAhO

yon

as archaic English equivalent of tu, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

you

defining, Vocative scales

you're welcome

fi'i contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

je'e contrasted with fi'i, Vocative scales

you-cmavo

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

you-talk

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

younger

example, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

za'a, Indicators, Evidentials

za'e, Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, Considerations for making lujvo

za'i, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'u, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

zabna, Attitudinal modifiers

ZAhO selma'o, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

zai, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

zarci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types

zbasu, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zdani, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zdani co blanu, Inversion of tanru: co

zdani lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani linji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani tcadu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

zdani turni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

effect on following PU direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eba, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eca, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'epu, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'i, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

ze'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zei, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zemo'o, Utterance ordinals: MAI

zenba, Comparatives and superlatives

zepti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zerle'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zerle'a nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zernerkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

zero

relation to negation boundary, Negation boundaries

zero to one

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

zetro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zgike nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ZI selma'o

compared with VA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

compared with English and, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with logical connectives, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'o, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti

as creating new selbri, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zi'o rafsi

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

Zipf's Law, Considerations for making lujvo

zmadu, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

zo, The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zo .bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zo .djan., Other uses of mekso

zo .djan. si .djordj., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo le'u, List of cmavo interactions

zo'e, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as place-holder for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

as place-holder for unspecified sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with FA for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

contrasted with da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

zo'e-series

compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'e-series pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'i, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zo'o, Discursives

zo'obu, The universal bu

zo'u, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

zoi, The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zoi X. text .X, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zu'a, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes

derivation of word, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

zu'a ca'u, Movement in space: MOhI

zu'aku, Tense relations between sentences

zu'i, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zu'o, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

zukte, Notes on gismu place structures

zuljamfu, rafsi

zuljma, rafsi

zunle, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

zunle jamfu, rafsi

zunlyjamfu, rafsi

zunlyjma, rafsi

zy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

zy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

Lojban Automated Words Index

Symbols

"

"

word for, The universal bu

"&"

word for, The universal bu

"."

word for, The universal bu

"a" is letteral

example, References to lerfu

"because"

English word

four varieties of, Modal sentence connection: the causals

"la"

contrasted with vocatives, Vocative scales

"less"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"me"

effect of MOI on, Special mekso selbri

"more"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"no" quantifier

expanding, Negation boundaries

"of"

in English

compared with do'e, Modal tags: BAI

"or"

"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both", Logical connection and truth tables

"there is a Y"

expression

notation convention, Negation boundaries

"z" instead of "'"

in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

$, Computerized character codes

' symbol

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

definition (see also apostrophe), The Special Lojban Characters

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

(n+1)-th rat

example, Special mekso selbri

* ... le zarci fa'u le briju, Questions and answers

*gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

*reboi ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

+1 + -1 = 0

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

-1

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

-cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?

-ek

in name for logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives

-er

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

-hood, Abstract lujvo

-ity, Property abstractions

-mei, Special mekso selbri

-nai, Modal negation, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation, What are attitudinal indicators?, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

-ness, Property abstractions

-ng

Lojban contrasted with English, Syllabication And Stress

-roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

-to'e-, Expressing scales in selbri negation

... lo gerku, Quantified descriptions

.a, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.a'abu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.a'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.a'o, What are attitudinal indicators?

.a'u, More about non-logical connectives

.a'ucu'i, Propositional attitude indicators

.abu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.abu by. cy., Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

.abubu, The universal bu

.ai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Vocative scales

.ai,in bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.akut. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.alef. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.alfas., Alien alphabets

.alfas. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.au, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.azys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.bet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.betas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.bravos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.brevis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.bukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.cas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.cin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cirkumfleks. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.ctas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.curuk. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cyVAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daled. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.dasei,as. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.deltas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.dobros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.e, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

contrasted with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

.e speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

.e'ebu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.ebu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ecarn. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ei, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.eibu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.eicai, Attitudes as scales

.eicu'i, Attitudes as scales

.einai, Attitudes as scales

.eiro'u, Emotional categories

.eiru'e, Attitudes as scales

.eisai, Attitudes as scales

.ekos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.eksreis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.Epsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.etas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fokstrot. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.friytys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.gamas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.gapmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gapyjin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gimel. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.glagolis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.golf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.grav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.i, cmavo, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.i la nas., cmene

.i'anai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'inai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.ia, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.iabu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ianai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives

.iankis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ibaubo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.ibu, cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ie, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Vocative scales

.ie ge'eru'e, Compound indicators

.iecu'i, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ienai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ier. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieriys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieru'e, Compound indicators

.ierys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iestys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ii, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales

.ii.iinai, The space of emotions

.iige'e, Miscellaneous indicators

.ija, bridi negation and logical connectives

.ije, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables

.ije seri'a, Mixed modal connection

.ije,is. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ijebabo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.ijeseri'abo, Mixed modal connection

.indias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.io, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.iotas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.iri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.iseri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.itord. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.iubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iucai, Propositional attitude indicators

.iud. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ius. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.izu'abo, Tense relations between sentences

.jivet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.juliet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kaf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kakos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.kamats. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kapas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.keBEK. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kilos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.kubuts. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kuf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.limas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.liudi,ies. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.lymdas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.LYmed. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.maik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.makron. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.midgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.myslites. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.naciys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.novembr. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.nun. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.nus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.o'obu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o'ufu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.o'unairo'a, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'i, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'o, Emotional categories

.obu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ogoniek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.oi, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators

.oicai, Propositional attitude indicators

.oinai, Compound indicators

.oinaicu'i ro'ucai, Compound indicators

.omegas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.Omikron. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.onai, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

.onys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.oskar. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.paPAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.patax. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.pokois. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.pritygal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.psiles. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.re'akut. bu [re akut.], Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.rec. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.relmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.riytsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.romios. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.seDIlys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.seGOL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.sieras. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.sigmas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.sin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.slovos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.taf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tangos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.taus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tcriyviys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tildes. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tseirex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tyvriydos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.u, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.u'u, Pure emotion indicators

.u'ubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.u'unai, Attitudinal modifiers

.ua, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.uanai, Miscellaneous indicators

.ubu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ue, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.ui, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

.ui .ui .ui, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uibu, The universal bu

.uicai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.uiskis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.Uniform. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.uo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.Upsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.uu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.uuse'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.uuse'inai, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.vav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.vedis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.viktas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.xatcek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.xerys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.xet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xirik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.xolem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xoTEL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.y'y, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.y'y., Vowel Pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.y'y.bu, Alien alphabets

.y., cmavo, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions

.y.bu, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ybu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.zai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.zemlias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.zetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.zulgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.zulus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

1 + 1 = 2

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

10^20

example, Infix operators revisited

12-point

example, Alien alphabets

123

example, Lojban numbers

2 + 2

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

2/7

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

3 * 10^8

example, Infix operators revisited

3 grams

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

3.1415

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

4-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

5-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

9 out of ten

example, Special mekso selbri

A

a, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

example, Miscellaneous indicators

A

selma'o catalog,

A gives B to C

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A gives BC

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A loves B

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A selma'o, sumti connection, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

a'e, Propositional attitude indicators

a/an

contrasted with the, Miscellaneous indicators

abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ABC base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

abduction

example, Evidentials

Abraham Lincoln

example, Truth questions and connective questions

absolute laws, Why have lujvo?

abstract description, Lojban sumti raising

abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo

abstraction bridi

contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, Other kinds of simple selbri

effect on claim of bridi, Modal sentence connection: the causals

abstraction conversion, Lojban sumti raising

abstraction of sentences

contrasted with quotation, Predication/sentence abstraction

abstractions

achievement, Types of event abstractions

activity, Types of event abstractions

concept, Minor abstraction types

creating new types, Minor abstraction types

event, Event abstraction

experience, Minor abstraction types

forethought connection in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

grammatical uses, The syntax of abstraction

grouping of connectives in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

idea, Minor abstraction types

implicit in sumti, Event abstraction

logical connection of, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

making concrete, Lojban sumti raising

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

place structure, The syntax of abstraction

point-event, Types of event abstractions

process, Types of event abstractions

simplification to sumti with jai, Lojban sumti raising

simplification to sumti with tu'a, Lojban sumti raising

speaking

writing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

state, Types of event abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Event abstraction

truth-value and fuzzy logic, Truth-value abstraction: jei

vague, Minor abstraction types

with knowing

believing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

with wonder

doubt, etc., Indirect questions

accent mark

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

accent marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

accented letters

considered as distinct from unaccented, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Acer

example, fu'ivla

achievative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

achievement abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

achievement event

described, Types of event abstractions

acronym

definition, Acronyms

acronym names from lerfu words

assigning final consonant, Acronyms

acronyms

as lerfu strings using "me", Acronyms

using names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

acronyms names based on lerfu words

omitting bu, Acronyms

using "z" instead of "'" in, Acronyms

activity abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

activity abstractor, Types of event abstractions

activity event

described, Types of event abstractions

actual events

explicitly expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

actual stop

contrasted with natural end, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

actuality

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implying, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

addition

a mathematical operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition operator

contrasted with positive sign, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition problems

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

adjective ordering, Logical connection within tanru

adjective-noun combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adjectives

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

adverb-verb combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adverbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

affirmative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

afraid of horse

example, Relative clauses and descriptors

after sleep

example, Propositional attitude indicators

afterthought bridi connectives

contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought connection

contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

afterthought connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with forethought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought sentence connection

modal contrasted with tense, Tenses versus modals

afterthought tense connection

contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

ai, Quotation summary, Non-decimal and compound bases

ailment, Ordering lujvo places.

akut. bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

aleph null

example, Special numbers

Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

algebra of functions

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

alienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

aliens

communication with, Tentative conclusion

all-th

example, Special mekso selbri

allowable diphthongs

in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo, fu'ivla

in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

alpha

example, Alien alphabets

alphabet

Latin used for Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Lojban, Orthography

words for letters in

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alphabetic order, Orthography

alphabets

words for non-Lojban letters

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alternative guidelines, Why have lujvo?

always and everywhere

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ambiguity of tanru, Simple tanru

American dollars, Computerized character codes

American Indian languages and evidentials, Evidentials

Amharic writing, What about Chinese characters?

ampersand

example, The universal bu

ampersand character

word for, The universal bu

Amsterdam

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

an

example, Miscellaneous indicators

anaphora

definition, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-bridi go'i-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti ri-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti vo'a-series as, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

anaphoric pro-bridi

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

anaphoric pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

and

as non-logical connective, Non-logical connectives

compared with but, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with cross-product, More about non-logical connectives

and earlier

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and then, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

example, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

animal doctor

example, Ordering lujvo places.

animal patient, Ordering lujvo places.

animals

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

anomalous ordering of lujvo places, lujvo with more than two parts.

answers

go'i for yes/no questions, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to operator questions, Other uses of mekso

to place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

to tense-or-modal questions, Tense questions: cu'e

antecedent

for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

for pro-bridi as full bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

antecedent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

antecedent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

anticipated

example, Evidentials

any

as a restricted universal claim, The problem of “any”

as a translation problem, The problem of “any”

as a universal claim

later restricted, The problem of “any”

as an existential claim, The problem of “any”

expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, The problem of “any”

any box, The problem of “any”

anyone

contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

anyone who goes

walks

example, The problem of “any”

aorist

definition, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

apostrophe

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

as not a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

as preferable over comma in names, The Special Lojban Characters

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

purpose of, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

type of letter in word-formation, The Special Lojban Characters

use in vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

Appassionata

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

approximate numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

expressing some exactness of, Approximation and inexact numbers

approximately 40

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Arabian Nights, Paragraphs: NIhO

Arabic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

argument tags

based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), Tenses as sumti tcita

Armstrong

example, Syllabication And Stress

Arnold

example, cmene

arthropod, Dependent places

article

number, Simple infix expressions and equations

articles

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

Artur Rubenstein

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

ASCII

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

aspect

expressing, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

natural languages compared with respect to, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

assignable pro-sumti

explicit cancellation of by rebinding, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

assumption

example, Evidentials

asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

definition, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

asymmetrical tanru types

activity + implement-used, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cause + effect, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic-time + event, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic/detail + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

effect + causative agent, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

elements-in-set + set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

energy-source + powered, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

general-class + sub-class, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

inhabitant + habitat, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

locus-of-application + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

miscellaneous, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + component/detail, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + place-sold, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + usual-container, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-giving-characteristic + other-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-measured + standard-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-action + action, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

possessor + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + producer, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + source, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

set + element-of-set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

similar-appearance-object + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source + product, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source-material + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

typical-place + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

undesired-object + protection-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

whole + part, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

at least

contrasted with more than

less than, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at least two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most

contrasted with more than

at least, less than, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Athens, Types of event abstractions

attend school

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

attitude

avoidance of expression, Miscellaneous indicators

scalar, Attitudes as scales

attitudes

beginning, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

ceasing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

continuing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

empathy contrasted with sympathy, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

expressing changes in, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal

example of scale effect, Attitudes as scales

signaling as non-propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

attitudinal answers

plausibility, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal categories, Emotional categories

example of effect, Emotional categories

mnemonic for, Emotional categories

rationale, Emotional categories

attitudinal indicator

unspecified, Compound indicators

attitudinal indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

conventions of interpretation, Compound indicators

placement of "nai" in, Compound indicators

placement of scale in, Compound indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers

attitudinal questions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking about specific attitude, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking intensity, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal scale

as axis in emotion-space, The space of emotions

neutral compared with positive + negative, The space of emotions

seven-position, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone usage, Attitudes as scales

usage, Attitudes as scales

attitudinal scales

rationale for assignment, Attitudes as scales

attitudinals

a- series, Propositional attitude indicators

affecting whole grammatical structures, The uses of indicators

and logic, What's wrong with this picture?

at beginning of text, The uses of indicators

attributing emotion to others, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

benefit in written expression, The uses of indicators

categories with nai, Emotional categories

categories with scale markers, Emotional categories

complexity, Attitudinal modifiers

compound, What are attitudinal indicators?

contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

contrasted with bridi, Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions

contrasted with discursives, Discursives

contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, The space of emotions

design benefit, The space of emotions

e- series, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional contrasted with propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional/propositional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

exceptions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

external grammar, The uses of indicators

grammar of internal compounding, Compound indicators

grammar of placement in bridi, The uses of indicators

i- series, Propositional attitude indicators

internal grammar

complete, Compound indicators

logical language and, Propositional attitude indicators

negative, Attitudes as scales

neutral, Attitudes as scales

non-speaker attitudes, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

order of, The space of emotions

placement for prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

placement in sentences with "nai", Compound indicators

positive, Attitudes as scales

prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

propositional contrasted with emotional, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional effect on claim, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional/emotional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

rationale for, Propositional attitude indicators

referent uncertainty, The uses of indicators

scale of, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone categories, Emotional categories

word-form for primary, What are attitudinal indicators?

au, Non-decimal and compound bases

audio-visual isomorphism, Orthography

audio-visually isomorphic, Sentences: I

auditoriums, Dependent places

author of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

Avon

example, Modal tags: BAI

B

ba, Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

ba'a, Evidentials

ba'acu'i, Evidentials

ba'anai, Evidentials

ba'e, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

ba'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as futureward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

back-counting pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

background noise, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

BAhE

selma'o catalog,

bai, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection

BAI

selma'o catalog,

BAI cmavo

rationale for selection, Modal tags: BAI

bai ke, Modal selbri

BAI ki ku, Sticky modals

BAI modal tags

rationale for, Modal tags: BAI

BAI selma'o, Modal conversion: JAI

as short forms for fi'o constructs, Modal tags: BAI

effect of conversion on, Modal tags: BAI

form of cmavo in, Modal tags: BAI

bai tavla, Modal selbri

bai'ai, cmavo

bajra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

bakni rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakni verba, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakrecpa'o, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bakri, rafsi

balsoi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo

balvi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals

bangu, Lojban names

banli, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

banli sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

bapli tavla, Modal selbri

bapu, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

barda, Simple tanru

base

assumed, Non-decimal and compound bases

changing permanently, Non-decimal and compound bases

non-constant, Non-decimal and compound bases

specifying, Non-decimal and compound bases

vague, Non-decimal and compound bases

base greater than 16

compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing numbers in, Non-decimal and compound bases

two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

base point

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

base varying for each digit

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

base-20 arithmetic

remnants of, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

basis

example, Evidentials

basti, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

basygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

batci, Dropping the prenex

bau, Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals

bavla'i, lujvo with more than two parts.

bavlamdei, lujvo with more than two parts.

baxso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

be, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

be lo, Minor abstraction types

be'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?

effect of ku on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect of relative clauses on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

be'u, Attitudinal modifiers

beach

example, Property abstractions

bear wrote story

example, The three basic description types

Bears wrote book

example, Individuals and masses

beautiful dog

example, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

beefsteak, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Beethoven

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

beetle

example, Dependent places

beetles, Dependent places

begin

contrasted with resume, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

beginning point

spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

bei, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

being alive

example, Types of event abstractions

bemro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bengo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bersa tixnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

berti merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

better

example, Comparatives and superlatives

between Dresden and Frankfurt

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

beverage

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect on following operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

bi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'u, Miscellaneous indicators

bi'unai, Miscellaneous indicators

bibliography, Informal Bibliography

bicycle race

example, Minor abstraction types

bifce jisra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce lakse, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

big boat

example, lujvo

big nose

example, What are you pointing at?

big nose-pores

example, What are you pointing at?

big person

example, What are you pointing at?

big red dog

example, Logical connection within tanru

BIhI selma'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Bill Clinton

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

bilma, rafsi

binary system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

bindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

birka, Relative phrases

bisycla, brivla

blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

blabi karce, Incidental relative clauses

blaci, rafsi

blaci kanla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo sidju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blakanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

blanu bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je zdani, Logical connection within tanru

blanu kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu zdani, Logical connection within tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blanu zdani ponse, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blari'o, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti

blaselkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blokle, lujvo-making examples

blolei, lujvo-making examples

bloti, lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

bloti klesi, lujvo-making examples

blue

as sad

example, Miscellaneous indicators

blue and red

example, Non-logical connectives

blue house

example, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru

blue-eyed

example, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for right-grouping in tanru, Complex tanru grouping

in jeks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in joiks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

right-grouping, Grouping of afterthought connectives

bo and forethought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

BO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

boat class

example, lujvo-making examples

boat sailed

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

boi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI

effect on elidability of me'u, Special mekso selbri

eliding from lerfu strings, lerfu words as pro-sumti

exception before MAI, Other uses of mekso

exception before MOI, Special mekso selbri

exception before ROI, Other uses of mekso

required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, lerfu words as pro-sumti

bold

example, Alien alphabets

bomb destroyed fifty miles

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

bone bread

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

books about Lojban, Informal Bibliography

borrowing

four stages of, fu'ivla

borrowing from other language

fu'ivla as, brivla

borrowings

fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

most common form for, fu'ivla

Stage 1, fu'ivla

Stage 2, fu'ivla

Stage 3, fu'ivla

Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, fu'ivla

Stage 4, fu'ivla

using foreign-language name, fu'ivla

using lojbanized name, fu'ivla

Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

both dogs

example, Indefinite numbers

bound variable pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

bovine

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bracketed remark, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

brackets

use in IPA notation, Basic Phonetics

bradi, The gismu creation algorithm

brazo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

breathe

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

bredi, The gismu creation algorithm

bridi, The concept of the bridi, Syllabication And Stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions

building from selbri and sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with predication, The concept of the bridi

concept of, The concept of the bridi

definition, Lojban content words: brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

effect of alternate form on sumti order, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of using non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

exception to sumti place structure in, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving end sumti places unspecified in, Standard bridi form: cu

logical connection with negation, Logical connection of bridi

logical connective for, Logical connection of bridi

non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

omitting the first sumti place, Standard bridi form: cu

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

relation to selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

selbri-first as exceptional, Standard bridi form: cu

standard form of, Standard bridi form: cu

bridi cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

bridi connection

use of imperatives in, Truth questions and connective questions

use of truth questions in, Truth questions and connective questions

bridi logical connection

compared with sumti logical connections, sumti connection

bridi negation

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

compared with negation between sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, Negation boundaries

naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, Negation boundaries

relative order with tense, Tenses and bridi negation

two forms of, Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

bridi questions

quick-tour version, Questions

bridi valsi, lujvo, rafsi

bridi-based comparison

contrasted with comparison with relative phrase

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

bridi-tail

definition, Compound bridi

bridi-tail logical connection

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

bridi-tails

eliding vau in, Compound bridi

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

bridyvalsi, lujvo

bridyvla, lujvo

brie

example, fu'ivla

brife molki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

briju ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

brito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

brivalsi, lujvo

brivla, Examples of brivla, Syllabication And Stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

consonant pairs in, brivla

definition, brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

from tanru, lujvo

properties of, brivla

recognition of, brivla

relation to bridi, The concept of the bridi

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

subtypes of, brivla

types, Lojban content words: brivla

types of

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

brivla as selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

brivla equivalents, Other kinds of simple selbri

brivla form

contrasted with cmavo form, brivla

contrasted with cmene form, brivla

broda, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

broda-series for pro-bridi

compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as abstract pattern, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as sample gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with no assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

word-form rationale, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

brode, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

brodi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodo, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodu, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

Brooklyn

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

brothers

example, Non-logical connectives

Brown

James Cooke, Acknowledgements and Credits

and "letteral", What's a letteral, anyway?

John

example, cmene

brudi, The gismu creation algorithm

bu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions

and compound cmavo, The universal bu

effect of multiple, The universal bu

effect on preceding word, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for extension of lerfu word set, The universal bu

grammar of, The universal bu

interaction with ba'e, The universal bu

interaction with language shift, Alien alphabets

omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

bu'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'a zo'u, selbri variables

bu'a-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

bu'e, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'i, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'o, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'ocu'i, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'onai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compared with ca, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

bubu, The universal bu

budjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

buffer vowel, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

and stress, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

shortening of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

bukpu spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Bulgarian

example, fu'ivla

but

compared with and, Truth questions and connective questions

example, Discursives

but/and equivalence, Indicators

butter is soft

example, Individuals and masses

butterfly

social

example, tanru

by, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

by., rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti

by. cy., lerfu words as pro-sumti

C

C string

as a symbol for a single consonant, Introductory

C/C string

as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, Introductory

C/CC string

as a symbol for a consonant triple, Introductory

ca, Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

compared with bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

rational for, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ca ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca'e, Evidentials

ca'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cabna, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

cadzu, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu cipni, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cadzu klama, Conversion of simple selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu le bisli, Modal selbri

cafne, Lojban sumti raising

cagyce'u, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cagyce'u zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

CAhA selma'o

making sticky, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

order in tense construct, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

cai, Attitudes as scales

cakcinki, Dependent places

calculator mathematics

as default in Lojban, Simple infix expressions and equations

calku, Dependent places

calku cinki, Dependent places

calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

can see

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

canceling letter shifts, Alien alphabets

cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment

with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

capital letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

use of, Orthography

capitalization

for unusual stress in names, cmene

use in names, cmene

use of, cmene

car goer

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

cardinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

cardinality

definition, Masses and sets

property of sets, Masses and sets

carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

carried piano

example, Non-logical connectives

carry sack

example, Mixed modal connection

carry sack and dog

example, Tensed logical connectives

carry the piano

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Cartesian product

with tenses, Sub-events

Carthage destroyed

example, Evidentials

carvi dirgo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi taxfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

case

upper/lower specification, Upper and lower cases

casnu, More about non-logical connectives

cat of plastic

example, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Catherine

example, cmene

Cathy

example, cmene

causals

claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, Modal sentence connection: the causals

gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

cause death

example, Lojban sumti raising

cave

example, Story time

CC string

as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, Introductory

CCVVCV fu'ivla

and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ce, cmavo, Non-logical connectives

ce'a, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

ce'e, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

ce'i, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

ce'o, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Amount abstractions

use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

cedilla

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

cei for broda-series assignment

compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

centi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cerni bumru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cessitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cevni jenmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni prenu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni zekri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ch-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

chapter numbering, Other uses of mekso

chapter titles

intent of, What is this book?

character codes

definition, Computerized character codes

character encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

characters

definition, Computerized character codes

special, The Special Lojban Characters

Chelsea Clinton, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

chemical elements

use of single-letter shift for, Upper and lower cases

Chief

example, cmene

child on ice

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Chilean desert

example, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

Chinese characters

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on pinyin spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

choose from

example, Non-logical connectives

Chrysler

example, selbri based on sumti: me

ci, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation

ci da, A few notes on variables

ci gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci lo gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ci'e, Metalinguistic negation forms

ci'u, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

CIA

example, Acronyms

cidja, fu'ivla

cidja barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cidjrspageti, fu'ivla

cifi'uxa, Special mekso selbri

cifnu degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinctu, lujvo-making examples

cinfo, Notes on gismu place structures

cinfo jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinfo kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinki, Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures

cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

cipnrstrigi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

circumflex

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cirla, fu'ivla

ciste, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

citmau, Comparatives and superlatives

citno, Comparatives and superlatives

citno zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

ckana boxfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Dependent places

ckule dinju, Dependent places

ckunu tricu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cladakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakfu xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

clamshells, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

clani, lujvo with more than two parts.

clarity of sounds, Basic Phonetics

Classical Greek aorist tense

compared with Lojban tense, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

cliva, Dependent places

closed interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

closings

letter, Vocative scales

cmaci, fu'ivla

cmacrnintegrale, fu'ivla

cmacrntegrale, fu'ivla

cmalu, Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

cmalu bo nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, Complex tanru grouping

cmalu nixli ckule, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

cmalu valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cmaro'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmaro'i dargu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmavo, Variant bridi structure, Syllabication And Stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

compound, cmavo

contrasted with rafsi in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, lujvo

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, cmavo

experimental, cmavo

for experimental use, cmavo

lack of relation of form to grammatical use, cmavo

rules for pause after Cy-form, Rules for inserting pauses

simple, cmavo

stress on, Syllabication And Stress, cmavo

structure of, cmavo

cmavo and gismu

major, gismu

cmavo as selbri

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

cmavo be zo do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

cmavo form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmavo without rafsi

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

cmene, cmene

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

and analyzability of speech stream, cmene

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

authority for, cmene

avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, cmene

consonant clusters permitted in, cmene

definition, cmene

examples of, cmene

final letter in, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

proscribed syllables in, cmene

purpose of, cmene

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

rules for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

stress in, cmene

unusual stress in, cmene

cmene form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmima, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation

co'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

as selbri place-holder, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

rationale for word form, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'e-series pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'i, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'o, Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

co'o la xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'o le xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

cobra

example, fu'ivla

coffee mixed with tea

example, More about non-logical connectives

coffee or tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

coi, Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases

coi doi djan., Vocative scales

COI selma'o, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Relative clauses in vocative phrases, Vocative scales

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

effect on referent of "do", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

effect on referent of "mi", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ordering multiple with mi'e, Vocative scales

coico'o, Vocative scales

coin heads

example, Special mekso selbri

coinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Coleoptera, Dependent places

color standards, Notes on gismu place structures

comma

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

effect on relative clause in English, Incidental relative clauses

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

main use of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

command

contrasted with observative form, Standard bridi form: cu

commands

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

commas in numbers

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of other notation conventions, Signs and numerical punctuation

with elided digits, Signs and numerical punctuation

common abstractor, Event abstraction

commutative truth functions, The Four basic vowels

comparative lujvo

against former state, Comparatives and superlatives

and seltau presupposition, Comparatives and superlatives

potential ambiguity in, Comparatives and superlatives

standardized meanings, Comparatives and superlatives

comparatives

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

comparison

claims related to based on form, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

comparison with relative phrase

contrasted with bridi-based comparison

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

completitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

complex logical connection

grouping strategies contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex logical connectives

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex movements

expressing, Movement in space: MOhI

complex negation

examples, Scalar negation of selbri

complex numbers

expressing, Special numbers

components contrasted with mass

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

compound base

definition, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing digits in, Non-decimal and compound bases

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

compound bridi

definition, Compound bridi

logical connection of, Compound bridi

more than one sumti in common, Compound bridi

multiple with bo, Multiple compound bridi

multiple with ke…ke'e, Multiple compound bridi

one sumti in common, Compound bridi

separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

compound bridi with more than one sumti in common

with common sumti first, Compound bridi

with vau, Compound bridi

compound cmavo

compared with sequence of simple cmavo, cmavo

definition, cmavo

recognition of, cmavo

compound emotions, The space of emotions

compound letters

native language

representing as distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

compound logical connectives

components, The six types of logical connectives

naming convention, The six types of logical connectives

compound of gismu

lujvo as, brivla

compound spatial tense

as direction with-or-without distance, Compound spatial tenses

beginning with distance only, Compound spatial tenses

effect of different ordering, Compound spatial tenses

explanation of, Compound spatial tenses

with direction and distance, Compound spatial tenses

compound subscript, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

compound temporal tense

beginning with distance only, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compound tense

compared with multiple tenses in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Compound spatial tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, Compound spatial tenses

compound tense ordering

Lojban contrasted with English, Compound spatial tenses

computer interaction, No more to say: FAhO

concept abstraction, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractor, Minor abstraction types

concrete terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

condescension

example, Attitudinal modifiers

confusion

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

confusion about what was said, Miscellaneous indicators

conjunctions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

connected tenses

negation of compared with negation in connective, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

connecting operands

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting operators

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection

non-distributed, Non-logical connectives

of sumti

selma'o catalog,

simultaneously modal and logical, Mixed modal connection

connection of operands

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

precedence over operator, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection of operators

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connective answers

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connective question answers

contrasted with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

connective question cmavo

departure from regularity of, Truth questions and connective questions

connective questions

answering, Truth questions and connective questions

compared with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

table by constructs connected, Constructs and appropriate connectives

consonant

definition, Consonant Clusters

effect on syllable count, Consonant Clusters

consonant clusters

buffering of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

definition of, Consonant Clusters

more than three consonants in, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant pairs

in brivla, brivla

initial, Initial Consonant Pairs

letter y within, brivla

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

consonant triples, Initial Consonant Pairs

restrictions on, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant-final words

necessity for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

consonants

contrasted with vowels, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final, Consonant Clusters

position of, Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

syllabic, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

voiced/unvoiced equivalents, Consonant Clusters

voicing of, Consonant Clusters

continents

gismu for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

continues

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuous

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

contradictory negation

using naku before selbri, Using naku outside a prenex

contradictory negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

contradictory negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

contributors to this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

conversion

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

definition, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on BAI, Modal tags: BAI

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

modal, Modal conversion: JAI

of BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

of operator places, Miscellany

scope of, Conversion: SE

swapping non-first places, Conversion: SE

swapping with modal place, Modal conversion: JAI

conversion and tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion into sumti from mekso, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of operand into operator, Miscellany

conversion of operator into operand, Miscellany

conversion of operator into selbri, Other uses of mekso

conversion of selbri into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of selbri into operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sentence with quantified variables

technique, Using naku outside a prenex

conversion of sumti into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

conversion with ke, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion with se

effect of naku negation boundary on, Using naku outside a prenex

converted selbri

as different selbri from unconverted, Conversion: SE

as resetting standard order, Conversion: SE

compared with selbri with FA in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted with other similar selbri, Conversion: SE

contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, Conversion: SE

definition, Conversion: SE

forming with SE, Conversion: SE

in descriptions, Conversion: SE

place structure of, Conversion: SE

retention of basic meaning in, Conversion: SE

to access non-first place in description, Conversion: SE

cpina rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

creative understanding, Why have lujvo?

credits for pictures, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

cribe, The three basic description types

cribe rectu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

crisa citsi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

critu lunra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cross product

with tenses, Sub-events

cross-dependency, Dependent places

cross-product

contrasted with and, More about non-logical connectives

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

ctcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ctigau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

ctile jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cu, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions

as selbri separator, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of selbri-first bridi on, Tagging places: FA

effect of tense specification, Introductory

effect on elidability of ku, The three basic description types

effect on elidable terminators, Standard bridi form: cu

necessity of, Standard bridi form: cu

need for

quick-tour version, Description sumti

omission of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

use of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

usefulness of, Standard bridi form: cu

cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers

combining with other tense cmavo, Tense questions: cu'e

cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions

cu'o, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

cu'u, cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

cukta barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cukta vasru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cultural knowledge

example, Evidentials

cultural words

rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

culturally dependent lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

cunso, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cup's friend

example, Relative phrases

curious, Predication/sentence abstraction

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

curnu jalra, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

cutci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

cuxna, Non-logical connectives

cy, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Cy-form cmavo

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

cy., cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

cycles, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Cyrillic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da, Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with zo'e, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da poi, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi

da poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

DA selma'o, Subscripts: XI

da viska mi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da zo'u, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

default number for, Indefinite numbers

da'amei, brivla

da'amoi terbasna, Syllabication And Stress

da'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

da'i, Discursives

da'inai, Discursives

da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions

for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

syntax of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

da'u, Pro-sumti summary

da-series

after third, Subscripts: XI

da-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadysli junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dai, cmene, Lojban names, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

dakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

dalmikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daxivo, Subscripts: XI

de, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

de'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

de'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

de'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

de'u, Pro-sumti summary

decimal point

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of different notations, Signs and numerical punctuation

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

decti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

deduction

example, Evidentials

default operator precedence

contrasted with mekso goal, Simple infix expressions and equations

deference

example, Attitudinal modifiers

definable pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

sequences of lerfu words as, Pro-sumti summary

definite numbers

combined with indefinite, Indefinite numbers

dei, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

dejni, Multiple compound bridi

dekto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

delno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

demonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

demonstrative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

DeMorgan's Law

and bridi-tail logical connection, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and internal naku negations, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and logically connected sentences, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

sample applications, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci genja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci pesxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denpa, The universal bu

denpa bu, The universal bu

denpabu, The universal bu

denPAbu, The universal bu

dereferencing a pointer

with la'e, sumti qualifiers

derivational morphology

definition, Introductory

derogatory terms, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

descriptions

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

as based on first place of following selbri, Conversion: SE

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

components of, The three basic description types

importance of selbri first place in, The three basic description types

non-specific, The three basic description types

quick-tour version, Description sumti

specific, The three basic description types

types of, The three basic description types

use of SE in, Conversion: SE

descriptions with lo

teddy bear contrasted with real bear, The three basic description types

descriptor

as part of description, The three basic description types

descriptors

implicit quantifiers for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

purpose of, The three basic description types

Devanagari

example, Alien alphabets

dexivo, Subscripts: XI

di, cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

di'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

di'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives

effect of tu'e/tu'u on, More about non-logical connectives

di'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with la'edi'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with ta, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

diacritic marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

diacritical marks

as lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

considered as forming distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

order of specification within tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem of position, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem with multiple on one lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

specifying with tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

dictionary

superior authority of, Disclaimers

die after living

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

digit questions, Number questions

digit string

definition of, Other uses of mekso

digits

cmavo for, Lojban numbers

names from, Miscellany

rafsi for, Miscellany

rationale for having 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

digits beyond 9

word pattern, Non-decimal and compound bases

dikca tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dimension

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

dimensionality

of walking, Dimensionality: VIhA

order with size in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensionality of interval

as subjective, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensioned numbers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

dinju, fu'ivla

diphthongs

classification of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

contrasted with vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

English analogues of, English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

IPA for, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

list of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

specific to cmene, cmene

specific to names, cmene

direct address, Vocative scales

direction

following interval in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interaction with movement specification in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

reference frame for, Movement in space: MOhI

specification with FAhA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

directions

multiple with movement, Movement in space: MOhI

disambiguated instance, The meaning of lujvo

disclaimers, Disclaimers

discourse

commentary on, Discursives

expressing utterance relation to, Discursives

gesture markers, Discursives

tone of voice markers, Discursives

discrete

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

discursive indicator, Paragraphs: NIhO

discursives

as metalinguistic claims, Discursives

contrasted with attitudinals, Discursives

definition, Discursives

discourse commentary, Discursives

discourse management, Discursives

embedded, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

expressing how things are said, Discursives

knowledge, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

quick-tour version, Indicators

su'a as, Evidentials

word-level, Discursives

discursives for consecutive discourse, Discursives

contrasted, Discursives

discursives for managing discourse flow, Discursives

discuss in language

example, More about non-logical connectives

distance

order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

specification with VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

distribution of quantified sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

ditto

example, Discursives

diversified species, Notes on gismu place structures

djacu barna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu dertu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

djacu dunda, Modal sentence connection: the causals

djedi, lujvo with more than two parts.

djica, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

djine, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

djinrnintegrale, fu'ivla

djuno, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

DNA

example, Acronyms

do, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

do brode, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

do klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do nelci mi, Tenses versus modals

do'a, Discursives

do'anai, Discursives

do'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

compared with English "of", Modal tags: BAI

do'i, cmene, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

do'o, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

do'u, The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales

doctor and then rich

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

dog bites

example, Dropping the prenex

dog breathes, Restricted claims: da poi

dog house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

dog or cat

example, Truth questions and connective questions

doghouse

example, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo

dogs bite

example, Grouping of quantifiers

doi, Vocatives and commands, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, The syntax of vocative phrases, Lojban names, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

doi .io, Vocative scales

doi .ionai, Vocative scales

doi frank., Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

doi ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

DOI selma'o, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

doinai, Vocative scales

Dong

example, Ordering lujvo places.

donma'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

donri nicte, Some types of symmetrical tanru

donta'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dotco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

double negation

and naku, Using naku outside a prenex

double negatives

effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, Negation boundaries

double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

doubled consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

Doyle

example, Lojban names

dream

example, Evidentials

du, Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary

as an exception within GOhA selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

compared with me in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

contrasted with dunli, The identity predicate: du

contrasted with mintu, The identity predicate: du

derivation of, The identity predicate: du

grammar of, Simple infix expressions and equations

meaning of, The identity predicate: du

rationale for selection of selma'o for, The identity predicate: du

with complex mekso on both sides, Simple infix expressions and equations

du'e, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

du'e ratcu, Special mekso selbri

du'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

du-, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dubjavmau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

dubjavme'a, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

ducks swim

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

dunda, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

dunda gi'abo lebna, Multiple compound bridi

dunli, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

dunra nicte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

dy.bu, Alien alphabets

dzipo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

E

e, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

contrasted with pi'u, More about non-logical connectives

e'e, Attitudinal modifiers

e'o, Vocative scales

contrasted with pe'u, Vocative scales

e'u, Syllabication And Stress, Evidentials

compared with ru'a, Evidentials

Earl

example, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

eat in airplane

example, Movement in space: MOhI

eat themselves

example, Indefinite numbers

editorial commentary, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

with "sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

ei, Non-decimal and compound bases

Einsteinian

space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, Dimensionality: VIhA

ek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

eks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in sumti forethought logical connection, sumti connection

elementary schools, Dependent places

Elgin

Suzette Haden and evidentials, Evidentials

elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

elided tense

meaning of, Introductory

elimination process, Ordering lujvo places.

ellipsis

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

elliptical pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical value

contrasted with typical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

embarrassment

example, Emotional categories

embedded bridi tenses

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

emotional categories, Emotional categories

emotional indicators

noticeable effects of, Tentative conclusion

emotional scale, Attitudes as scales

emotions

compound, The space of emotions

cultural bias of expression, Tentative conclusion

insights, The space of emotions

recording using indicators, Tentative conclusion

research using indicators, Tentative conclusion

when expressed, The space of emotions

empathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

emphasis

changing by using non-standard form of bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

marking

selma'o catalog,

end of file, No more to say: FAhO

endpoints

inclusion in interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

engineering

example, Some simple Lojban bridi

English "we"

contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

English prepositions

contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

Englishman in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

enough currency

example, Indefinite numbers

enough-th

example, Special mekso selbri

equivalents to brivla, Other kinds of simple selbri

erasure

multiple word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

names, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

quotes, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

total, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

error marking

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

ete, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

event abstractions, Event abstraction

types, Types of event abstractions

event contours

achievative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as characteristic portions of events, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

as timeless in perspective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cessative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

completitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

definition, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

division of the event into, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

inchoative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

initiative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

interruption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

order with respect to TAhE and ROI, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pausative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

points associated with, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

strings of, Sub-events

superfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

syntax of, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

temporal contrasted with spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

event contours as sumti tcita

contrasted with direction and distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

event types

described, Types of event abstractions

event-relative viewpoint

contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

events

considered as a process, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

duration, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

everybody loves something

example, Negation boundaries

everyone

contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

everyone bitten by dog, Dropping the prenex

everything

expressing with "ro da", Universal claims

everything breathes

example, Restricted claims: da poi

everything loves everything

example, Universal claims

everything sees me

example, Universal claims

everything sees something

example, Universal claims

evidentials

ba'a scale, Evidentials

definition, Evidentials

grammar, Evidentials

in English, Evidentials

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

inspiration for, Evidentials

ja'o contrasted with su'a, Evidentials

ka'u contrasted with se'o, Evidentials

placement in bridi, Evidentials

quick-tour version, Indicators

rhetorical flavor, Evidentials

scales, Evidentials

se'o contrasted with ka'u, Evidentials

su'a contrasted with ja'o, Evidentials

exact number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

example of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples

structure of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples in this book, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

except from 10 to 12

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

existential

mixed claim with universal, Universal claims

existential claims

definition, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

existential variable

in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, The problem of “any”

in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, The problem of “any”

expanding "no" quantifier, Negation boundaries

experience abstraction, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractor, Minor abstraction types

experienced

example, Evidentials

experimental cmavo

definition, cmavo

forms for, cmavo

exponential notation

with base other than 10, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

exporting negation to prenex

"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, Using naku outside a prenex

internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", Using naku outside a prenex

external bridi negation

compared to internal bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

extrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

fa, Tagging places: FA

FA in selbri

compared with converted selbri in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted converted selbri with in structure, Conversion: SE

FA selma'o

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

as a reminder of place in place structure, Tagging places: FA

avoidance of complex usage of, Tagging places: FA

compared with zo'e for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure order, Tagging places: FA

effect on subsequent non-tagged places, Tagging places: FA

for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, Tagging places: FA

for putting more than one sumti in a single place, Tagging places: FA

syntax of, Tagging places: FA

FA tags and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

fa'a, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

fa'o, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

fa'u, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

compared to termsets, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, Non-logical connectives

face

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

fadni, Masses and sets

fagri, Why have lujvo?

fagri dapma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fagri festi, Why have lujvo?

fagyfesti, Why have lujvo?

FAhA selma'o, Tense negation

and direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

use in specifying space/time mapping direction, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fai, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo

as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

effect on numbering of place structure places, Modal conversion: JAI

false statement

implications of, Logical connection of bridi

fancy A

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy E

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy O

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy U

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

far away from the nearby park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

fasnu, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

fast talker

example, tanru

fast-talker shoe

example, tanru

father

example, The concept of the bridi

father mother

example, lujvo

fau, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

faxixa, Subscripts: XI

fe, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fe'a, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

fe'e, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fe'omi'e, Vocative scales

fe'u, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri

femti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

fenki litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

festi, Why have lujvo?

festi lante, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fetsygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

fewsome

example, Special mekso selbri

fi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi

fi'a, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers

effect on subsequent untagged sumti, Tagging places: FA

fi'a do, Tagging places: FA

fi'e, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'i, Vocative scales

fi'o, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals

and modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

as modal tag, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on following selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

mixed modal connection with, Mixed modal connection

proscribed for sticky modals, Sticky modals

restriction on use, Other modal connections

use in adding places to place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o constructs

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o kanla le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o modal followed by selbri

effect on eliding fe'u, Modal selbri

fi'o modals

negation of by negating selbri, Modal negation

usage in relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'o pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o pilno fe'u, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno [fe'u], Modal tags: BAI

fi'o tag

relation of modal sumti following to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri

meaning of, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o-, Other modal connections, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Mixed modal connection, Modal conversion: JAI

fi'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

Fido

example, Dropping the prenex

field rations

example, lujvo

figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

place structure, Miscellaneous indicators

figurative speech, Miscellaneous indicators

filso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

final syllable stress

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

finish

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finished

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finpe nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

finti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

first rat

example, Special mekso selbri

firstly

example, Other uses of mekso

fish eat

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

fish on right

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

flashbacks in story time

example, Story time

fleas, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

flexible vocabulary, brivla

floating point numbers

expressing, Infix operators revisited

flow of discourse

managing with discursives, Discursives

fo, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri

fo'a, Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'e, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'i, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'o, Pro-sumti summary

fo'u, Pro-sumti summary

foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

foldi smacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

folk quantifiers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

font

example, Alien alphabets

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

food

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

foreman of a jury

example, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

forethought bridi connection

as grammatically one sentence, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi connectives

contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule for tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connection

contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

observatives, Multiple compound bridi

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought connections

modal compared with tense in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connectives

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with afterthought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

with tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connectives and bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

forethought intervals

GAhO position, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

forethought logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

forethought logical connectives in tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

forethought modal sentence connection, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first bridi in, Other modal connections

relation to modal of second bridi in, Other modal connections

forethought modal sentence connection for causals

order of cause and effect, Other modal connections

forethought tanru connection, Logical connection within tanru

forethought tense connection

contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

forethought tense connection of bridi-tails

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sumti

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought termsets

logical connection of, Termset logical connection

formal requirement

example, Attitudes as scales

former market

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

former state, Comparatives and superlatives

formulae

expressing based on pure dimensions, Using Lojban resources within mekso

four "e"s

example, References to lerfu

Four score and seven

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

fourteen "e"s, What's a letteral, anyway?

fraction

meaning with elided numerator and denominator, Special numbers

fractions

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

numerator default, Signs and numerical punctuation

fragmentary text, Miscellaneous indicators

Frank is a fool

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

fraso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

free modifiers

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

friend's cup

example, Relative phrases

friko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

frinu, Miscellany

from one to two o'clock

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

fu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fu'a, Reverse Polish notation

fu'e, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

fu'ivla

algorithm for constructing, fu'ivla

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as Stage 3 borrowings, fu'ivla

as Stage 4 borrowings, fu'ivla

categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, fu'ivla

considerations for choosing basis word, fu'ivla

consonant clusters in, fu'ivla

construction of, fu'ivla

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, fu'ivla

disambiguation of, fu'ivla

form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

form of, fu'ivla

initial consonant cluster in, fu'ivla

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rules for formation of, fu'ivla

stress in, fu'ivla

uniqueness of meaning in, fu'ivla

use of, fu'ivla

with invalid diphthongs, fu'ivla

fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

for distinguishing fu'ivla form, fu'ivla

for distinguishing specialized meanings, fu'ivla

selection consideration for, fu'ivla

fu'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fukpi valsi, fu'ivla

fully reduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

function f of x

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

function name

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

future event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

futureward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, Truth-value abstraction: jei

fy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

fy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany

fy. le'u si si si, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GA selma'o, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ga'e, Upper and lower cases

ga'e .abu, Upper and lower cases

ga'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gadri, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti

GAhO position in forethought intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

GAhO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

galfi, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

galtu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

ganai, Forethought bridi connection

ganlo, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gapru, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures

gasnu lo citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

gau, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ge, lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

ge ... gi, Modal selbri

ge'a, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

ge'a gei, Reverse Polish notation

ge'e, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators

ge'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

ge'o, Alien alphabets

ge'u, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases

effect of following logical connective on elidability, Relative phrases

elidability of from relative phrases, Relative phrases

ge'u-zdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'urzdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'uzda, lujvo-making examples

gei, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

as a binary operator, Infix operators revisited

as a ternary operator, Infix operators revisited

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

gek

definition, Forethought bridi connection

gek bridi connectives

contrasted with ijeks, Forethought bridi connection

gekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

geks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in forethought sumti connection, sumti connection

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

General American, IPA For English Speakers

general sumti

contrasted with operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

general terms, Notes on gismu place structures

gento, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

gerku, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo

gerku bo kavbu, Complex tanru grouping

gerku zdani, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo

gerkyzda, lujvo-making examples

gerkyzdani, lujvo-making examples

German rich man

example, Grouping of afterthought connectives

gerselzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

gerzda, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

gerzdani, lujvo-making examples

Gettysburg Address

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

gi, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GI selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

gi'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'e, Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'i, Questions and answers

gi'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gicmu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

gigdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

GIhA selma'o, Compound bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

gihek

definition, Compound bridi

giheks

syntax of, Compound bridi

gik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Forethought bridi connection

giks

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

girls' school

little

example, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

girzu, lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

gismu, The concept of the bridi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

algorithm for, lujvo-making examples

and cmavo

major, gismu

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as partitioning semantic space, gismu

basic rafsi for, rafsi

coined, The gismu creation algorithm

conflicts between, gismu

creation

and transcription blunders, The gismu creation algorithm

considerations for selection after scoring, The gismu creation algorithm

proscribed gismu pairs, The gismu creation algorithm

scoring rules, The gismu creation algorithm

cultural, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

definition, gismu

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

ethnic, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

examples of, gismu

exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, The gismu creation algorithm

for countries, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for Lojban source languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

geographical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

length of, gismu

level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, rafsi

Lojban-specific, The gismu creation algorithm

place order

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

place structures, Notes on gismu place structures

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for choice of, gismu

religious, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rules for, gismu

scientific-mathematical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

selection of, gismu

source of, gismu

source-language weights for, The gismu creation algorithm

special, gismu

too-similar, The gismu creation algorithm

gisnu, gismu

give

example, The concept of the bridi

give or receive

example, Tagging places: FA

giving the horse

example, Property abstractions

gizmu, gismu

gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

glico, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

glottal stop

as pause in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

glue in lujvo

n-hyphen as, lujvo

r-hyphen as, lujvo

y-hyphen as, lujvo

go, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to market

example, Introductory

go to Paris or Rome

example, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

go to the store

example, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

go'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'a-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i, Examples of brivla, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations

as affirmative answer to yes/no question, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with mo in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

contrasted with mi'u, Discursives

go'i cei broda, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i ra'o

contrasted with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i with xu

quick-tour version, Questions

go'i-series pro-bridi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

as main-bridi anaphora only, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

assigning for permanent reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sub-clauses on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sumti of referent bridi on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

referent of, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'ixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'u, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

goal of this book, What is this book?

gocti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

goer table

example, Simple tanru

goer-house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

GOhA selma'o, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as component in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

as selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri

goi, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, Relative phrases

use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use in assigning name, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti

use in speech contrasted with writing, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi for ko'a-series assignment

compared with cei for broda-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

good house

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

gotro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

grammatical categories

use of upper case for, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

grammatical terms

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

grana mudri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grasp water

example, Other modal connections

great soldier

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

Greek alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Greek-Americans own restaurants, Descriptors for typical objects

gripau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

grouping

of connection in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

of connection in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

grouping parentheses, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

grutrceraso, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grutrceraso jbama, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

gu, cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'e, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

gu'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gugde ciste, Some types of symmetrical tanru

GUhA selma'o, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

guhek

definition, Logical connection within tanru

guheks

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

guheks for tanru connection

rationale, Logical connection within tanru

gy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

gy., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

H

had earlier

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

hands in pockets

example, Relative phrases

handwriting

example, Alien alphabets

han^{4}zi^{4}, What about Chinese characters?

happiness

example, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

happy face

example, The universal bu

has a heart

example, Property abstractions

have never

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

having

of properties, Property abstractions

healthy

example, Questions

hearsay

example, Evidentials

heartburn

example, Miscellaneous indicators

Hebrew alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Helvetica font

example, Alien alphabets

hepatitis

example, rafsi

hereafter known as

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

hesitation sound, Hesitation: Y

hexadecimal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, The lujvo scoring algorithm

hiragana

contrasted with kanji, What about Chinese characters?

example, Alien alphabets

hit cousin

example, Discursives

hit nose

example, Discursives

hits

example, The concept of the bridi

Hollywood

example, Descriptors for typical objects

hospitality

example, Vocative scales

hours

minutes

seconds: example, Non-decimal and compound bases

huh?

example, Miscellaneous indicators

hundred

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

husband and wife

example, Evidentials

hyphen letter

definition, rafsi

hyphens

use of, rafsi

hyphens in lujvo

proscribed where not required, The lujvo-making algorithm

hypothetical world, Propositional attitude indicators

contrasted with real world

example, Discursives

hypothetical world point of view, Discursives

I

i, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball Orthographies, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

regarding forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection

I selma'o, Logical connection of bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

i'a, Pure emotion indicators

i'e, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators

IBM

example, Acronyms

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

ice'o

contrasted with .ibabo, More about non-logical connectives

idea abstraction, Minor abstraction types

idea abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

identity

expressing with po'u, Relative phrases

identity predicate, The identity predicate: du

if

English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, Logical connection of bridi

expressing hypothetical world, Discursives

expressing real world, Discursives

meaning in logical connections, Logical connection of bridi

if coffee

bring tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

if … then

compared with only if, Logical connection of bridi

logical connectives contrasted with other translations, Forethought bridi connection

ijek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

ijek bridi connectives

contrasted with geks, Forethought bridi connection

ijek logical connectives

connecting bridi, Logical connection of bridi

ijeks

syntax of, Logical connection of bridi

ijoik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, More about non-logical connectives

imaginary journey

and spatial tense, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

ending point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sentence connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sumti connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin of in tense-connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

stages of in compound tenses, Compound spatial tenses

starting at a different point, Tenses as sumti tcita

starting point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita

with interval direction, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

imaginary journey origin

with sticky tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

imperatives

and truth, Truth questions and connective questions

attitude, Attitudinal modifiers

English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implausible, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

implicit quantifier

for quotations, Quantified sumti

on quotations

discussion of, Quantified sumti

importance of point

scale with ra'u, Discursives

in the aftermath

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

inalienable

distinguishing from alienable, Relative phrases

inalienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

inchoative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

incidental association

expressing with ne, Relative phrases

incidental identification

expressing with no'u, Relative phrases

incidental relative clause

as a parenthetical device, Incidental relative clauses

definition, Incidental relative clauses

inclusion

property of sets, Masses and sets

indefinite description

as needing explicit outer quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

compared with restricted variable, Variables with generalized quantifiers

definition, Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers

indefinite numbers

combined with definite, Indefinite numbers

indefinite portions

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indefinite pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite sumti

as implicit quantification, Using naku outside a prenex

compared to sumti with lo, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

indefinite values

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indicator scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

evolutionary development of, Tentative conclusion

grammar for compounding, Compound indicators

meaning when compounded, Compound indicators

placement of, Propositional attitude indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

ramifications, Tentative conclusion

rationale for selection, Tentative conclusion

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

types of, What are attitudinal indicators?

indirect question, Miscellaneous indicators

indirect question involving sumti, Indirect questions

indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

indirect questions without "kau", Indirect questions

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

individual

example, Special mekso selbri

individual descriptors

different implicit outer quantifiers among, Quantified descriptions

individual objects

multiple, Individuals and masses

individuals

expressing relation with mass formed, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set formed, Special mekso selbri

individuals into mass

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals into set

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals of set

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

indivisible, Types of event abstractions

induction

example, Evidentials

inexact numbers with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

inexact portions with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

infant ducks

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inferior

example, Attitudinal modifiers

infinity

example, Special numbers

infix notation mixed with Polish, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

inflammable

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

initial consonant pairs

list of, Initial Consonant Pairs

initiative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

innate capabilities

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate capability

expressing explicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate properties

extension of from mass to individuals, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

extension to individuals not actually capable, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inner product, Vectors and matrices

inner quantifier

contrasted with outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

explicit, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

inner sumti

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

integral

architectural concept

example, fu'ivla

mathematical concept

example, fu'ivla

integrale, fu'ivla

interactions between quantifiers and negation

effect, Negation boundaries

interjections

quick-tour version, Indicators

intermediate abstraction, Lojban sumti raising

intermittently

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

internal bridi negation

compared to external bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

internal naku negations

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

internal world, Propositional attitude indicators

International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), Basic Phonetics

intersect, Minor abstraction types

intersection

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

intersection of sets

compared with and, More about non-logical connectives

interval

closed, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

followed by direction in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

inclusion of endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

open, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with direction and distance in tense, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval continuousness

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

interval direction

specifying, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval properties

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

strings of, Sub-events

interval size

as context-dependent, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

unspecified, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

vague, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

interval spread

expressing English "intermittently", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

mutually contrasted, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negation with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

with unspecified interval, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intervals

effect of nai on, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as center and distance, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressing by endpoints with bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

forethought, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

spread of actions over, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing by using place in some selbri, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

introduce oneself, Vocative scales

invalid diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

invalid speech

marking as error with na'i, Miscellaneous indicators

inversion of quantifiers

definition, Negation boundaries

in moving negation boundary, Negation boundaries

inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary

rationale for, Negation boundaries

invertebrate, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

inverted tanru

effect on sumti after the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on sumti before the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

inverting quantifiers

with movement relative to fixed negation, Using naku outside a prenex

with movement relative to naku, Using naku outside a prenex

IPA, Basic Phonetics

IPA pronunciation

description, IPA For English Speakers

irony

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

irrational number

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

irrelevant

specifying of sumti place, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

isomorphism

audio-visual, Orthography

IT

as notation convention in relative clause chapter, What are you pointing at?

italic

example, Alien alphabets

iy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

J

j-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

ja, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

JA selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

ja'a, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

ja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ja'o, Evidentials

jai, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

for modal conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

jai with tense

as equivalent of SE in grammar, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

jai without modal

meaning, Modal conversion: JAI

jalra curnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

James

example, Consonant Clusters

jamfu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jane

example, cmene

Japanese hiragana

example, Alien alphabets

Japanese katakana

example, Alien alphabets

jargon

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

jdari bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jdaselsku, Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo

jdika, Comparatives and superlatives

je, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

je'a, Affirmations

je'e, Vocative scales

contrasted with vi'o, Vocative scales

je'enai, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

je'i, Questions and answers

je'o, Alien alphabets

je'u, Discursives

je'unai, Discursives

jegvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei

jek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

jeks

connecting abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

jelca, Miscellaneous indicators

jenai, Tense questions: cu'e

jerxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Jesus, Minor abstraction types

example, Minor abstraction types

jgalu grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ji, Questions and answers

ji'a, Discursives

ji'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

effect of placement, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

ji'u, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'uku, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'una'iku, Metalinguistic negation forms

jibni, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Jim

example, cmene

jinvi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

jipci gunse, Some types of symmetrical tanru

jipci pimlu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jipci sovda, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jitro, Anomalous lujvo

jmive munje, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jo, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

jo'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

jo'e, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

jo'i, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso

precedence of, Vectors and matrices

jo'o, Alien alphabets

jo'u, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce'o, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with joi, Non-logical connectives

result of connection with, Non-logical connectives

John and Sam

example, The concept of the bridi

John Brown

example, cmene

John is coming

example, What are attitudinal indicators?

John Paul Jones

example, Lojban names

John says that George goes to market

example, Tenses in subordinate bridi

joi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu

joi grammar

contrasted with eks, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with jeks, Non-logical connectives

JOI selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

joibu, The universal bu

joigik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joigiks

connection types, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Non-logical connectives

joiks

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

use of "se" in, Non-logical connectives

jokes, What is this book?

jordo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ju, Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

ju'a, Evidentials

ju'apei, Evidentials

ju'i .djan., Vocative scales

ju'i lobypli, Vocative scales

ju'o, Discursives

ju'u, Non-decimal and compound bases

grammar of, Non-decimal and compound bases

jubme tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jundi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

jungo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

junla dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jupiter life

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

juror 5

example, Possessive sumti

jy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

K

ka, cmene, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo

ka'a, Modal tags: BAI

ka'e, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ka'o, Special numbers

as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, Special numbers

ka'u, Evidentials

kabri palta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

kadno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kai, Metalinguistic negation forms

kalri, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

kalselvi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kalselvi'i gapci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kambla, Abstract lujvo

kanji, What about Chinese characters?

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on romaji spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

kanla denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanro, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

karce, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce klama, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce xislu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

karcykla, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karda mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

katakana

example, Alien alphabets

Kate

example, cmene

Katrina

example, cmene

kau, Indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

ke, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for conversion of tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

for expanding scope of scalar negation, Scalar negation of selbri

ke in sumti grouping

where allowed, Grouping of afterthought connectives

ke'a, Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ambiguity when omitted, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

and abstract descriptions, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

as referent for relativized sumti, What are you pointing at?

contrasted with ri in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

effect of omission of, What are you pointing at?

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

non-initial place use in relative clause, What are you pointing at?

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

subscripting for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ke'a with subscript

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'axipa, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I

ke'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ke'o, Vocative scales

compared to ki'a, Vocative scales

ke'u, Discursives

contrasted with va'i, Discursives

ke'unai, Discursives

kei, Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo

KEI selma'o

eliding, The syntax of abstraction

kelvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kensa bloti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kept on too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

kerfa silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ketco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ki, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o

with no tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

ki ku, Sticky modals

ki'a, cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms

compared to ke'o, Vocative scales

ki'o, Signs and numerical punctuation

ki'u, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection

killing Jim, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

kilto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kismu, gismu

kissing Jane

example, Event abstraction

kisto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kixipa, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

klama, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI

place structure of, Introductory

klama le zarci, Modal selbri, Compound bridi

klama zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

klamau, Comparatives and superlatives

klesi, lujvo-making examples

kliti cipni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

know

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

know who

contrasted with know that, Indirect questions

example, Indirect questions

knowledge discursives, Discursives

compared with propositional attitudes, Discursives

ko, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions

in later selbri place in imperative, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

in sub-clause of main bridi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for commands, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for imperatives, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ko'a, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'a goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series

after tenth, Subscripts: XI

ko'a-series for pro-sumti

compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

as assignable, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assignment with goi as symmetrical, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'e, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'i, Pro-sumti summary

ko'o, Pro-sumti summary

ko'u, Pro-sumti summary

kobra, fu'ivla

kolme terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Korean

example, fu'ivla

kosta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

krasi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

krecau, selbri and tanru negation

krici, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

krinu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

ktraile, fu'ivla

ku, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

as elidable terminator for descriptions, The three basic description types

effect of following selbri on elidability of, The three basic description types

effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect on of omitting descriptor, Indefinite descriptions

quick-tour version, Description sumti

uses of, The three basic description types

with tense, Introductory

KU selma'o

quick-tour version, Description sumti

ku'a, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

ku'a'e, cmavo

ku'e, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ku'i, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions

ku'o, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi

effect of vau on elidability, Possessive sumti

elidability for relative clauses, What are you pointing at?

kuarka, fu'ivla

kuldi'u, Dependent places

kurji, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

ky, Syllabication And Stress, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

ky. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky.bu, Alien alphabets

Kzinti

communication with, Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen

use of, fu'ivla

la, Words that can act as sumti, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Acronyms, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

compared with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lai in implications, Individuals and masses

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, The three basic description types

la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la .apasionatas, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .apasionatas., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .atlantas., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA

la alis., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la bastn., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

la betis., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la ckiipyris., Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la cribe, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses

la djan., Words that can act as sumti, Indirect questions, Pure emotion indicators, Multiple compound bridi, Other uses of mekso

la djan. nanmu, Logical connection of bridi

la djeimyz. ninmu, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection

la djein., sumti qualifiers

la djordj, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la djordj., Explicit magnitudes, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la frank. .e la djordj., Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la lojban., The five kinds of simple sumti, Modal conversion: JAI

la me zoi, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la meiris., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la meris., Words that can act as sumti

la nu,IORK., Tagging places: FA

la pacac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la plas., cmene

la recac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la rik., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

LA selma'o, Conversion: SE

contrasted with LE in use of name-words, Lojban names

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

la tcarlis., Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

la'e, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le selsinxa bele selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

la'e di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'e lu

compared with me'o, References to lerfu

la'edi'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'i, Rules for inserting pauses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as set counterpart of lai, Masses and sets

la'o, fu'ivla, cmene, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

interaction with bu, The universal bu

la'u, Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms

la-series descriptors

compared with le-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

Láadan evidentials, Evidentials

labmau, rafsi

ladru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru botpi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Lady

example, cmene

LAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lai, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as mass counterpart of lai, Individuals and masses

contrasted with la in implications, Individuals and masses

lambda calculus

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lange'u, Anomalous lujvo

language shift

based on name + bu, Alien alphabets

choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, Alien alphabets

compound, Alien alphabets

effect on following words, Alien alphabets

formation of shift alphabet name, Alien alphabets

interaction with bu, Alien alphabets

rationale for, Alien alphabets

standardization of, Alien alphabets

languages

abbreviations for, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lanme, Anomalous lujvo

lanme gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lantro, Anomalous lujvo

lanzu tumla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Laplace

example, cmene

large meal

example, Attitudinal modifiers

large-base decimal fraction

expressing, Non-decimal and compound bases

latent component, Anomalous lujvo

Latin

alphabet of Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Latin alphabet, Orthography

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

latmo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lau, Punctuation marks

effect on following lerfu word, Punctuation marks

LAU selma'o

grammar of following BY cmavo, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

le, Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

and specificity, The three basic description types

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

compared with English the, The three basic description types

compared with la in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with lo in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in truth requirement, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

in false-to-fact descriptions, The three basic description types

meaning of in the plural, Individuals and masses

le bersa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le berti, Modal tags: BAI

le bi'u nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le bi'unai nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le blanu zdan., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le blanu zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le briju, Termset logical connection

le ci cribe, sumti-based descriptions

le ci nanmu, Quantified descriptions

le cribe, Acronyms

le ctuca, Miscellaneous indicators

le cukta, Other modal connections, Multiple compound bridi

le dargu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

le gerku, Quantified descriptions, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of lujvo

le gerku poi blabi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

le go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

le jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei

le karce, Incidental relative clauses, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le karce po mi, Possessive sumti

le li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

le mi karce, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti

le mi pendo, Relative phrases

le mlatu cu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le mlatu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nanmu, The three basic description types, Miscellaneous indicators, Grouping of quantifiers

le nanmu joi, Non-logical connectives

le ni, Amount abstractions

le ni ... kei be, Amount abstractions

le ninmu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le ninmu cu morsi, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nu, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tense relations between sentences, Tenses versus modals, Event abstraction, Property abstractions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

definition, Event abstraction

le pluta, Conversion: SE

le re do, sumti-based descriptions

le remna, The three basic description types

le ri kumfa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

le se du'u ..., Predication/sentence abstraction

le se go'i ku, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

le se nelci, Event abstraction

le selbri [ku], Varying the order of sumti

LE selma'o, Conversion: SE, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

contrasted with LA in use of name-words, Lojban names

le selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le si'o mi go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le si'o mi klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le sutra tavla, Description sumti

le sutra tavla ku, Description sumti

le sutra te tavla ku, Description sumti

le tavla ku, Description sumti

le tcidu, The five kinds of simple sumti

le te jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le tricu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le ve jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le ve klama, Conversion: SE

le ve klama be fo da, Conversion: SE

le vecnu, Description sumti

le verba, Tense relations between sentences

le vi rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le xekri mlatu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le xunre cmaxirma, sumti qualifiers

le zarci, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, selbri and tanru negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers

le zdani, Inversion of tanru: co, The meaning of lujvo

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau, Tagging places: FA

le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

le'a, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

le'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to le'i, Descriptors for typical objects

le'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

le'i, Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

as set counterpart of lei, Masses and sets

relationship to le'e, Descriptors for typical objects

le'o, Attitudinal modifiers

le'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

le-series cmavo

as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

le-series descriptors

compared with la-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

learning Lojban

magnitude of task, gismu

lebna, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

left-grouping rule

definition of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

legal jargon

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

legal system, Truth-value abstraction: jei

lei, cmene, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with loi in specificity, Individuals and masses

lei cinfo, Individuals and masses

lemon tree

example, Simple tanru

Length * Width * Depth = Volume

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

Lepidoptera

example, tanru

lerfu, fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?

as assignable pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu word, What's a letteral, anyway?

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

reference to, References to lerfu

referring to with me'o, References to lerfu

lerfu as pro-sumti

contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

explicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

implicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu juxtaposition interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu shift scope

exception for mathematical texts, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu string

as function name, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as mathematical variable, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti

assumption of reference, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as pro-sumti assigned by goi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifier, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as selbri, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as subscript, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as utterance ordinal, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

definition, lerfu words as pro-sumti

interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu strings

as acronyms using "me", Acronyms

as pro-sumti

for multiple sumti separated by boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifiers

avoiding interaction with sumti quantified, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

in mathematical expressions, Simple infix expressions and equations

interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, Simple infix expressions and equations

uses in mathematics, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

with numerical selbri, Special mekso selbri

lerfu valsi, What's a letteral, anyway?

lerfu word

contrasted with lerfu, What's a letteral, anyway?

for "'", A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu word cmavo

list of auxiliary, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

lerfu word set extension

with bu, The universal bu

lerfu words

as a basis for acronym names, Acronyms

composed of compound cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

composed of single cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

consonant words contrasted with vowel words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

effect of systematic formulation, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for consonants, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for vowels, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

formation rules, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

list of proposed

notation convention, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Lojban coverage requirement, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

proposed for accent marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

proposed for diacritic marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for noisy environments, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

proposed for radio communication, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

table of Lojban, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

using computer encoding schemes with se'e, Computerized character codes

vowel words contrasted with consonant words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words ending with "y"

pause after

rationale, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words for vowels

pause requirement before, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words with numeric digits

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

lervla, What's a letteral, anyway?

less than

contrasted with more than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

less than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

letter

alphabet, What's a letteral, anyway?

contrasted with word for the letter, What's a letteral, anyway?

letter encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

letteral

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

letters

non-Lojban

representation of diacritical marks on, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

representation with consonant-word + bu, Alien alphabets

representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, Alien alphabets

representation with language-shift, Alien alphabets

representation with names, Alien alphabets

sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, Alien alphabets

symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, Alien alphabets

li, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

as converter of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

contrasted with me'o, Other uses of mekso

relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

terminator for, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

li ci, The five kinds of simple sumti

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mi, Quotation summary

li mu su'i li pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mu su'i pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li ro, Indefinite numbers

LI selma'o, Number summary

li'i, Minor abstraction types

li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

li'osa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

libjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lijda, Anomalous lujvo

lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

likes more than

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

likygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

likyri'a, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lined up, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

linguistic behavior, Predication/sentence abstraction

linguistic drift, What is this book?

linguistic drift in Lojban

possible source of, Considerations for making lujvo

linji zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

linked arguments, Questions and answers

linked sumti

definition, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

in tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and FA tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Linnaean names

rules for, cmene

lion in Africa

example, Descriptors for typical objects

lions in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

list

as a physical object, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with sequence, Non-logical connectives

example, Non-logical connectives

list of things to do

example, More about non-logical connectives

liste, Non-logical connectives

listen attentively

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lists

use of tu'e/tu'u in, More about non-logical connectives

literally, Miscellaneous indicators

litki, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

litru, Dependent places

livgyterbilma, rafsi

living things

example, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Livingston

example, Evidentials

LLG, Acknowledgements and Credits

lo, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in truth requirement, The three basic description types

contrasted with loi and lo'i, Masses and sets

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

lo cribe, Acronyms

lo forca, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo gerku zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

lo klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo liste, Non-logical connectives

lo mitre be li mu, Explicit magnitudes

lo porsi, Non-logical connectives

lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lo prenu noi blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

lo rinka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lo rupnu, Multiple compound bridi

lo se klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo smuci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo xe klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo zarci, The three basic description types

lo zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with na'a, Alien alphabets

lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to lo'i, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri

as set counterpart of loi, Masses and sets

contrasted with lo and loi, Masses and sets

relationship to lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects

with elided quantifiers, Special mekso selbri

lo'i cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i lei, lujvo-making examples

lo'i ratcu, Special mekso selbri

lo'ikle, lujvo-making examples

lo'irlei, lujvo-making examples

lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect of logical connective on elidability of, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

lo'u, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

lo'u ... le'u, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, No more to say: FAhO

lo-series cmavo

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

lo-series description

caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, Quantified descriptions

logic

and attitudinals, What's wrong with this picture?

limits of, What's wrong with this picture?

resolving ambiguities of "nobody", What's wrong with this picture?

logic and Lojban

more aspects, Conclusion

logical connection

effect on elidability of lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in abstractions

inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

contrasted with unconnected version, Logical connection within tanru

expandability of, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with bo, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with ke, Logical connection within tanru

inside abstractions

contrasted with outside, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

interaction with tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, Logical connection within tanru

of bridi-tails

forethought, Multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

of forethought termsets, Termset logical connection

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of more than 2 sentences

all or none, More than two propositions

forethought, More than two propositions

things to avoid, More than two propositions

of observatives

relation of first places, Compound bridi

of selbri, Compound bridi

of sumti

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

restriction on ke, Grouping of afterthought connectives

of tanru

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, Logical connection within tanru

termsets, Termset logical connection

transformation between forms, sumti connection

with bo

precedence, Grouping of afterthought connectives

logical connection of abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

logical connection of more than 2 sentences

mixed "and" and "or", More than two propositions

logical connectives, Logical connection and truth tables

associative, More than two propositions

bridi-tail connection, Compound bridi

cmavo

format for each selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, Relative phrases

equivalence relation on 3 sentences, More than two propositions

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, Forethought bridi connection

non-associative, More than two propositions

observative sentence connection, Compound bridi

pairing from left, More than two propositions

rationale for multiple sets in grammar, The six types of logical connectives

recipes

simplified for logic chapter discussion, bridi negation and logical connectives

relation to truth functions, The Four basic vowels

relative precedence with me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

right-grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

selma'o

enumerated, The six types of logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

table by truth function value, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tensed, Tensed logical connectives

logical connectives and bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives and negation

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

ambiguity of, Logical connection within tanru

effect on formal logical manipulations, Logical connection within tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

usefulness of, Logical connection within tanru

logical connectives within negation

effects of expansion on, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logical language

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

Logical Language Group

example, lujvo-making examples

relation to Lojban, What is Lojban?

logical variables

creating more by subscripting, A few notes on variables

effect of global substitution, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

effect of order in prenex, Universal claims

effect of using multiple different, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

explicitly placing in outer prenex, The problem of “any”

for selbri, selbri variables

implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, The problem of “any”

notation convention, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

when not in main bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with multiple appearances in bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with poi

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

with ro

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

logically connected sentences

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logically connected tenses

definition, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

expansion to sentences, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

logji, Lojban names

logji bangu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

logji bangu girzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangri, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygri, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugir, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugri, lujvo-making examples

Loglan, Informal Bibliography

logograms

words for, The universal bu

loi, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

as mass counterpart of lo, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lei in specificity, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lo and lo'i, Masses and sets

loi cinfo, Individuals and masses

loi jdini, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Lojban

features of, What is Lojban?

history of, What is Lojban?

stability of, What is this book?

Lojban alphabet, Orthography

Lojban letters

IPA for pronouncing, Basic Phonetics

list with IPA pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

lojban., brivla

lojbangir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangri, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygri, lujvo-making examples

Lojbanistan, What is this book?

lojbaugir, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugri, lujvo-making examples

lojbo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

long ago and far away

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

long rafsi

definition, rafsi

long rafsi form

compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

long-sword

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

loose association

expressing with pe, Relative phrases

Lord

example, cmene

lotkle, lujvo-making examples

lotlei, lujvo-making examples

Lottie

example, Lojban names

love more

example, Property abstractions

lower case letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

lower-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

lower-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

lower-case word

effect on following lerfu words, Upper and lower cases

lu, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

lu do cadzu le bisli li'u, Quantified sumti

lu e'osai li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti

lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lu'a, Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e, sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le sinxa bele sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

lu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'u, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising

as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

lubno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lujvo, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

abbreviated, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

abstract, Abstract lujvo

algorithm for, The lujvo-making algorithm

and consonant pairs, rafsi

and plausibility, Considerations for making lujvo

and seltau/tertau relationship, The meaning of lujvo

and the listener, Considerations for making lujvo

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as suppliers of agent place, Notes on gismu place structures

asymmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

based on multiple tanru, Considerations for making lujvo

cmavo incorporation, Why have lujvo?

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

compared with tanru, Why have lujvo?

consideration in choosing meaning for, Considerations for making lujvo

considerations for retaining elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

construction of, lujvo

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

design consideration for relationship, The meaning of lujvo

dropping elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

dropping SE rafsi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

examples of making, The lujvo scoring algorithm

from cmavo with no rafsi, rafsi

from tanru, lujvo

fully reduced, rafsi

guidelines for place structure, Why have lujvo?

interpreting, The meaning of lujvo

invention of, lujvo

meaning drift of, Considerations for making lujvo

meaning of, lujvo

multiple forms of, lujvo

place structure of figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for, Why have lujvo?

recognizing, rafsi

rules for formation of, lujvo

scored examples of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

scoring of, The lujvo-making algorithm

selection of best form of, The lujvo-making algorithm

shorter for more general concepts, Considerations for making lujvo

summary of form characteristics, rafsi

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguity of, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguous decomposition of, lujvo

unreduced, rafsi

unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, fu'ivla

with zei, rafsi

zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lujvo creation

interaction of KE with NAhE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

interaction of KE with SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

use of multiple SE in, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

lujvo form

consonant cluster requirement in, rafsi

final letter of, rafsi

hierarchy of priorities for selection of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

number of letters in, rafsi

requirements for hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

lujvo place order, Ordering lujvo places.

asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

based on 3-or-more part veljvo, lujvo with more than two parts.

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

rationale for standardization, Ordering lujvo places.

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

superlatives as exceptions, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo place structure

"ni" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

"nu" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

basis of, Selecting places

comparative lujvo, Comparatives and superlatives

cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dependent places, Dependent places

dropping "KE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping "KEhE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dropping dependent places

caveat, Dependent places

dropping dependent seltau places, Dependent places

dropping dependent tertau places, Dependent places

dropping redundant places, The meaning of lujvo

effect of "SE", Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

explicated walk-through, The meaning of lujvo

guidelines, Why have lujvo?

multi-place abstraction lujvo, Abstract lujvo

notation conventions, The meaning of lujvo

rationale for standardization, Selecting places

selecting tertau, Dependent places

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

when first place redundant with non-first, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant plus others, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lukewarm food

example, sumti qualifiers

lunra tarci, Some types of symmetrical tanru

ly, cmene, Lojban names, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ly'i, cmene, Lojban names

ly., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Lyra

example, Lojban names

M

ma, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Questions and answers

as sumti question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

for tense questions, Tense questions: cu'e

ma'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ma'i, Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri

ma'o, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany

potential ambiguity caveat, Miscellany

ma'o fy. [te'u], Miscellany

ma'o fy.boi, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ma'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

mabla, Attitudinal modifiers

magic square

example, Vectors and matrices

mai, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mo'o, Other uses of mekso

MAI selma'o

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

male sexual teacher

example, lujvo-making examples

mampa'u, lujvo

mamta, rafsi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

mamta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mamta patfu, lujvo

man biting dog, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

man or woman

example, Logical connection and truth tables

man-woman

example, Logical connection within tanru

manhole

example, Compound spatial tenses

manskapi, Acknowledgements and Credits

manti zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

manysome

example, Special mekso selbri

maple sugar

example, fu'ivla

maple trees

example, fu'ivla

marathon, Types of event abstractions

Mars road

example, Conversion: SE

mass

compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with set in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set forming, Special mekso selbri

joining elements into a, Non-logical connectives

mass contrasted with components

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

mass name

use of, Individuals and masses

mass object

and logical reasoning, Individuals and masses

as dependent on intention, Individuals and masses

contrasted with multiple individual objects, Individuals and masses

properties of, Individuals and masses

mass objects

peculiarities of English translation of, Individuals and masses

masses

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

mathematical equality

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical expression

referring to, Other uses of mekso

mathematical expressions

connectives in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

tensed connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

mathematical expressions in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

mathematical intervals, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mathematical notation

and omitted operators, Introductory

and operator precedence, Simple infix expressions and equations

infix, Simple infix expressions and equations

international uniqueness of, Introductory

mathematical operators, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical texts

effect on lerfu shift scope, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical variables

lerfu strings as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematics

use of lerfu strings in, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

matne, Individuals and masses

matrices

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

matrix

as combination of vectors, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, Vectors and matrices

with more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

matrix column operator, Vectors and matrices

matrix row operator, Vectors and matrices

mau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mayan mathematics

as a system with base larger than 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri

compared with du in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

explicitly specifying, Vocative scales

place structure of, selbri based on sumti: me

used with names, selbri based on sumti: me

me dy ny. .abu, Acronyms

me la pinpan. bolci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

me'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

me'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'i re, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'o, Number summary, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

compared with la'e lu, References to lerfu

contrasted with li, Other uses of mekso

contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

relation to li compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

me'u, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri

relative precedence with logical connectives, selbri based on sumti: me

me'u moi, Special mekso selbri

me/du equivalence, selbri based on sumti: me

measurements

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

meat slice

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

medieval weapon, lujvo with more than two parts.

megdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mei, Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

place structure formed for objective indefinites, Special mekso selbri

mekso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

and literary translation, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

complex used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

design goals, Introductory

mekso chapter

completeness, Introductory

table notation convention, Introductory

mekso goal

coverage, Introductory

expandable, Introductory

for common use, Introductory

for mathematical writing, Introductory

precision, Introductory

unambiguous, Introductory

mekso goals

and ambiguity, Introductory

and non-mathematical expression, Introductory

mathematical notation form, Introductory

melbi, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping

melbi cmalu nixli ckule, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

meljo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

melting, Notes on gismu place structures

membership

property of sets, Masses and sets

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

mental discomfort

example, Emotional categories

merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms

metalinguistic comment

with embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels or reference, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

metalinguistic words

quick-tour version, Indicators

mexno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mi, Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e, More about non-logical connectives

mi bevri le dakli, Mixed modal connection

mi jo'u do, More about non-logical connectives

mi joi do, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Tense relations between sentences

mi klama le zdani, Tense relations between sentences

mi nelci do, Mixed modal connection, Tenses versus modals

mi nelci la djein., Mixed modal connection

mi vasxu, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

mi'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'e, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales

contrasted with other members of COI, Vocative scales

effect of ordering multiple COI, Vocative scales

mi'enai, Vocative scales

mi'enai .djan., Vocative scales

mi'erxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mi'o, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'u, Discursives

contrasted with go'i, Discursives

mi-series

of pro-sumti, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi-series pro-sumti

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mice

example, Minor abstraction types

midju, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

mikri, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

milti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

minde, Anomalous lujvo

minkemxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mintu

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

mirli nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

misinterpretation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

misro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mitsubishi

example, What about Chinese characters?

mixed claim

definition, Universal claims

mixed modal connection

afterthought, Mixed modal connection

as proscribed in forethought, Mixed modal connection

definition, Mixed modal connection

of bridi-tails, Mixed modal connection

of sentences, Mixed modal connection

of sumti, Mixed modal connection

mixed with

example, Non-logical connectives

mlatu, Logical connection within tanru

mlatu kalci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mleca, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

mo, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers

as selbri question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

mo'a, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

mo'e, Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

mo'i, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

mo'o, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mai, Other uses of mekso

mo'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

modal bridi-tail connection, Other modal connections

modal causals

implication differences, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal cmavo

basis in gismu place structure, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

regular form for derivation, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

table with English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal cmavo table

format of, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal connection

simultaneous with logical, Mixed modal connection

modal connection of selbri

using bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

modal connectives

fi'o prohibited in, Other modal connections

modal conversion

access to original first place with fai, Modal conversion: JAI

grammar of, Modal conversion: JAI

place structure of, Modal conversion: JAI

with no modal specified, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion with fi'o, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion without modal

as vague, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversions

in descriptions, Modal conversion: JAI

modal followed by selbri

compared with tanru modification in meaning, Modal selbri

contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, Modal selbri

effect on eliding cu, Modal selbri

modal operand connection, Other modal connections

modal place

definition, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

on description selbri, Modal tags: BAI

rationale for term name, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

relation of to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal place relation

importance of first place in, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal sentence connection, Modal sentence connection: the causals

condensing, Other modal connections

effect on modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

forethought, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

relation to modal of second sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

with other than causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal sumti

and FA marking, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

as first place of modal tag selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also seltcita sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

leaving vague, Modal selbri

position in bridi, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

unspecified, Modal selbri

modal sumti connection, Other modal connections

modal tag

definition (see also sumti tcita), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri as, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

for vague relationship, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags

contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

modal-or-tense question

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

modal-or-tense questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

modals

compared with tenses in syntax, Tenses versus modals

contradictory negation of, Modal negation

contrasted with tenses in semantics, Tenses versus modals

expanding scope over inner modal connection, Modal selbri

expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e, Modal selbri

expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u, Modal selbri

expanding scope over non-logical connection, Modal selbri

for causal gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

improving relative phrase preciseness with , Modal relative phrases; Comparison

making long-scope, Sticky modals

making sticky, Sticky modals

negation of, Modal negation

scalar negation of, Modal negation

termset connection, Other modal connections

modals often attached with relative phrases

list, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

modifier

seltau as, Simple tanru

modifying brivla (see also seltau), lujvo

moi, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

MOI selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

use of boi before, Special mekso selbri

mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mokca, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

moklu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu stedu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

molro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mon Repos

example, Dependent places

more than

contrasted with less than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

more than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

morko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

morphology

conventions for, Introductory

definition, Introductory

derivational, Introductory

simplicity of, Introductory

symbolic conventions for discussing, Introductory

mother father

example, lujvo

movement

order in tense constructs, Movement in space: MOhI

time, Movement in space: MOhI

with multiple directions, Movement in space: MOhI

movement specification

interaction with direction in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

mrostu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mrostu mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mu, Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation

mu'e, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

mu'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mu'onai, Vocative scales

mudri siclu, rafsi

mudri xarci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudri zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudsiclu, rafsi

mudysiclu, rafsi

mukti, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

multiple conversion

avoiding, Conversion: SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple indefinite sumti

effect of re-ordering in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

expressing with equal scope, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indefinite sumti scope

in termset, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indicators, The uses of indicators

multiple individual objects

contrasted with mass object, Individuals and masses

meaning of, Individuals and masses

multiple letters

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

multiple logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

multiple ma

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple mo

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple quantification

effect on selbri placement among sumti, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple questions in one bridi

expressing, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple relative clauses

attaching with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

connecting different kinds with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

multiple SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple speakers, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

multiple sumti in one place

avoiding, Tagging places: FA

meaning, Tagging places: FA

multiple tanru inversion

effect on grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple tenses

effect of order in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

muslo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mutce bo barda, Complex tanru grouping

my, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

example, Possessive sumti

my chair

example, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

my., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

myth

example, Evidentials

N

n people

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

n-hyphen

contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

na, Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

order in logical connectives with se, Logical connection of bridi

na and tense

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na go'i, Questions

na writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

na'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with lo'a, Alien alphabets

na'e, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms

before gu'e, Scalar negation of selbri

contrasted with na'e ke, Scalar negation of selbri

na'e barda bloti, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'e brablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'ebo, sumti qualifiers, sumti negation

na'eke, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions

na'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

na'inai, Miscellaneous indicators

na'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

na'u, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

use in asking operator questions, Other uses of mekso

na'u mo, Other uses of mekso

na'u nu'a, Other uses of mekso

na'ujbi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

NAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Tense negation, Miscellany

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

nai, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions

effect on intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

effect on joiks, More about non-logical connectives

placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, Forethought bridi connection

placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, Forethought bridi connection

naja, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

naje, Tense questions: cu'e

nakni cinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakni ke cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

naku, The three basic description types, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

as creating a negation boundary, Using naku outside a prenex

compared with sumti in grammar, Using naku outside a prenex

effect on moving quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex

in linked sumti places, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple in sentence, Using naku outside a prenex

outside of prenex, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation

rationale for considering an advanced technique, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation boundary

effect on conversion with se, Using naku outside a prenex

naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

as expansion of noda, Negation boundaries

naku zo'u, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nakykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

nalbrablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

nalmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

namcu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

name equivalent for typical

rationale for lack of, Descriptors for typical objects

name words

recognition of, Lojban names

name-words

limitations on, Lojban names

pause requirements before, Lojban names

permissible consonant combinations, Lojban names

names

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

authority for, cmene

borrowing from other languages, Lojban names

examples of, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

in vocative phrase, Lojban names

multiple, Lojban names

pause requirement in lerfu words, The universal bu

purpose of, cmene

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

stress in, cmene

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

two kinds of, Lojban names

unusual stress in, cmene

uses of, Lojban names

using rafsi, Lojban names

with LA descriptor, Lojban names

names from vowel-final base

commonly used consonant endings, Lojban names

names in Lojban (see also cmene), cmene

names with la

implicit quantifier for, Lojban names

naming predicate, The three basic description types

nan, cmavo

nanba spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, Logical connection within tanru, selbri variables

nanmu je ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

nanvi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

NATO

example, Acronyms

natural end

continuing beyond, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with actual stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

nau, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on sticky tenses, Tenses in subordinate bridi

syntax, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Navajo

example, fu'ivla

nazbi kevna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ne, Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

compared with pe, Relative phrases

near the faraway park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

near the park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

nearby in time

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Nederlands

example, cmene

need any box, The problem of “any”

negated intervals

meaning of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a sentence

and truth value, Logical connection and truth tables

negation

complex examples, Scalar negation of selbri

form for emulating natural language negation, Using naku outside a prenex

of operand, Miscellany

of operator, Miscellany

of tenses, Tense negation

negation and logical connectives

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation between sentences

compared with bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

meaning of, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation boundary

and zero, Negation boundaries

effect of moving, Negation boundaries

negation cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

negation in prenex

effects of position, Negation boundaries

negation manipulation

"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

negation of fi'o modals

by negating selbri, Modal negation

negation of modals, Modal negation

contradictory, Modal negation

scalar, Modal negation

negation of tenses

meaning of, Tense negation

negation sumti qualifiers

meanings of, sumti qualifiers

negations with logical connectives

effects on expansion of sentence, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

negative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

negative numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

negative sign

contrasted with subtraction operator, Special numbers

negator

movement from bridi to sumti, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nei, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

nelci la djan., Compound bridi

nelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

new notation, The meaning of lujvo

New York city

example, Relative phrases

New York state

example, Relative phrases

Newport News

example, Lojban names

news

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

ni, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni citno, Comparatives and superlatives

ni klama, Abstract lujvo

ni'e, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni'enu'a, Miscellany

ni'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ni'igi, Other modal connections

ni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

ni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'oni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

nibli, Modal sentence connection: the causals

nicte ckule, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nilkla, Abstract lujvo

nimre, Simple tanru

ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

ninmu bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nitcu, The problem of “any”

nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

nixli bo ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

nixli tuple, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

no, Syllabication And Stress, IPA For English Speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases

no'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

no'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

no'ebo, sumti negation

no'i, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'ino'i, Paragraphs: NIhO

no'o, Indefinite numbers

no'u, Relative phrases

compared with po'u, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'u, Relative phrases

nobli, cmene

nobli bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nobody

ambiguous interpretations of, What's wrong with this picture?

interpretation of, What's wrong with this picture?

Lojban contrasted with English, What's wrong with this picture?

noda, Negation boundaries

expanding to naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

noi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

noi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

noi le mi pendo cu ponse, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

noi nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

noi sipna, Possessive sumti

noisy environments

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

nolraitru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nolraitru prije, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nolraitru ralju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

non-, selbri and tanru negation

non-logical connection

and elidability of terminators, Non-logical connectives

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

distinguishing from connection of sumti, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into mass, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into set, Non-logical connectives

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of sumti

distinguishing from connection in tanru, Non-logical connectives

of termsets, More about non-logical connectives

non-logical connectives

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

including tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

sentence, More about non-logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

un-ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

non-logical forethought termsets

connecting tagged sumti, More about non-logical connectives

non-logically connected tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

non-Lojban quotation, Quotation summary

non-Lojban text

rules for pause with, Rules for inserting pauses

non-restrictive relative clause

definition (see also incidental relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

non-specific descriptions, The three basic description types

non-standard orthographies

caveat, Oddball Orthographies

Cyrillic, Oddball Orthographies

Tengwar, Oddball Orthographies

nonagenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

nonce word

marking

selma'o catalog,

normal circumstances, Event abstraction

normle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

notation conventions

for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

nothing sits

example, Negation boundaries

nouns

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

Nth rat

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nth rat

example, Special mekso selbri

Nthly

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nu, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI

definition, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

nu citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka kei gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka [kei], Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu kalri kei gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nu klama [kei], Abstract lujvo

NU selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

nu'a, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso

use in answering operator questions, Other uses of mekso

nu'e, Vocative scales

nu'i, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

nu'u, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

null operand

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

null operator

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

number article

explanation of use, Simple infix expressions and equations

number questions, Number questions

answers to, Number questions

number sumti

syntax of, Number summary

with li, Number summary

with li contrasted with me'o, Number summary

with me'o, Number summary

with me'o contrasted with li, Number summary

number words

pattern in, Lojban numbers

numbers

as compound cmavo, Lojban numbers

as grammatically complete utterances, Number questions

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

expressing simple, Lojban numbers

greater than 9, Lojban numbers

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

on logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

rafsi for, rafsi

special, Special numbers

talking about contrasted with using for quantification, Simple infix expressions and equations

using for quantification contrasted with talking about, Simple infix expressions and equations

numeric digits in lerfu words

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

undefined, Special numbers

numerical selbri

alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, Special mekso selbri

based on non-numerical sumti, Special mekso selbri

complex, Special mekso selbri

grammar, Special mekso selbri

restriction on numbers used for, Special mekso selbri

special, Special mekso selbri

with lerfu strings, Special mekso selbri

use of "me" with, Special mekso selbri

numerical tenses

effect on use of boi, Other uses of mekso

nuncti, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunctikezgau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunkalri gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkla, Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI

nunklama, Abstract lujvo

nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunsoidji, Abstract lujvo

nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nuzba tanbo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ny, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ny., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. su'i pa, Special mekso selbri

ny.mai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

NYC

example, Acronyms

O

o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

o'onai, Attitudinal modifiers

o'onaivu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

o'u, cmavo, Emotional categories

o'unaire'e, Emotional categories

o'unairo'u, Emotional categories

observation

example, Evidentials

observation evidential

contrasted with observative , Evidentials

observative

contrasted with observation evidential, Evidentials

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

observative form

contrasted with command, Standard bridi form: cu

observative with elided CAhA

convention, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

observatives

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

ocean shell

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

octal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

octogenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

Old McDonald

example, The Special Lojban Characters

old topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

omission of descriptor

effect on ku, Indefinite descriptions

omitting terminators

perils of, Scalar negation of selbri

on right

contrasted with toward right, Movement in space: MOhI

on two occasions

example, Sub-events

on verge

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

once and future king

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

One

the

example, cmene

one-third of food, Special mekso selbri

only

example, Discursives

only if

compared with if … then, Logical connection of bridi

only once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

open interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand

converting from operator, Miscellany

converting into operator, Miscellany

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting sumti into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operand connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand modal connection, Other modal connections

operands

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

contrasted with general sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

too few for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

too many for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

operator

converting from operand, Miscellany

converting into operand, Miscellany

converting into selbri, Other uses of mekso

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operator derived from selbri

effect of selbri place structure on, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator left-right grouping

as Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence

and mathematical notation, Simple infix expressions and equations

effect of pragmatic convention, Simple infix expressions and equations

generalized explicit specification, Simple infix expressions and equations

in Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

plans for future, Explicit operator precedence

rationale for default left-grouping, Simple infix expressions and equations

scope modification with bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations

specifying by parenthesis, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence in other languages, Simple infix expressions and equations

operators

analogue of tanru in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

list of simple, Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

operators of VUhU

grammar of operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

opinion

example, Evidentials

opposite-of-minus

example, Miscellany

order of variables

in moving to prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ordered sequence

by listing members, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with mass, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, Non-logical connectives

ordinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

ordinal tense, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

orthography

non-standard, Oddball Orthographies

relation to pronunciation, Orthography

outer product, Vectors and matrices

outer quantifier

contrasted with inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

outer quantifiers

for expressing subsets, Quantified descriptions

rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

outer sumti

prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

owe money

example, Multiple compound bridi

P

pa, cmene, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri

pa da, A few notes on variables

pa no, Non-decimal and compound bases

PA selma'o

exception on use of boi with MOI, Special mekso selbri

members with rafsi, Miscellany

pa'e, Discursives

pa'enai, Discursives

pacraistu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacraistu zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

pagbu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

pai, Special numbers

pamoi, Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri

pante tavla, rafsi

panzi nanmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

panzi ninmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

paragraph separation

spoken text, Paragraphs: NIhO

written text, Paragraphs: NIhO

paragraphs

effects on scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

separator, Paragraphs: NIhO

parasitic worms

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

pareci, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

parentheses

for complex mekso used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

parenthesis

mathematical, Simple infix expressions and equations

partial quotation, Miscellaneous indicators

parts of speech, Introductory

paso, Non-decimal and compound bases

passive voice, Varying the order of sumti

past event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

pastward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

paternal grandmother

example, lujvo

patfu mamta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

patta'a, rafsi

patyta'a, rafsi

pau, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers

placement in sentence, Miscellaneous indicators

paunai, Miscellaneous indicators

pausative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pause

and cmene, Rules for inserting pauses

and consonant-final words, Rules for inserting pauses

and Cy-form cmavo, Rules for inserting pauses

and final-syllable stress, Rules for inserting pauses

and non-Lojban text, Rules for inserting pauses

and vowel-initial words, Rules for inserting pauses

between words, Rules for inserting pauses

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with syllable break, The Special Lojban Characters

proscribed within words, Rules for inserting pauses

representation of in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

requirement between stressed syllables, cmavo

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

pause before name

effect of doi, Vocative scales

effect of vocatives of COI, Vocative scales

pauses

before vowels, cmavo

rules for, Rules for inserting pauses

pe, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

as loose association, Relative phrases

compared with ne, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a sranapoi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

pe mi, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

pe'a, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'e, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

pe'i, Indicators, Evidentials

pe'ipei, Evidentials

pe'o, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

pe'u

contrasted with e'o, Vocative scales

peace symbol, Computerized character codes

pei, cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers

peipe'i, Evidentials

pelnimre, Simple tanru

pelnimre tricu, Simple tanru

pelxu, Simple tanru

percent

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

perfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perils of omitting terminators, Scalar negation of selbri

period

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

within a word, The Special Lojban Characters

Persian rug

example, rafsi

person's arm

example, Relative phrases

personal pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

personal pronouns

with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with mi-series for I/you, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

personal pronouns for he/she/it/they

English contrasted with Lojban in organization, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Pete

example, cmene

petso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pevrisnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

Pheidippides, Types of event abstractions

phonetic alphabet, Basic Phonetics

Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

physical distress

example, Emotional categories

pi, Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany

pi'a, Vectors and matrices

pi'e, Non-decimal and compound bases

pi'i, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation

pi'o, Modal tags: BAI

pi'u, Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, More about non-logical connectives

use in connecting tenses, Sub-events

piano-moving

example, Individuals and masses

picti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pictures

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo

pilno-, Modal tags: BAI

pimu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le'i nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pinca litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pino'o, Indefinite numbers

pinsi nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pinyin

as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

pirau, Indefinite numbers

piro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

piro la'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro le'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro lo'i ro, Quantified descriptions

piso'a, Indefinite numbers

piso'u, Indefinite numbers

pisu'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lai su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lei su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o loi ro, Quantified descriptions

pixra cukta, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

place of eating

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

place structure

adding new places to with modal sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition, Introductory

definition of, The concept of the bridi

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

effect of modal conversion on, Modal conversion: JAI

empty slots in, Introductory

explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, Tagging places: FA

gismu, Notes on gismu place structures

instability of, Introductory

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

notation conventions, Introductory

re-ordering by conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

place structure and tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

place structure of selbri

determining, Introductory

place structure order

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

place structures

omitting places with FA, Tagging places: FA

omitting places with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

plant grows

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

plants

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

plausibility

in abbreviated lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

playgrounds, Dependent places

pleases, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

plise tapla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pluja valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pluka, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

plural

Lojban equivalent of, Approximation and inexact numbers

plural masses

possible use for, Quantified descriptions

plurals

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, The three basic description types

plurals with le

meaning of, Individuals and masses

pluta, Conversion: SE

contrasted with ve klama, Conversion: SE

po, Relative phrases

as restrictive possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a se steci sranapoi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with English possession, Relative phrases

contrasted with pe, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'e, Relative phrases

po do, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

po mi, Relative phrases

po'e, Relative phrases

as intrinsic possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci sranapoi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

po'o, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

po'u, Relative phrases

as identity, Relative phrases

compared with no'u, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a dupoi ke'a du, Relative phrases

contrasted with no'u, Relative phrases

relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, Relative phrases

poi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex

discussion of translation, What are you pointing at?

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

syntax of, What are you pointing at?

poi blabi, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

poi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

poi du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

poi ninmu, Relative clauses and descriptors

poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

poi se cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

poi-, Relative phrases

point

event considered as, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

point-event abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

point-event abstractor, Types of event abstractions

pointing

reference by, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pointing cmavo

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

police lineup, Number questions

Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

Polish notation mixed with infix, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

politeness

thank you and you're welcome, Vocative scales

you're welcome, Vocative scales

polno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponse, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

portion

on set contrasted with on individual, Quantified descriptions

portion selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

porto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

positive numbers

explicit expression, Signs and numerical punctuation

positive sign

contrasted with addition operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

possessed in relative phrases

compared with possessor, Relative phrases

possession

expressing with po, Relative phrases

intrinsic

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

quick-tour version, Possession

possession not ownership

quick-tour version, Possession

possessive sumti

compared with relative phrase, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of ku, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on, Possessive sumti

syntax allowed, Possessive sumti

with relative clauses on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti and relative clauses

development history, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti with relative clauses

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

possessor in relative phrases

compared with possessed, Relative phrases

possessor sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

posydji, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

potential

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

potential events

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

prayer

example, Ordering lujvo places.

precedence

mathematical default, Simple infix expressions and equations

precise erasures, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

predicate answers, Questions and answers

predication

as a relationship, The concept of the bridi

compared with bridi, The concept of the bridi

Preem Palver

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

pregnant sister

example, Discursives

prenex

considerations for dropping, Dropping the prenex

dropping for terseness, Dropping the prenex

effect of order of variables in, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

internal to a bridi, The problem of “any”

purpose of, Dropping the prenex

removing when numeric quantifiers present, Variables with generalized quantifiers

syntax of, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

prenex manipulation

exporting na from left of prenex, bridi negation and logical connectives

importing na from selbri, bridi negation and logical connectives

moving naku past bound variable, bridi negation and logical connectives

rules, bridi negation and logical connectives

prenex scope

for sentences joined by .i, A few notes on variables

for sentences joined by ijeks, A few notes on variables

in abstractions, A few notes on variables

in embedded bridi, A few notes on variables

in relative clauses, A few notes on variables

informal, A few notes on variables

prenu, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations

prenu so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

prepositions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

pretty

English ambiguity of, Complex tanru grouping

pretty little girls' school

forty ways, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

previous topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

pride of lions

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

primitive roots

gismu as, brivla

principle of consistency

of logical-if statements, Logical connection of bridi

pritu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

pro-bridi

as abbreviation for bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

pro-bridi assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-bridi rafsi

as producing context-dependent meanings, lujvo based on pro-sumti

pro-sumti

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

classes of, Pro-sumti summary

compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

contrasted with description, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

for listener(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

for speaker(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

ko'a-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu as, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu string

effect on reference to lerfu itself, References to lerfu

lerfu strings

interaction with quantifiers and boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rafsi for, lujvo based on pro-sumti

referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

series, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

typical, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

unspecified, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

pro-sumti assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-sumti for "we"

contrasted with English "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others

as masses, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

relation to joi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for utterances, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pro-sumti rafsi

anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, lujvo based on pro-sumti

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

probability .5

example, Special mekso selbri

probability selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

values, Special mekso selbri

process abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

process abstractor, Types of event abstractions

process event

described, Types of event abstractions

pronouncement

example, Evidentials

pronouns

as anaphora, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronouns in English

as independent of abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as noun abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronunciation

IPA for Lojban, Basic Phonetics

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

relation to orthography, Orthography

standard, Basic Phonetics

properties

place structure, Property abstractions

property abstraction

specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

property abstractions

specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, Property abstractions

specifying determining place with ce'u, Property abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Property abstractions

use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

property description, Property abstractions

property of loving

example, Property abstractions

proposed law, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

proposed lerfu words

as working basis, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

propositional

of attitudinals, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional attitudes, Predication/sentence abstraction

compared with knowledge discursives, Discursives

protocol

computer communications using COI, Vocative scales

parliamentary using COI, Vocative scales

using vocatives, Vocative scales

psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

pu, Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

pu bajra, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

pu ge, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

pu naje ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

PU selma'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation

compared with FAhA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

PU tenses

contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as pastward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'u, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

puba, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puki, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puku, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

punai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punai je ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punctuation

in numbers, Signs and numerical punctuation

punctuation lerfu words

interaction with different alphabet systems, Punctuation marks

mechanism for creating, Punctuation marks

rationale for lau, Punctuation marks

punctuation marks

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

purci, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

purdi bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purdi vorme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

puxipa, Subscripts: XI

puxire, Subscripts: XI

py, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

py., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

py. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Q

quack

example, Alien alphabets

quadratic formula

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

qualified sumti

contrasted with unqualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

quality and quantity

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

quantification

before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, Quantified descriptions

quantificational pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantification rules, Pro-sumti summary

quantified space, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified sumti

different types contrasted for scope for distribution, Grouping of quantifiers

quantified temporal tense

definition, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negating with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tense with direction

Lojban contrasted with English in implications, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tenses

"once" contrasted with "only once", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

caveat on implication of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

quantifier

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

on previously quantified variable, A few notes on variables

quantifier scope

in multiple connected sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

quantifiers

effect of moving naku, Using naku outside a prenex

with logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

with sumti, Quantified sumti

quark

example, fu'ivla

question pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

questions

answering with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

connection, Truth questions and connective questions

digit, Number questions

fill-in-the-blank, Questions and answers

marking in advance, Miscellaneous indicators

multiple, Questions and answers

number, Number questions, Questions and answers

operator, Other uses of mekso

place structure position, Tagging places: FA

quick-tour version, Questions

rhetorical, Miscellaneous indicators

selbri, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

sumti, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

truth, Questions and answers

with "xu", Miscellaneous indicators

quick runner

example, Simple tanru

quotation

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction

four kinds, Quotation summary

implicit quantifier for, Quotation summary

quotations

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

implicit quantifier for, Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen

contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

ra, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'a, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'e, Signs and numerical punctuation

ra'i, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'u, Discursives

scale of importance, Discursives

ra'ucu'i, Discursives

ra'unai, Discursives

ractu mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

radio communication

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

radix

decimal (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

radno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi, gismu, lujvo

as fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti

considerations restricting construction of, rafsi

contrasted with cmavo in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, lujvo

contrasted with words, rafsi

conventional meaning for cu'o, Miscellany

conventional meaning for frinu, Miscellany

definition, lujvo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

forms of, rafsi

four-letter

requirement for y-hyphen, rafsi

lack of

effect on forming lujvo, rafsi

level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, rafsi

long, rafsi

multiple for each gismu, Considerations for making lujvo

multiplicity of for single gismu, rafsi

possible forms for construction of, rafsi

rationale for assignments of, rafsi

rules for combining to form lujvo, lujvo

selection considerations in making lujvo, rafsi

short, rafsi

uniqueness in gismu referent of, rafsi

use of, rafsi

rafsi assignments

non-reassignability of, rafsi

rafsi for numbers, rafsi

rafsi form

effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, lujvo

rafsi fu'ivla, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

rafsi space, rafsi

rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

rakso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ralju, cmene

ralju zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Ralph

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

ranti bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

rat eats cheese

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumti tcita

rat eats cheese in park

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

ratni nejni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rats are brown

example, Masses and sets

rats in park

example, Special mekso selbri

rau, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

re, cmavo, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation

re ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

re da, A few notes on variables

re karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re le ci mlatu, Grouping of quantifiers

re le mu prenu, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lei djacu, Quantified descriptions

re lo karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lo ro karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers, selbri variables

re prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

re'i, Vocative scales

re'imi'e, Vocative scales

re'inai, Vocative scales

re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

re-ordering logical variables with se, Dropping the prenex

real world

contrasted with hypothetical world

example, Discursives

real world point of view, Discursives

reboi ci pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

Received Pronunciation, IPA For English Speakers

reciprocal

expression of mathematical, Signs and numerical punctuation

reciprocal pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

reciprocity

expressing with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

recital rooms, Dependent places

Red Pony

example, sumti qualifiers

red pony

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

redundancy

effect on vocative design, Vocative scales

reference

ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, What are you pointing at?

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

quick-tour version, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

to relativized sumti with ke'a, What are you pointing at?

use of relative clause for, What are you pointing at?

reference frame

specifying for direction tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference frame for directions in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference grammar, What is this book?

referent

of operand, Miscellany

referring to with la'e, sumti qualifiers

referent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

referent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

reflexive pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

regularly

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

relation of first places in logical connection of observatives

rationale, Compound bridi

relationship

active/static/attributive compared, The concept of the bridi

as basis of sentence, Introductory

objects of, Introductory

relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

relative clause

compared with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

effect of omission of ke'ake'a on, What are you pointing at?

restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

use for reference, What are you pointing at?

relative clause scope

extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses

as part of name, Relative clauses and descriptors

effect of commas in English, Incidental relative clauses

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

impact of indefinite sumti on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of la on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of LAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

impact of NAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

kinds of, Incidental relative clauses

list of cmavo for, Index of relative clause cmavo

on connected sumti, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on names, Relative clauses and descriptors

on number, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

on quotation, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

placement with vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

relative clauses within, Relative clauses within relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental, Incidental relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, Incidental relative clauses

syntax with indefinite sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors

use in restricting existential claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use in restricting universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

relative clauses and indefinite sumti

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and LAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and NAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and names

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and possessive sumti

development history, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on complex sumti

Lojban contrasted with English, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses on indefinite sumti

syntax considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses on lo

syntax suggestion, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses with possessive sumti

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

relative phrase

as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, Relative phrases

compared with possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

connecting to relative clause with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

rationale for, Relative phrases

syntax of, Relative phrases

relative phrases

contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

improving preciseness with modals, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative phrases with modals

compared to relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

relativity theory

relation to Lojban tense system, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relativized sumti

definition, What are you pointing at?

in relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses

remei bruna, Non-logical connectives

remembered

example, Evidentials

remna fetsi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

remna girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

remna nakni, Some types of symmetrical tanru

repeating decimals

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

marking start of repeating portion, Signs and numerical punctuation

representing lerfu

lu contrasted with me'o, References to lerfu

reroi, Sub-events

respectively

example, Non-logical connectives

specifying with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

with different relationships, More about non-logical connectives

restricted claims

definition, Restricted claims: da poi

restricted variable

compared with indefinite description, Variables with generalized quantifiers

restrictive relative clause

definition, Incidental relative clauses

resume

contrasted with begin, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

revelation

example, Evidentials

reverse Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

definition, Reverse Polish notation

marker, Reverse Polish notation

number of operands, Reverse Polish notation

operands of, Reverse Polish notation

parentheses in operands of, Reverse Polish notation

terminator, Reverse Polish notation

use of parentheses in, Reverse Polish notation

with too few operands, Reverse Polish notation

with too many operands, Reverse Polish notation

reviewers of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

rhetorical question, Miscellaneous indicators

ri, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ri goi ko'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

ri'a do, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ri'agi, Other modal connections

ri'e, Attitudinal modifiers

ri-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri-series pro-sumti, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ricfu, Compound bridi

rich and German

example, More about non-logical connectives

ricrxaceru, fu'ivla

right-grouping in tanru

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

right-grouping rule

definition of, Complex tanru grouping

righteous indignation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

rinka, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection

rirxe xirma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi dakli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi patxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

risna, Miscellaneous indicators

risnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

riximu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

rixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

effect of order when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

ro da, Universal claims

ro da poi klama, The problem of “any”

ro DA poi prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro la su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers

ro le su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le'e su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

ro'anai, Emotional categories

example, Emotional categories

ro'e, Emotional categories

ro'inre'o, brivla, rafsi

ro'ire'o, rafsi

ro'irre'o, rafsi

ro'o, More about non-logical connectives

ro'ole'o, Attitudinal modifiers

ro'u, Compound indicators

rock face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

roger

example, Vocative scales

roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso

ROI selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

scalar negation of, Tense negation

rokci bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokci cinfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci derxi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci renro, rafsi

rokci zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokre'o, rafsi

romai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

romaji

as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

Roman Empire, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

room which he built

example, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ropno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rounded down

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded up

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded/unrounded vowels, Basic Phonetics

RP

as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation

ru, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ru'a, Indicators, Evidentials

compared with e'u, Evidentials

ru'e, Attitudes as scales

ru'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'o, Alien alphabets

ru'o.abupyky, lerfu words as pro-sumti

rug

Persian

example, rafsi

runner shoe

example, tanru

rusko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ry, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ry., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

S

sa, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with sei, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with to'i, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'asa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'enai, Discursives

sa'i, Vectors and matrices

sa'unai, Discursives

sadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sai, More about non-logical connectives

saicli, The lujvo-making algorithm

said John

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sakli, rafsi

saktrxaceru, fu'ivla

salad ingredients

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

salci, rafsi

samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sanli, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Sapir-Whorf effects

and emotional indicators, Tentative conclusion

sarcasm

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

saske, fu'ivla

sau'e, cmavo

scalar attitude, Attitudes as scales

scalar negation

effect on selbri, Scalar negation of selbri

scalar negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

scalar negation of non-logical connective, More about non-logical connectives

scalar negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

scale

granular contrasted with continuous, Special mekso selbri

scale of redness

example, Special mekso selbri

scale selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

school building

example, Dependent places

schooner

example, Lojban content words: brivla

scientific names

rules for, cmene

scientific notation

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

score

as 20-year span, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

as alternate base for years, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

se, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI

as grammatical in JOI compounds, Non-logical connectives

in logical connective to exchange sentences, Logical connection of bridi

order in logical connectives with na, Logical connection of bridi

use with operators, Miscellany

using to re-order logical variables, Dropping the prenex

se batci, Dropping the prenex

se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

se dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

se jbopli, Selecting places

se kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se ke blanu zdani [ke'e], Conversion: SE

se ke te, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se klama, tanru, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

place structure of, Conversion: SE

se pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI

se pinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se pinxe be zi'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se remei, More about non-logical connectives

se se gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

SE selma'o, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Subscripts: XI

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on place structure numbering, Conversion: SE

effect on selbri place structure, Conversion: SE

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

for converting place structure, Conversion: SE

rationale for no 1st place conversion, Conversion: SE

scope of, Conversion: SE

word formation of cmavo in, Conversion: SE

se te, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se te klama, Conversion: SE

se writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

se xance minde, Anomalous lujvo

se zdani, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

se'a, Attitudinal modifiers

se'e, Computerized character codes

and number base convention, Computerized character codes

se'i, Attitudinal modifiers

se'o, Evidentials

se'u, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as elidable terminator for soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

elidability considerations, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

se.u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seba'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

section numbering, Other uses of mekso

see with eye

example, Modal selbri

see with left eye

example, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

segi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

sei, Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sei ... se'u, A sample dialogue

seja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seju, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seka'a, Modal tags: BAI

sel-, Anomalous lujvo

selbri, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as part of description, The three basic description types

brivla as, Lojban content words: brivla

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting into an operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting operator into, Other uses of mekso

definition, Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

omitting with co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

place structure of, Introductory

place structure of converted operator, Other uses of mekso

relation to bridi, Lojban content words: brivla

scalar negation of, Scalar negation of selbri

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri from sumti, selbri based on sumti: me

selbri list for quick tour, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

selbri logical variables, selbri variables

selbri place structure

effect on operator formed by, Using Lojban resources within mekso

selbri placement among sumti

effect of multiple quantification on, Using naku outside a prenex

selbri questions

quick-tour version, Questions

selbri variables

form when not in prenex, selbri variables

prenex form as indefinite description, selbri variables

quantified, selbri variables

selbri-first bridi

effect on sumti places, Standard bridi form: cu

effect on use of cu, Tagging places: FA

specifying first sumti place in with fa, Tagging places: FA

selcadzu klama, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selci lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

seldzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

self-orientation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

selkemdzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkemsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

selma'o, cmavo

cross-reference list of

selma'o catalog,

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

selnelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

selsel, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Anomalous lujvo

selselgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selseljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selsinxa, sumti qualifiers

selsku, Anomalous lujvo

seltau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

compared with English adjective, lujvo

compared with English adverb, lujvo

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

filling sumti places in, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

seltcita sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also modal sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

selter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selti'i, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

semto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sentence

basic Lojban, Introductory

sentences

close grouping, Sentences: I

connecting non-logically, More about non-logical connectives

connecting with tense, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

separator for joining, Sentences: I

tenseless

quick-tour version, Tenses

separate questions

quick-tour version, Questions

separately tensed sentences

contrasted with tense connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

sepi'o, Modal tags: BAI

sequence

as an abstract list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, sumti qualifiers

sequence of events

expressing non-time-related sequences, More about non-logical connectives

sequence of tense rules

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

seri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seri'agi, Other modal connections

set

as specified by members, Non-logical connectives

by listing members with ce, Non-logical connectives

compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming set, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with mass formed from set, Special mekso selbri

set of all rats

example, Special mekso selbri

set of rats

example, sumti qualifiers

set operations, More about non-logical connectives

setese, Conversion: SE

sets

properties of, Masses and sets

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

use in Lojban place structure, Masses and sets

sexixa, Subscripts: XI

sexual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

sexual teacher

male

example, lujvo-making examples

sfofa, IPA For English Speakers

sfofy, IPA For English Speakers

shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

shell worm

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

shellfish, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Sherman tank

example, rafsi

shift

single-letter

grammar of, Upper and lower cases

shift word

for single letter, Upper and lower cases

scope, Upper and lower cases

shift words

canceling effect, Alien alphabets

for face, Alien alphabets

for font, Alien alphabets

ship sank

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

shoehorn, Dependent places

shook stick

example, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

short rafsi, rafsi

short rafsi form

compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

si, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

si'a, Discursives

si'e, Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary

si'o, Minor abstraction types

signed numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

signs on numbers

grammar, Signs and numerical punctuation

sikcurnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sikcurnu silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silka curnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silna jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Simon says

example, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti

simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

since, fu'ivla

sinful

example, Attitudinal modifiers

single consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

single-letter shift

as toggle, Upper and lower cases

single-word quotation, Quotation summary

singular me

example, Special mekso selbri

sinso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sinxa, sumti qualifiers

sirxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sister pregnant

example, Discursives

sisti, Metalinguistic negation forms

six-shooter

example, Sub-events

size

order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

skami pilno, lujvo

skari, Metalinguistic negation forms

skoto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slaka, The universal bu

slaka bu, The universal bu

slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

slinku'i test

definition, fu'ivla

slovo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slowdown, Types of event abstractions

smacu terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

smiley face

example, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

sneak in

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

snime nanmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

snow falls

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

snowball's chance

example, Special mekso selbri

so'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'e, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'i, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

so'o, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'u, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

social butterfly

example, tanru

Socrates

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals

softo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi sai, lujvo

soi vo'a vo'e, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi with one following sumti

convention, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soidji, Abstract lujvo

solji carce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji djine, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solji sicni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solri, cmene

solxrula, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solxrula grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

some do not go to school

example, Using naku outside a prenex

some relationship

example, selbri variables

somebody

contrasted with somebody else, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves self

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves somebody

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody's dog

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something

contrasted with someone, Restricted claims: da poi

expressing using "su'o", Variables with generalized quantifiers

unspecified definite with "zo'e", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something is loved by everybody

example, Negation boundaries

something sees everything

example, Universal claims

something sees me

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sonci manti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sonci tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sounds

clarity of, Basic Phonetics

complex, Basic Phonetics

difficult, Basic Phonetics

sounds for letters

Lojban contrasted with English, Basic Phonetics

source languages

use in creating gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

south face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sow grain

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sowed grain

example, Tense questions: cu'e

space

as time-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with time in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

space intervals

compared with time intervals in continuity, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

space location

as part of tense system (see also tense

spatial tense), Introductory

space tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

space/time metaphor

expressing direction mapping for, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spageti, fu'ivla

spaghetti, fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

Spanish ch

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Spanish ll

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

spano, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

spatial contours

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with temporal event contours, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

expressing, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial directions

list of, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

spatial information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

spatial interval modifiers

order in tense, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial intervals

expressing degree of continuity over, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial tense

4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

as an imaginary journey, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as optional in English, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

compared with temporal tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, Dimensionality: VIhA

definition, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

four-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

linear, Dimensionality: VIhA

one-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

order relative to temporal, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

planar, Dimensionality: VIhA

reference frame, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

referent of, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

three-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

two-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tense intervals

order of size and dimensionality in, Dimensionality: VIhA

order of VEhA and VIhA in, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

order of direction and distance specifications, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

spatrkoka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

spatrkoka lanka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

speaker's state of knowledge, Discursives

speaker-listener cooperation, Questions

speaker-relative viewpoint

contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

specific descriptions, The three basic description types

specific terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

specificity

expressing with po, Relative phrases

speech rhythm

for grouping in English, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

spelling out words

Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

spiritual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

spraile, fu'ivla

SQL

example, Acronyms

square brackets

use of in notation, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

sralo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

srana, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

srito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

stali, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

standard bridi form

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

standard for subjective numbers

specifying, Special mekso selbri

standard pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

starting marker, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

state abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

state abstractor, Types of event abstractions

state event

described, Types of event abstractions

steady speed, Types of event abstractions

steci, Relative phrases

stereotypical

as not derogatory in Lojban, Descriptors for typical objects

compared with typical, Descriptors for typical objects

stereotypical objects, Descriptors for typical objects

stero, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Steven Mark Jones

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

sticky modals

canceling, Sticky modals

definition, Sticky modals

fi'o proscribed from, Sticky modals

sticky tenses

and CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canceling, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect of nau on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on future tense meaning, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

from part of a multiple tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

stidi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stidi flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stop

contrasted with finish, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with pause, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

stories

flow of time in, Story time

story tense

Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, Story time

story time

as a convention for inferring tense, Story time

definition, Story time

rationale for, Story time

tenseless sentences in, Story time

with no initial sticky time, Story time

stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

effect of buffer vowel on, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

effect of syllabic consonants on, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

example, Emotional categories

final syllable

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

irregular marked with upper-case, Upper and lower cases

levels of, Syllabication And Stress

on cmavo, cmavo

primary, Syllabication And Stress

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

secondary, Syllabication And Stress

showing non-standard, Orthography

stressed syllable

compared with stressed vowel, Syllabication And Stress

stressed vowel

compared with stressed syllable, Syllabication And Stress

stroke cat then rabbit

example, Tensed logical connectives

structure of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

structure of this book, What is this book?

structure words, cmavo

stura, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

su, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

su'a, Evidentials, Discursives

su'anai, Evidentials

su'e, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'i, Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

su'i zy, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'i zy., Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

as implicit quantifier for quotations, Quantified sumti

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'o bu'a, selbri variables

su'o ci cutci, Indefinite descriptions

su'o le ro, The syntax of vocative phrases

su'o lo ro, Quantified descriptions

su'o lo'e ro, Quantified descriptions

su'opa, Variables with generalized quantifiers

su'ore, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'u, Minor abstraction types

su'u jenai ni, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

su'ujeninai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

sub-subscripts, Subscripts

subjective amounts

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subjective numbers

effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for portion selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for probability selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for scale selbri, Special mekso selbri

rationale for effect on place structure, Special mekso selbri

specifying standard for, Special mekso selbri

subjective portions

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subordinate clause tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Esperanto, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Russian, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subordinate clauses

tense usage rules in English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subscripted topics, Paragraphs: NIhO

subscripting, Subscripts: XI

subscripts

and fuzzy truths, Subscripts: XI

and names, Subscripts: XI

and paragraph separators, Subscripts: XI

and pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

and sumti re-ordering, Subscripts: XI

and tense, Subscripts: XI

before main expression, Subscripts

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

external grammar of, Subscripts

for sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

internal grammar of, Subscripts

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical, Subscripts: XI

multiple as sub-subscript, Subscripts

multiple for same base word, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

on ke'a for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

terminator for, Subscripts

to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

use with logical variables, A few notes on variables

subscripts on lerfu words

effect on elidability of boi, Subscripts

subsets

expressing with outer quantifiers, Quantified descriptions

subtraction operator

contrasted with negative sign, Special numbers

subtypes of words, brivla

sudysrasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cunmi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cutci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sumti, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as having implicit quantifiers, Quantified sumti

as objects in place structure slots, Introductory

beginning with "ke", Grouping of afterthought connectives

between descriptor and description selbri, Possessive sumti

classified by types of objects referred to, Individuals and masses

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

descriptions as, The five kinds of simple sumti

dropping trailing unspecified, Standard bridi form: cu

explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, Tagging places: FA

for individual objects, Individuals and masses

for mass objects, Individuals and masses

for set objects, Individuals and masses

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

irrelevant to relationship, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

kinds of, The five kinds of simple sumti

multiple in one place with FA, Tagging places: FA

names as, The five kinds of simple sumti

numbers as, The five kinds of simple sumti

omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

pro-sumti as, The five kinds of simple sumti

quotations as, The five kinds of simple sumti

re-ordering with FA, Tagging places: FA

relation with bridi, The concept of the bridi

sumti cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

sumti connection

afterthought, sumti connection

forethought, sumti connection

sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

sumti logical connection, sumti connection

compared with bridi logical connections, sumti connection

contrasted with tanru logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

rationale for, sumti connection

sumti modal connection, Other modal connections

sumti place

additional

selma'o catalog,

sumti placement

variant

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

sumti qualifiers

as short forms for common special cases, sumti qualifiers

elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

external syntax of, sumti qualifiers

for negation, sumti qualifiers

internal syntax of, sumti qualifiers

list of, sumti qualifiers

sumti questions

quick-tour version, Questions

sumti reordering

quick-tour version, Varying the order of sumti

sumti tcita, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

based on event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on spatial contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense direction, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

definition (see also modal tag), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and modal tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and tense tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita based on dimension, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on event contours

relation of main bridi to sumti process in, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval properties, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval size, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti with lo

compared to indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

sumti with tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti with tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

sumti-based description

definition, sumti-based descriptions

inner quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

outer quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

sumti-based descriptions with le

as increasing restricting to in-mind, sumti-based descriptions

Sun

the

example, cmene

sunburn

example, Property abstractions

superfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

superscripts, Subscripts

supervising

as a contribution to mass action, Non-logical connectives

supper

example, rafsi

supplementary information, Dependent places

Susan

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

susu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

sutra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri

sutra cadzu, selbri and tanru negation

sword blade, lujvo with more than two parts.

sy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sy., brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

syllabaries

lerfu word representation, What about Chinese characters?

syllabic consonant

effect on stress determination, cmene

syllabic consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

effect on stress, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final in word, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

syllabic l

considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic m

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic n

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic pronunciations of consonants

in fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

in fu'ivla category attachment

example, fu'ivla

syllabic r

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabication

and names, Syllabication And Stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

examples of, Syllabication And Stress

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

variants of

example, Syllabication And Stress

syllable break

contrasted with pause, The Special Lojban Characters

representation in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

symbol

for operand, Miscellany

referring to with lu'e, sumti qualifiers

symmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical tanru types

both separately true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

one or other true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using crucial/typical parts, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using more inclusive class, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical veljvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sympathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

ta, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

ta'apei, Vocative scales

ta'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation

ta'onai, Discursives

ta'u, Discursives

ta'unai, Discursives

tables

format of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

tadni girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tagged sumti termsets

connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, More about non-logical connectives

TAhE selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

scalar negation of, Tense negation

tai, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tail-terms

definition, Compound bridi

Take care!

example, Vocatives and commands

Talk!

example, Vocatives and commands

talker

example, tanru

taller

example, The concept of the bridi

tamdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tamsmi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tan(pi/2) = infinity

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tanjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tank

Sherman

example, rafsi

tanru, tanru, Simple tanru

ambiguity in, lujvo

ambiguity of, lujvo, Simple tanru

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

and conversion

quick-tour version, tanru

and creativity, lujvo

as ambiguous, Simple tanru

asymmetrical, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

combination of, lujvo

containing mathematical expressions, Other kinds of simple selbri

default left-grouping of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

definition, Simple tanru

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

expanding, Discursives

explanation of, lujvo

explicating, Discursives

explicitly defining, Discursives

expression of, lujvo

meaning of, Simple tanru

place structure of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

place structures of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

possible meanings of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

primary meaning of, Simple tanru

purpose, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

reducing logically connected sumti to

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

simple, Simple tanru

to lujvo, lujvo

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

tanru and conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

tanru connection

connotation of non-logical, Non-logical connectives

tanru connection grouping

guheks unmarked tanru, Logical connection within tanru

tanru conversion

effect on place structure

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru default grouping

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru grouping

complex, Complex tanru grouping

effect of jeks, Logical connection within tanru

effect of tanru inversion on, Inversion of tanru: co

guheks compared with jeks, Logical connection within tanru

three-part, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

with ke, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

with ke and bo, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

tanru grouping with JA+BO

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on tanru grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

in complex tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple, Inversion of tanru: co

rule for removing, Inversion of tanru: co

where allowed, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru inversion and place structure, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru logical connection

contrasted with sumti logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

tanru nested within tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

tarmi, fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tarmi simsa, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tarmrnintegrale, fu'ivla

tatru litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tau, Upper and lower cases

tavla, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti

tavla be do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

taxfu dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcarlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

tcati kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

te, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

te klagau, Selecting places

te klama, Conversion: SE

te se klama, Conversion: SE

te'a, Simple infix expressions and equations

te'o, Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

te'u, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

technical terms, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

teci'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tei, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

tei .abu .ebu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei .ibu jy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei fy. ibu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei sy. zy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

teka'a, Modal tags: BAI

telephone conversation

hello, Vocative scales

television, IPA For English Speakers

template, Minor abstraction types

temporal direction

exception in meaning when following ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

temporal information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

temporal tense

as mandatory in English, Introductory

compared with spatial tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

historical definition, Introductory

interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, Introductory

order relative to spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

quantified with direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

real relationship to time in English, Introductory

temporal tense elision

compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

temporal tenses

compared with spatial tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ten

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

tense

aorist, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

as observer-based, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

as subjective perception, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

connecting sentences in with, Tense relations between sentences

contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, Tense negation

effect of different position in sentence, Introductory

effect of sticky tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

emphasizing by position in sentence, Introductory

explanation of presentation method, Introductory

expressing movement in, Movement in space: MOhI

handling multiple episodes, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

in forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

interval contrasted with point, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with native languages, Introductory

numerical, Other uses of mekso

on embedded bridi, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

order of direction

distance and interval in, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

order of direction specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of distance specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of movement specification in, Movement in space: MOhI

order of spatial interval modifiers in , Space interval modifiers: FEhE

order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

overriding to speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

point contrasted with interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

position in sentence alternative, Introductory

position of in sentence, Introductory

quantified, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation

scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, Tense negation

scalar negation of with NAhE, Tense negation

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

scope of, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

selbri types applicable to, Introductory

space-time dimension for intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

static contrasted with moving, Movement in space: MOhI

subscripting, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

with both temporal and spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

with ku, Introductory

tense afterthought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense and na

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

tense as sumti tcita

contrasted with tense inside sumti, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

tense connected sentences

contrasted with separately tensed sentences, Tense relations between sentences

forethought mode, Tense relations between sentences

importance of bo in, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection

equivalent meanings, Tense relations between sentences

expansions of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of bridi-tails

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sentences

contrasted with sumti tcita form, Tense relations between sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sumti

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense conversion

accessing original first place with fai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

of temporal tenses, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

use in sumti descriptions, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

with jai, Conversion of simple selbri

tense direction

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

tense direction/distance as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense distance

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense forethought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense in scope of sticky tense

compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense inside sumti

contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense on main bridi

effect on embedded bridi tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect on embedded sumti with tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense questions

by using logical connective question, Tense questions: cu'e

methods of asking, Tense questions: cu'e

tense questions with ma, Tense questions: cu'e

tense selma'o

summary of, Summary of tense selma'o

tense sentence connection

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

tense specification

effect on "cu", Introductory

effect on elidability of terminators, Introductory

tense system

and space location, Introductory

tense tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

tense with sumti tcita

asymmetry of, Tense relations between sentences

tense-or-modal questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

tensed connectives

in mathematical expressions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in jek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

with ke…ke'e, Tensed logical connectives

with tu'e…tu'u, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected bridi-tails, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sentences, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sumti, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tenseless sentences in story time, Story time

tenses

compared with modals in syntax, Tenses versus modals

connected

with negation, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

contradictory negation of with nai, Tense negation

contrasted with modals in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought logical connections, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

grouping of connectives in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

logically connected with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

multiple in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

negating, Tense negation

non-logical connection of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

non-logical connection of for sub-events, Sub-events

possible groupings of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

use as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

tenses with elided CAhA

meaning, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

terbi'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terbi'a jurme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terci'e, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tergu'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergu'i ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

terlanme jitro gerku, Anomalous lujvo

terlantroge'u, Anomalous lujvo

term

definition, Termset logical connection

terminators

eliding ku in non-logical connections, Non-logical connectives

termset

effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

formation, Termset logical connection

termset logical connection

unequal length, Termset logical connection

termset modal connection, Other modal connections

termsets

compared to fa'u, Non-logical connectives

non-logical connection of, More about non-logical connectives

tertau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

terter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

terto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

tesete, Conversion: SE

texete, Conversion: SE

text

division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

sub-division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

text quotation

as internally grammatical, Quotation summary

syntax of, Quotation summary

tezu'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

thank you

example, Vocative scales

the

contrasted with a/an, Miscellaneous indicators

example, Miscellaneous indicators

for talking about numbers themselves, Simple infix expressions and equations

the destination

example, Conversion: SE

the go-er

example, Conversion: SE

The men are women

example, The three basic description types

the two of you

example, sumti-based descriptions

thingy

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

this

adjective expression with ti noi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective expression with vi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as utterance reference in English, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pronoun expression with ti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this boat

example, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this book

author of, Acknowledgements and Credits

contributors to, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

examples of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

goal of, What is this book?

reviewers of, Acknowledgements and Credits

structure of, What is this book?

this/that in English

compared with ti-series pro-sumti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

three bears

example, sumti-based descriptions

three cats white

and two big

example, A few notes on variables

three dogs bite two men

example, Grouping of quantifiers

Three Kings

example, selbri based on sumti: me

three of four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three or four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three rats

example, Special mekso selbri

thus

example, Evidentials

ti, Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as pronoun expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti mlatu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

ti noi

as adjective expression for this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti'e, Evidentials

ti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ti'o, Explicit operator precedence

ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ti-series pro-sumti

3 degrees of distance with, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as pointing referents only, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

compared with English this/that, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

conversational convention for, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

problems in written text, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tilde

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

time

as part of tense system (see also tense

temporal tense), Introductory

as space-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with space in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

time tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

time travel, Movement in space: MOhI

times

explicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

implicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

tinju'i, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

tirna, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

title

specifying with tu'e…tu'u, Sentences: I

title of book

example, sumti qualifiers

tixnu be mi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, No more to say: FAhO

to movie

house

office: example, Tagging places: FA

to the market from the office, Termset logical connection

to'a, Upper and lower cases

to'e, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation

to'ebo, sumti negation

to'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'i ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

to'u, Discursives

to-do list

example, More about non-logical connectives

toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Tolkien

and non-standard Lojban orthography, Oddball Orthographies

tolmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tomorrow

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

too

example, Discursives

too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita

too many rats

example, Special mekso selbri

topic-comment

description, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

topic/comment

multiple sentence, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tosmabru test, The lujvo-making algorithm

toward her right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward my right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward right

contrasted with on right, Movement in space: MOhI

traji, Comparatives and superlatives

transfinite cardinal

example, Special numbers

transformations with logical connectives

steps, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

traveling salesperson

example, Modal tags: BAI

tricrxaceru, fu'ivla

tricrxaceru sakta, fu'ivla

tricu, fu'ivla

tricu stedu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

triumph, Types of event abstractions

trkaile, fu'ivla

troci, Inversion of tanru: co

troci co klama, Inversion of tanru: co

truncation of number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

truth

in imperative sentences, Truth questions and connective questions

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

16 possible, Logical connection and truth tables

commutative, The Four basic vowels

creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, The Four basic vowels

fundamental 4 in Lojban, The Four basic vowels

relation to logical connectives, The Four basic vowels

table of logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

truth questions, Miscellaneous indicators

answering "no", Truth questions and connective questions

answering "yes", Truth questions and connective questions

as yes-or-no questions, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with connection questions, Truth questions and connective questions

simple, Truth questions and connective questions

truth table

explanation, Logical connection and truth tables

truth tables

abbreviated format, Logical connection and truth tables

for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, The Four basic vowels

list of 16 in abbreviated form, Logical connection and truth tables

notation convention, Logical connection and truth tables

truth-value abstractions

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction

try the door

example, Lojban sumti raising

try to go

example, Inversion of tanru: co

ts-sound in Russian

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

tsys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

tu, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

archaic English yon as equivalent of, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tu'a, sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising

as being deliberately vague, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for forming abstractions, sumti qualifiers

tu'a le vorme, Lojban sumti raising

tu'e, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

effect on di'e, More about non-logical connectives

use in lists, More about non-logical connectives

tu'o, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

tu'o va'a, Reverse Polish notation

tu'u, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tumla spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tumla vacri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tuple birka, Some types of symmetrical tanru

turdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

twice today

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

two brothers

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

two dogs are white

example, Quantified descriptions

ty, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ty., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty.bu, Alien alphabets

types and subtypes of words, brivla

typical

compared with stereotypical, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Englishman

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Lojban user

example, Masses and sets

typical objects

and instantiation, Descriptors for typical objects

determining characteristics of, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Smith

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

typical value

contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

u'e, cmavo

u'u, Propositional attitude indicators

ugh

example, More about non-logical connectives

UI selma'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

umlaut

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

unabridged dictionary, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

unconditional signal, No more to say: FAhO

unconnected tanru

contrasted with logically connected version, Logical connection within tanru

undemonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

under compulsion

example, Modal selbri

under conditions

example, Event abstraction

underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

unequal termset connection

compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, Termset logical connection

unfilled places of inverted tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

Unicode, Computerized character codes

union

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

union of sets

compared with or, More about non-logical connectives

units of measurement

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

universal

mixed claim with existential, Universal claims

universal claims

dangers of using, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Universal claims

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

unqualified sumti

contrasted with qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

unreduced fractions

use in granular scales, Special mekso selbri

unreduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

unspecified breed

example, Dependent places

unspecified direction

temporal contrasted with in spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

unspecified emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified level of emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified route

example, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified sumti

non-trailing, Standard bridi form: cu

using zo'e as place-holder for, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified trailing sumti

dropping, Standard bridi form: cu

unstated emotion, Compound indicators

unusual characters

words for, The universal bu

unvoiced consonants

contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

unvoiced vowel glide

apostrophe as, The Special Lojban Characters

upper-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

upper-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

utterance

expressing relation to discourse, Discursives

utterance ordinal

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

utterance pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

utterances

non-bridi, Questions and answers

uy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

V

V

as a symbol for a single vowel, Introductory

va, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

VA selma'o

and distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

relation of words to ti

ta, tu, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

va'a, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso

va'e, Special mekso selbri

va'i, Discursives

contrasted with ke'u, Discursives

va'inai, Discursives

vague abstraction, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractor, Minor abstraction types

vague relationship

modal tag for, Modal tags: BAI

valid speech

marking as error with jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators

vanju kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

variables

logical, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

vau, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on elidability ku'o, Possessive sumti

vau for shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

ve, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ve klama, Conversion: SE

contrasted with pluta, Conversion: SE

ve'abe'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ve'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ve'o, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

vecnu, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI

vector

components of, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

vector indicator, Vectors and matrices

terminator for, Vectors and matrices

vectors

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

vei, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

veka'a, Modal tags: BAI

veljvo, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

velvel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

vemau, Comparatives and superlatives

veme'a, Comparatives and superlatives

vensa djedi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verba jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

veterinarian

example, Ordering lujvo places.

vexixa, Subscripts: XI

vi, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses

as adjective expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

vi'a, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'e, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'o

contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

vi'u, Dimensionality: VIhA

vice versa

English

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vindu firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

vinji rebla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

virtue

example, Attitudinal modifiers

viska, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

viska le, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

viska lo, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

vo, Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation

vo'a, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'a-series pro-sumti

use in expressing reciprocity with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'e, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'i, Pro-sumti summary

vo'o, Pro-sumti summary

vo'u, Pro-sumti summary

voboi mu pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

voboi renomei, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

vocative phrase

effect of position on meaning, The syntax of vocative phrases

elidable terminator for, The syntax of vocative phrases

explicit quantifiers prohibited on, The syntax of vocative phrases

forms of, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit descriptor on, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit quantifiers on, The syntax of vocative phrases

purpose of, The syntax of vocative phrases

with complete sumti, The syntax of vocative phrases

with sumti without descriptor, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase terminator

elidability of, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase with name

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrase with selbri

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrases

as a free modifier, The syntax of vocative phrases

relative clauses on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative word

phrase following, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocatives

and definition of "you", Vocative scales

contrasted with "la", Vocative scales

definition, Vocative scales

grammar overview, Vocative scales

notation convention symbol "X", Vocative scales

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

rationale for redundancy, Vocative scales

voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voiced consonants

contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

voiced/unvoiced consonants

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

vorme, Lojban sumti raising

vowel

buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel buffer

contrasted with y sound, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel pairs

contrasted with diphthongs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Vowel Pairs

grouping of, Vowel Pairs

involving y, Vowel Pairs

list of, Vowel Pairs

use of apostrophe in, Vowel Pairs

vowel-initial words

necessity for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

vowels

contrasted with consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

length of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

vu, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

vu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

vu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for creating sequence, sumti qualifiers

vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

vu'u, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

VUhU operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

vukro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

VV string

as a symbol for a double vowel, Introductory

vy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

vy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

vy.bu, Alien alphabets

W

walk to market

example, Conversion of simple selbri

want to be a soldier

example, The syntax of abstraction

wash self

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

weapon against self

example, Dropping the prenex

went and bought

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

what is your name

example, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

when

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when else

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when/where/how

example, Tense questions: cu'e

where

example, Tense questions: cu'e

whether criminal

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

whole time interval

expressing, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

window

example, The six types of logical connectives

wine-dark sea, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

word "abu"

example, References to lerfu

word "bu", The universal bu

word classes, Introductory

word forms

as related to grammatical uses, Introductory

in Lojban (see also morphology), Introductory

word quotation

as morphologically valid, Quotation summary

internal grammar of, Quotation summary

words not in the dictionary, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

wrong concept, Dependent places

X

x sub b,d

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

x sub k

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

X-ray

example, rafsi

x-sub-3

example, Subscripts

x1

in place structure notation, Introductory

notation convention

quick-tour version, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

xa rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

xaceru, fu'ivla

xagmau, Comparatives and superlatives

xagrai, Comparatives and superlatives

xamgu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Comparatives and superlatives

xampo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xamsi gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xance, Anomalous lujvo

xancypliminde, Anomalous lujvo

xanmi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xanplimi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

xaroi, Sub-events

xaskemcakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xasycakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xatsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xazdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xe, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI

xe klama, Conversion: SE

xebro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xecto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xeka'a, Modal tags: BAI

xekri, Notes on gismu place structures

xelklama, Tenses as sumti tcita

xelso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xelxel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xetexe, Conversion: SE

xexso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI

xindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xirma zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xismu, gismu

xispo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xo, Number questions, Questions and answers

xrabo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xriso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xrula tricu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

xu, The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers

xunre, Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation

xunre pastu nixli, The syntax of vocative phrases

xurdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xutla bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

xy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

xy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

xy. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Y

y

considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, Introductory

letter

between letters of consonant pair, brivla

prohibition from fu'ivla, fu'ivla

use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, Consonant Clusters

y sound

contrasted with vowel buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

y-hyphen

and consonant cluster determination, lujvo

and stress determination, lujvo

use of, lujvo

yes/no questions, Miscellaneous indicators

quick-tour version, Questions

yielding the floor, No more to say: FAhO

yon

as archaic English equivalent of tu, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

you

defining, Vocative scales

you're welcome

fi'i contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

je'e contrasted with fi'i, Vocative scales

you-cmavo

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

you-talk

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

younger

example, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

za'a, Indicators, Evidentials

za'e, Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, Considerations for making lujvo

za'i, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'u, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

zabna, Attitudinal modifiers

ZAhO selma'o, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

zai, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

zarci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types

zbasu, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zdani, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zdani co blanu, Inversion of tanru: co

zdani lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani linji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani tcadu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

zdani turni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

effect on following PU direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eba, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eca, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'epu, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'i, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

ze'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zei, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zemo'o, Utterance ordinals: MAI

zenba, Comparatives and superlatives

zepti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zerle'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zerle'a nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zernerkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

zero

relation to negation boundary, Negation boundaries

zero to one

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

zetro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zgike nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ZI selma'o

compared with VA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

compared with English and, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with logical connectives, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'o, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti

as creating new selbri, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zi'o rafsi

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

Zipf's Law, Considerations for making lujvo

zmadu, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

zo, The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zo .bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zo .djan., Other uses of mekso

zo .djan. si .djordj., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo le'u, List of cmavo interactions

zo'e, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as place-holder for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

as place-holder for unspecified sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with FA for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

contrasted with da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

zo'e-series

compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'e-series pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'i, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zo'o, Discursives

zo'obu, The universal bu

zo'u, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

zoi, The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zoi X. text .X, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zu'a, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes

derivation of word, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

zu'a ca'u, Movement in space: MOhI

zu'aku, Tense relations between sentences

zu'i, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zu'o, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

zukte, Notes on gismu place structures

zuljamfu, rafsi

zuljma, rafsi

zunle, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

zunle jamfu, rafsi

zunlyjamfu, rafsi

zunlyjma, rafsi

zy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

zy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

Lojban Examples Index

Symbols

"

"

word for, The universal bu

"&"

word for, The universal bu

"."

word for, The universal bu

"a" is letteral

example, References to lerfu

"because"

English word

four varieties of, Modal sentence connection: the causals

"la"

contrasted with vocatives, Vocative scales

"less"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"me"

effect of MOI on, Special mekso selbri

"more"

English word

expressing with relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

importance of relative phrase to, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

"no" quantifier

expanding, Negation boundaries

"of"

in English

compared with do'e, Modal tags: BAI

"or"

"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both", Logical connection and truth tables

"there is a Y"

expression

notation convention, Negation boundaries

"z" instead of "'"

in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

$, Computerized character codes

' symbol

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

definition (see also apostrophe), The Special Lojban Characters

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

(n+1)-th rat

example, Special mekso selbri

* ... le zarci fa'u le briju, Questions and answers

*gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

*reboi ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

+1 + -1 = 0

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

-1

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

-cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?

-ek

in name for logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives

-er

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

-hood, Abstract lujvo

-ity, Property abstractions

-mei, Special mekso selbri

-nai, Modal negation, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation, What are attitudinal indicators?, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

-ness, Property abstractions

-ng

Lojban contrasted with English, Syllabication And Stress

-roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

-to'e-, Expressing scales in selbri negation

... lo gerku, Quantified descriptions

.a, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.a'abu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.a'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.a'o, What are attitudinal indicators?

.a'u, More about non-logical connectives

.a'ucu'i, Propositional attitude indicators

.abu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.abu by. cy., Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

.abubu, The universal bu

.ai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Vocative scales

.ai,in bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.akut. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.alef. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.alfas., Alien alphabets

.alfas. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.au, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.azys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.bet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.betas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.bravos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.brevis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.bukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.cas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.cin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cirkumfleks. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.ctas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.curuk. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.cyVAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.daled. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.dasei,as. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.deltas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.dobros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.e, cmavo, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

contrasted with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

.e speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

.e'ebu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.ebu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ecarn. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ei, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.eibu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.eicai, Attitudes as scales

.eicu'i, Attitudes as scales

.einai, Attitudes as scales

.eiro'u, Emotional categories

.eiru'e, Attitudes as scales

.eisai, Attitudes as scales

.ekos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.eksreis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.Epsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.etas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.fokstrot. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.friytys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.gamas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.gapmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gapyjin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.gimel. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.glagolis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.golf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.grav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.i, cmavo, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.i la nas., cmene

.i'anai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'enai, Propositional attitude indicators

.i'inai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.ia, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.iabu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ianai, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives

.iankis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ibaubo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.ibu, cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ie, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Vocative scales

.ie ge'eru'e, Compound indicators

.iecu'i, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ienai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.ier. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieriys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ieru'e, Compound indicators

.ierys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iestys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ii, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales

.ii.iinai, The space of emotions

.iige'e, Miscellaneous indicators

.ija, bridi negation and logical connectives

.ije, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables

.ije seri'a, Mixed modal connection

.ije,is. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.ijebabo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

.ijeseri'abo, Mixed modal connection

.indias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.io, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers

.iotas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.iri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.iseri'abo, Modal sentence connection: the causals

.itord. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.iubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.iucai, Propositional attitude indicators

.iud. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ius. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.izu'abo, Tense relations between sentences

.jivet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.juliet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kaf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kakos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.kamats. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kapas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.keBEK. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.kilos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.kubuts. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.kuf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.limas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.liudi,ies. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.lymdas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.LYmed. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.maik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.makron. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.midgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.mus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.myslites. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.naciys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.novembr. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.nun. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.nus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.o'obu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.o'ufu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.o'unairo'a, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'i, Emotional categories

.o'unairo'o, Emotional categories

.obu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ogoniek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.oi, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators

.oicai, Propositional attitude indicators

.oinai, Compound indicators

.oinaicu'i ro'ucai, Compound indicators

.omegas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.Omikron. bu, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.onai, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

.onys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.oskar. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.paPAS. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.patax. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.pis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.pokois. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.pritygal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.psiles. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.re'akut. bu [re akut.], Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.rec. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.relmoc. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.riytsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.romios. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ros. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.seDIlys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.seGOL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.sieras. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.sigmas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.sin. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.slovos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.taf. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tangos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.taus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tcriyviys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.tildes. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tseirex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.tsis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.tyvriydos. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.u, cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

.u'u, Pure emotion indicators

.u'ubu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.u'unai, Attitudinal modifiers

.ua, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.uanai, Miscellaneous indicators

.ubu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ue, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?

.ui, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

.ui .ui .ui, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uibu, The universal bu

.uicai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.uinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

.uiskis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.ukys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.Uniform. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.uo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.Upsilon. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.uu, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators

.uuse'i, Attitudinal modifiers

.uuse'inai, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

.vav. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.vedis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.viktas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.xatcek. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.xerys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.xet. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xirik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.xolem. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.xoTEL. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

.y'y, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.y'y., Vowel Pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.y'y.bu, Alien alphabets

.y., cmavo, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions

.y.bu, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.ybu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

.zai,in. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

.zemlias. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

.zetas. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

.zulgal. bu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

.zulus. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

1 + 1 = 2

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

10^20

example, Infix operators revisited

12-point

example, Alien alphabets

123

example, Lojban numbers

2 + 2

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

2/7

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

3 * 10^8

example, Infix operators revisited

3 grams

example, Simple infix expressions and equations

3.1415

example, Signs and numerical punctuation

4-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

5-letter rafsi

definition, rafsi

9 out of ten

example, Special mekso selbri

A

a, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

example, Miscellaneous indicators

A

selma'o catalog,

A gives B to C

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A gives BC

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A loves B

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

A selma'o, sumti connection, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

a'e, Propositional attitude indicators

a/an

contrasted with the, Miscellaneous indicators

abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ABC base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

abduction

example, Evidentials

Abraham Lincoln

example, Truth questions and connective questions

absolute laws, Why have lujvo?

abstract description, Lojban sumti raising

abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo

abstraction bridi

contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, Other kinds of simple selbri

effect on claim of bridi, Modal sentence connection: the causals

abstraction conversion, Lojban sumti raising

abstraction of sentences

contrasted with quotation, Predication/sentence abstraction

abstractions

achievement, Types of event abstractions

activity, Types of event abstractions

concept, Minor abstraction types

creating new types, Minor abstraction types

event, Event abstraction

experience, Minor abstraction types

forethought connection in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

grammatical uses, The syntax of abstraction

grouping of connectives in, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

idea, Minor abstraction types

implicit in sumti, Event abstraction

logical connection of, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

making concrete, Lojban sumti raising

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

place structure, The syntax of abstraction

point-event, Types of event abstractions

process, Types of event abstractions

simplification to sumti with jai, Lojban sumti raising

simplification to sumti with tu'a, Lojban sumti raising

speaking

writing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

state, Types of event abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Event abstraction

truth-value and fuzzy logic, Truth-value abstraction: jei

vague, Minor abstraction types

with knowing

believing, etc., Predication/sentence abstraction

with wonder

doubt, etc., Indirect questions

accent mark

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

accent marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

accented letters

considered as distinct from unaccented, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Acer

example, fu'ivla

achievative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

achievement abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

achievement event

described, Types of event abstractions

acronym

definition, Acronyms

acronym names from lerfu words

assigning final consonant, Acronyms

acronyms

as lerfu strings using "me", Acronyms

using names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

acronyms names based on lerfu words

omitting bu, Acronyms

using "z" instead of "'" in, Acronyms

activity abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

activity abstractor, Types of event abstractions

activity event

described, Types of event abstractions

actual events

explicitly expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

actual stop

contrasted with natural end, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

actuality

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implying, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

addition

a mathematical operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition operator

contrasted with positive sign, Simple infix expressions and equations

addition problems

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

adjective ordering, Logical connection within tanru

adjective-noun combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adjectives

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

adverb-verb combination

with tanru, Simple tanru

adverbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

affirmative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

afraid of horse

example, Relative clauses and descriptors

after sleep

example, Propositional attitude indicators

afterthought bridi connectives

contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought connection

contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

afterthought connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with forethought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

afterthought sentence connection

modal contrasted with tense, Tenses versus modals

afterthought tense connection

contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

ai, Quotation summary, Non-decimal and compound bases

ailment, Ordering lujvo places.

akut. bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

aleph null

example, Special numbers

Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

algebra of functions

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

alienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

aliens

communication with, Tentative conclusion

all-th

example, Special mekso selbri

allowable diphthongs

in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo, fu'ivla

in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

alpha

example, Alien alphabets

alphabet

Latin used for Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Lojban, Orthography

words for letters in

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alphabetic order, Orthography

alphabets

words for non-Lojban letters

rationale, What's a letteral, anyway?

alternative guidelines, Why have lujvo?

always and everywhere

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ambiguity of tanru, Simple tanru

American dollars, Computerized character codes

American Indian languages and evidentials, Evidentials

Amharic writing, What about Chinese characters?

ampersand

example, The universal bu

ampersand character

word for, The universal bu

Amsterdam

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

an

example, Miscellaneous indicators

anaphora

definition, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-bridi go'i-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti ri-series as, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

pro-sumti vo'a-series as, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

anaphoric pro-bridi

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

anaphoric pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

and

as non-logical connective, Non-logical connectives

compared with but, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with cross-product, More about non-logical connectives

and earlier

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

and then, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

example, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

animal doctor

example, Ordering lujvo places.

animal patient, Ordering lujvo places.

animals

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

anomalous ordering of lujvo places, lujvo with more than two parts.

answers

go'i for yes/no questions, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to operator questions, Other uses of mekso

to place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

to tense-or-modal questions, Tense questions: cu'e

antecedent

for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

for pro-bridi as full bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

antecedent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

antecedent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

anticipated

example, Evidentials

any

as a restricted universal claim, The problem of “any”

as a translation problem, The problem of “any”

as a universal claim

later restricted, The problem of “any”

as an existential claim, The problem of “any”

expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, The problem of “any”

any box, The problem of “any”

anyone

contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

anyone who goes

walks

example, The problem of “any”

aorist

definition, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

apostrophe

and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, lujvo

as not a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

as preferable over comma in names, The Special Lojban Characters

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

purpose of, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

type of letter in word-formation, The Special Lojban Characters

use in vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

Appassionata

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

approximate numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

expressing some exactness of, Approximation and inexact numbers

approximately 40

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Arabian Nights, Paragraphs: NIhO

Arabic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

argument tags

based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), Tenses as sumti tcita

Armstrong

example, Syllabication And Stress

Arnold

example, cmene

arthropod, Dependent places

article

number, Simple infix expressions and equations

articles

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

Artur Rubenstein

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

ASCII

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

aspect

expressing, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

natural languages compared with respect to, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

assignable pro-sumti

explicit cancellation of by rebinding, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

assumption

example, Evidentials

asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

definition, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

asymmetrical tanru types

activity + implement-used, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cause + effect, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic-time + event, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

characteristic/detail + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

effect + causative agent, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

elements-in-set + set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

energy-source + powered, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

general-class + sub-class, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

inhabitant + habitat, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

locus-of-application + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

miscellaneous, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + component/detail, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + place-sold, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object + usual-container, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-giving-characteristic + other-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-measured + standard-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-action + action, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

possessor + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + producer, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

product + source, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purpose-of-instrument + instrument, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

set + element-of-set, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

similar-appearance-object + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source + product, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

source-material + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

typical-place + object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

undesired-object + protection-object, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

whole + part, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

at least

contrasted with more than

less than, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at least two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most

contrasted with more than

at least, less than, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

at most two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

Athens, Types of event abstractions

attend school

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

attitude

avoidance of expression, Miscellaneous indicators

scalar, Attitudes as scales

attitudes

beginning, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

ceasing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

continuing, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

empathy contrasted with sympathy, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

expressing changes in, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal

example of scale effect, Attitudes as scales

signaling as non-propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

attitudinal answers

plausibility, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal categories, Emotional categories

example of effect, Emotional categories

mnemonic for, Emotional categories

rationale, Emotional categories

attitudinal indicator

unspecified, Compound indicators

attitudinal indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

conventions of interpretation, Compound indicators

placement of "nai" in, Compound indicators

placement of scale in, Compound indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers

attitudinal questions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking about specific attitude, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

asking intensity, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

attitudinal scale

as axis in emotion-space, The space of emotions

neutral compared with positive + negative, The space of emotions

seven-position, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone usage, Attitudes as scales

usage, Attitudes as scales

attitudinal scales

rationale for assignment, Attitudes as scales

attitudinals

a- series, Propositional attitude indicators

affecting whole grammatical structures, The uses of indicators

and logic, What's wrong with this picture?

at beginning of text, The uses of indicators

attributing emotion to others, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

benefit in written expression, The uses of indicators

categories with nai, Emotional categories

categories with scale markers, Emotional categories

complexity, Attitudinal modifiers

compound, What are attitudinal indicators?

contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

contrasted with bridi, Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions

contrasted with discursives, Discursives

contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, The space of emotions

design benefit, The space of emotions

e- series, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional contrasted with propositional, Propositional attitude indicators

emotional/propositional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

exceptions, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

external grammar, The uses of indicators

grammar of internal compounding, Compound indicators

grammar of placement in bridi, The uses of indicators

i- series, Propositional attitude indicators

internal grammar

complete, Compound indicators

logical language and, Propositional attitude indicators

negative, Attitudes as scales

neutral, Attitudes as scales

non-speaker attitudes, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

order of, The space of emotions

placement for prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

placement in sentences with "nai", Compound indicators

positive, Attitudes as scales

prevailing attitude, What are attitudinal indicators?

propositional contrasted with emotional, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional effect on claim, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional/emotional caveat, Propositional attitude indicators

rationale for, Propositional attitude indicators

referent uncertainty, The uses of indicators

scale of, Attitudes as scales

stand-alone categories, Emotional categories

word-form for primary, What are attitudinal indicators?

au, Non-decimal and compound bases

audio-visual isomorphism, Orthography

audio-visually isomorphic, Sentences: I

auditoriums, Dependent places

author of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

Avon

example, Modal tags: BAI

B

ba, Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

ba'a, Evidentials

ba'acu'i, Evidentials

ba'anai, Evidentials

ba'e, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

ba'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as futureward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

back-counting pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

background noise, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

BAhE

selma'o catalog,

bai, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection

BAI

selma'o catalog,

BAI cmavo

rationale for selection, Modal tags: BAI

bai ke, Modal selbri

BAI ki ku, Sticky modals

BAI modal tags

rationale for, Modal tags: BAI

BAI selma'o, Modal conversion: JAI

as short forms for fi'o constructs, Modal tags: BAI

effect of conversion on, Modal tags: BAI

form of cmavo in, Modal tags: BAI

bai tavla, Modal selbri

bai'ai, cmavo

bajra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

bakni rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakni verba, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bakrecpa'o, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bakri, rafsi

balsoi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo

balvi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals

bangu, Lojban names

banli, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

banli sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

bapli tavla, Modal selbri

bapu, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

barda, Simple tanru

base

assumed, Non-decimal and compound bases

changing permanently, Non-decimal and compound bases

non-constant, Non-decimal and compound bases

specifying, Non-decimal and compound bases

vague, Non-decimal and compound bases

base greater than 16

compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing numbers in, Non-decimal and compound bases

two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, Non-decimal and compound bases

base point

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

base varying for each digit

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

base-20 arithmetic

remnants of, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

basis

example, Evidentials

basti, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

basygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

batci, Dropping the prenex

bau, Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals

bavla'i, lujvo with more than two parts.

bavlamdei, lujvo with more than two parts.

baxso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

be, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

be lo, Minor abstraction types

be'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?

effect of ku on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect of relative clauses on elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

be'u, Attitudinal modifiers

beach

example, Property abstractions

bear wrote story

example, The three basic description types

Bears wrote book

example, Individuals and masses

beautiful dog

example, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

beefsteak, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Beethoven

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

beetle

example, Dependent places

beetles, Dependent places

begin

contrasted with resume, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

beginning point

spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

bei, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

being alive

example, Types of event abstractions

bemro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bengo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

bersa tixnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

berti merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

better

example, Comparatives and superlatives

between Dresden and Frankfurt

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

beverage

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect on following operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

bi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

bi'u, Miscellaneous indicators

bi'unai, Miscellaneous indicators

bibliography, Informal Bibliography

bicycle race

example, Minor abstraction types

bifce jisra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce lakse, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

bifce zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

big boat

example, lujvo

big nose

example, What are you pointing at?

big nose-pores

example, What are you pointing at?

big person

example, What are you pointing at?

big red dog

example, Logical connection within tanru

BIhI selma'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Bill Clinton

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

bilma, rafsi

binary system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

bindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

birka, Relative phrases

bisycla, brivla

blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

blabi karce, Incidental relative clauses

blaci, rafsi

blaci kanla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo sidju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

blakanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

blanu bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je bolci, Logical connection within tanru

blanu je zdani, Logical connection within tanru

blanu kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blanu zdani, Logical connection within tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blanu zdani ponse, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

blari'o, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti

blaselkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

blokle, lujvo-making examples

blolei, lujvo-making examples

bloti, lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

bloti klesi, lujvo-making examples

blue

as sad

example, Miscellaneous indicators

blue and red

example, Non-logical connectives

blue house

example, Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru

blue-eyed

example, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for right-grouping in tanru, Complex tanru grouping

in jeks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in joiks for operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

right-grouping, Grouping of afterthought connectives

bo and forethought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives

BO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

boat class

example, lujvo-making examples

boat sailed

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

boi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI

effect on elidability of me'u, Special mekso selbri

eliding from lerfu strings, lerfu words as pro-sumti

exception before MAI, Other uses of mekso

exception before MOI, Special mekso selbri

exception before ROI, Other uses of mekso

required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, lerfu words as pro-sumti

bold

example, Alien alphabets

bomb destroyed fifty miles

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

bone bread

example, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

books about Lojban, Informal Bibliography

borrowing

four stages of, fu'ivla

borrowing from other language

fu'ivla as, brivla

borrowings

fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, fu'ivla

most common form for, fu'ivla

Stage 1, fu'ivla

Stage 2, fu'ivla

Stage 3, fu'ivla

Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, fu'ivla

Stage 4, fu'ivla

using foreign-language name, fu'ivla

using lojbanized name, fu'ivla

Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

both dogs

example, Indefinite numbers

bound variable pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

bovine

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

bracketed remark, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

brackets

use in IPA notation, Basic Phonetics

bradi, The gismu creation algorithm

brazo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

breathe

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

bredi, The gismu creation algorithm

bridi, The concept of the bridi, Syllabication And Stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions

building from selbri and sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with predication, The concept of the bridi

concept of, The concept of the bridi

definition, Lojban content words: brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

effect of alternate form on sumti order, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of using non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

exception to sumti place structure in, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

leaving end sumti places unspecified in, Standard bridi form: cu

logical connection with negation, Logical connection of bridi

logical connective for, Logical connection of bridi

non-standard form, Standard bridi form: cu

omitting the first sumti place, Standard bridi form: cu

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

relation to selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

selbri-first as exceptional, Standard bridi form: cu

standard form of, Standard bridi form: cu

bridi cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

bridi connection

use of imperatives in, Truth questions and connective questions

use of truth questions in, Truth questions and connective questions

bridi logical connection

compared with sumti logical connections, sumti connection

bridi negation

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

compared with negation between sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, Negation boundaries

naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, Negation boundaries

relative order with tense, Tenses and bridi negation

two forms of, Negation boundaries

bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

bridi questions

quick-tour version, Questions

bridi valsi, lujvo, rafsi

bridi-based comparison

contrasted with comparison with relative phrase

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

bridi-tail

definition, Compound bridi

bridi-tail logical connection

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

bridi-tails

eliding vau in, Compound bridi

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

bridyvalsi, lujvo

bridyvla, lujvo

brie

example, fu'ivla

brife molki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

briju ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

brito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

brivalsi, lujvo

brivla, Examples of brivla, Syllabication And Stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

consonant pairs in, brivla

definition, brivla

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

from tanru, lujvo

properties of, brivla

recognition of, brivla

relation to bridi, The concept of the bridi

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

subtypes of, brivla

types, Lojban content words: brivla

types of

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

brivla as selbri, Lojban content words: brivla

brivla equivalents, Other kinds of simple selbri

brivla form

contrasted with cmavo form, brivla

contrasted with cmene form, brivla

broda, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

broda-series for pro-bridi

compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as abstract pattern, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use as sample gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with no assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

word-form rationale, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

brode, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI

brodi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodo, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

brodu, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI

Brooklyn

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

brothers

example, Non-logical connectives

Brown

James Cooke, Acknowledgements and Credits

and "letteral", What's a letteral, anyway?

John

example, cmene

brudi, The gismu creation algorithm

bu, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions

and compound cmavo, The universal bu

effect of multiple, The universal bu

effect on preceding word, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for extension of lerfu word set, The universal bu

grammar of, The universal bu

interaction with ba'e, The universal bu

interaction with language shift, Alien alphabets

omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, Acronyms

bu'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'a zo'u, selbri variables

bu'a-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

bu'e, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'i, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

bu'o, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'ocu'i, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'onai, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compared with ca, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

bubu, The universal bu

budjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

buffer vowel, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

and stress, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

shortening of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

bukpu spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Bulgarian

example, fu'ivla

but

compared with and, Truth questions and connective questions

example, Discursives

but/and equivalence, Indicators

butter is soft

example, Individuals and masses

butterfly

social

example, tanru

by, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

by., rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti

by. cy., lerfu words as pro-sumti

C

C string

as a symbol for a single consonant, Introductory

C/C string

as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, Introductory

C/CC string

as a symbol for a consonant triple, Introductory

ca, Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

compared with bu'u, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

rational for, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ca ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

ca'a, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ca'e, Evidentials

ca'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cabna, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

cadzu, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu cipni, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cadzu klama, Conversion of simple selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

cadzu le bisli, Modal selbri

cafne, Lojban sumti raising

cagyce'u, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cagyce'u zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

CAhA selma'o

making sticky, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

order in tense construct, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

cai, Attitudes as scales

cakcinki, Dependent places

calculator mathematics

as default in Lojban, Simple infix expressions and equations

calku, Dependent places

calku cinki, Dependent places

calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

can see

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

canceling letter shifts, Alien alphabets

cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment

with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

capital letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

use of, Orthography

capitalization

for unusual stress in names, cmene

use in names, cmene

use of, cmene

car goer

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

cardinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

cardinality

definition, Masses and sets

property of sets, Masses and sets

carlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

carried piano

example, Non-logical connectives

carry sack

example, Mixed modal connection

carry sack and dog

example, Tensed logical connectives

carry the piano

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Cartesian product

with tenses, Sub-events

Carthage destroyed

example, Evidentials

carvi dirgo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

carvi taxfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

case

upper/lower specification, Upper and lower cases

casnu, More about non-logical connectives

cat of plastic

example, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

Catherine

example, cmene

Cathy

example, cmene

causals

claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, Modal sentence connection: the causals

gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

cause death

example, Lojban sumti raising

cave

example, Story time

CC string

as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, Introductory

CCVVCV fu'ivla

and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ce, cmavo, Non-logical connectives

ce'a, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

ce'e, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

ce'i, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

ce'o, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Amount abstractions

use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

cedilla

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cei, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

cei for broda-series assignment

compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

centi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cerni bumru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cessitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cevni jenmi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni prenu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cevni zekri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ch-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

chapter numbering, Other uses of mekso

chapter titles

intent of, What is this book?

character codes

definition, Computerized character codes

character encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

characters

definition, Computerized character codes

special, The Special Lojban Characters

Chelsea Clinton, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

chemical elements

use of single-letter shift for, Upper and lower cases

Chief

example, cmene

child on ice

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Chilean desert

example, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

Chinese characters

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on pinyin spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

choose from

example, Non-logical connectives

Chrysler

example, selbri based on sumti: me

ci, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation

ci da, A few notes on variables

ci gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci lo gerku, Grouping of quantifiers

ci'ajbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ci'e, Metalinguistic negation forms

ci'u, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

CIA

example, Acronyms

cidja, fu'ivla

cidja barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cidjrspageti, fu'ivla

cifi'uxa, Special mekso selbri

cifnu degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinctu, lujvo-making examples

cinfo, Notes on gismu place structures

cinfo jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinfo kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cinki, Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures

cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

cipnrstrigi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

circumflex

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

cirla, fu'ivla

ciste, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

citmau, Comparatives and superlatives

citno, Comparatives and superlatives

citno zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

ckana boxfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Dependent places

ckule dinju, Dependent places

ckunu tricu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cladakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakfu xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts.

cladakyxa'i zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

clamshells, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

clani, lujvo with more than two parts.

clarity of sounds, Basic Phonetics

Classical Greek aorist tense

compared with Lojban tense, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

cliva, Dependent places

closed interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

closings

letter, Vocative scales

cmaci, fu'ivla

cmacrnintegrale, fu'ivla

cmacrntegrale, fu'ivla

cmalu, Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

cmalu bo nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, Complex tanru grouping

cmalu nixli ckule, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

cmalu valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

cmaro'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmaro'i dargu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cmavo, Variant bridi structure, Syllabication And Stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

compound, cmavo

contrasted with rafsi in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, lujvo

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, cmavo

experimental, cmavo

for experimental use, cmavo

lack of relation of form to grammatical use, cmavo

rules for pause after Cy-form, Rules for inserting pauses

simple, cmavo

stress on, Syllabication And Stress, cmavo

structure of, cmavo

cmavo and gismu

major, gismu

cmavo as selbri

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

cmavo be zo do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

cmavo form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmavo without rafsi

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

cmene, cmene

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

and analyzability of speech stream, cmene

as one of the 3 basic word classes, Introductory

authority for, cmene

avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, cmene

consonant clusters permitted in, cmene

definition, cmene

examples of, cmene

final letter in, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

proscribed syllables in, cmene

purpose of, cmene

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

rules for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

stress in, cmene

unusual stress in, cmene

cmene form

contrasted with brivla form, brivla

cmima, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation

co'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

as selbri place-holder, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

rationale for word form, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'e-series pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

co'i, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

co'o, Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

co'o la xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'o le xirma, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

co'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

cobra

example, fu'ivla

coffee mixed with tea

example, More about non-logical connectives

coffee or tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

coi, Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases

coi doi djan., Vocative scales

COI selma'o, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Relative clauses in vocative phrases, Vocative scales

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

effect on referent of "do", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

effect on referent of "mi", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ordering multiple with mi'e, Vocative scales

coico'o, Vocative scales

coin heads

example, Special mekso selbri

coinai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

Coleoptera, Dependent places

color standards, Notes on gismu place structures

comma

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

effect on relative clause in English, Incidental relative clauses

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

main use of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

variant of, The Special Lojban Characters

command

contrasted with observative form, Standard bridi form: cu

commands

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

commas in numbers

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of other notation conventions, Signs and numerical punctuation

with elided digits, Signs and numerical punctuation

common abstractor, Event abstraction

commutative truth functions, The Four basic vowels

comparative lujvo

against former state, Comparatives and superlatives

and seltau presupposition, Comparatives and superlatives

potential ambiguity in, Comparatives and superlatives

standardized meanings, Comparatives and superlatives

comparatives

use of zmadu in forming, rafsi

comparison

claims related to based on form, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

comparison with relative phrase

contrasted with bridi-based comparison

in claims about parts, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

completitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

complex logical connection

grouping strategies contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex logical connectives

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

complex movements

expressing, Movement in space: MOhI

complex negation

examples, Scalar negation of selbri

complex numbers

expressing, Special numbers

components contrasted with mass

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

compound base

definition, Non-decimal and compound bases

expressing digits in, Non-decimal and compound bases

separator for, Non-decimal and compound bases

compound bridi

definition, Compound bridi

logical connection of, Compound bridi

more than one sumti in common, Compound bridi

multiple with bo, Multiple compound bridi

multiple with ke…ke'e, Multiple compound bridi

one sumti in common, Compound bridi

separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, Multiple compound bridi

compound bridi with more than one sumti in common

with common sumti first, Compound bridi

with vau, Compound bridi

compound cmavo

compared with sequence of simple cmavo, cmavo

definition, cmavo

recognition of, cmavo

compound emotions, The space of emotions

compound letters

native language

representing as distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

compound logical connectives

components, The six types of logical connectives

naming convention, The six types of logical connectives

compound of gismu

lujvo as, brivla

compound spatial tense

as direction with-or-without distance, Compound spatial tenses

beginning with distance only, Compound spatial tenses

effect of different ordering, Compound spatial tenses

explanation of, Compound spatial tenses

with direction and distance, Compound spatial tenses

compound subscript, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

compound temporal tense

beginning with distance only, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

compound tense

compared with multiple tenses in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Compound spatial tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, Compound spatial tenses

compound tense ordering

Lojban contrasted with English, Compound spatial tenses

computer interaction, No more to say: FAhO

concept abstraction, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

concept abstractor, Minor abstraction types

concrete terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

condescension

example, Attitudinal modifiers

confusion

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

confusion about what was said, Miscellaneous indicators

conjunctions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

connected tenses

negation of compared with negation in connective, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

connecting operands

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting operators

with bo in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

with ke in connective, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection

non-distributed, Non-logical connectives

of sumti

selma'o catalog,

simultaneously modal and logical, Mixed modal connection

connection of operands

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

precedence over operator, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connection of operators

grouping, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connective answers

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connective question answers

contrasted with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

connective question cmavo

departure from regularity of, Truth questions and connective questions

connective questions

answering, Truth questions and connective questions

compared with other languages, Truth questions and connective questions

non-logical, More about non-logical connectives

connectives

as complete grammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

table by constructs connected, Constructs and appropriate connectives

consonant

definition, Consonant Clusters

effect on syllable count, Consonant Clusters

consonant clusters

buffering of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

definition of, Consonant Clusters

more than three consonants in, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant pairs

in brivla, brivla

initial, Initial Consonant Pairs

letter y within, brivla

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

consonant triples, Initial Consonant Pairs

restrictions on, Initial Consonant Pairs

consonant-final words

necessity for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

consonants

contrasted with vowels, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final, Consonant Clusters

position of, Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

syllabic, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

voiced/unvoiced equivalents, Consonant Clusters

voicing of, Consonant Clusters

continents

gismu for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

continues

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuous

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

contradictory negation

using naku before selbri, Using naku outside a prenex

contradictory negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

contradictory negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

contributors to this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

conversion

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

definition, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on BAI, Modal tags: BAI

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

modal, Modal conversion: JAI

of BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

of operator places, Miscellany

scope of, Conversion: SE

swapping non-first places, Conversion: SE

swapping with modal place, Modal conversion: JAI

conversion and tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion into sumti from mekso, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

conversion of operand into operator, Miscellany

conversion of operator into operand, Miscellany

conversion of operator into selbri, Other uses of mekso

conversion of selbri into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of selbri into operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sentence with quantified variables

technique, Using naku outside a prenex

conversion of sumti into operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

conversion of sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

conversion with ke, Conversion of simple selbri

conversion with se

effect of naku negation boundary on, Using naku outside a prenex

converted selbri

as different selbri from unconverted, Conversion: SE

as resetting standard order, Conversion: SE

compared with selbri with FA in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted with other similar selbri, Conversion: SE

contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, Conversion: SE

definition, Conversion: SE

forming with SE, Conversion: SE

in descriptions, Conversion: SE

place structure of, Conversion: SE

retention of basic meaning in, Conversion: SE

to access non-first place in description, Conversion: SE

cpina rokci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cpumi'i lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

creative understanding, Why have lujvo?

credits for pictures, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

cribe, The three basic description types

cribe rectu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

crisa citsi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

critu lunra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cross product

with tenses, Sub-events

cross-dependency, Dependent places

cross-product

contrasted with and, More about non-logical connectives

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

ctcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ctigau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

ctile jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cu, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions

as selbri separator, Standard bridi form: cu

effect of selbri-first bridi on, Tagging places: FA

effect of tense specification, Introductory

effect on elidability of ku, The three basic description types

effect on elidable terminators, Standard bridi form: cu

necessity of, Standard bridi form: cu

need for

quick-tour version, Description sumti

omission of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

use of

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

usefulness of, Standard bridi form: cu

cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers

combining with other tense cmavo, Tense questions: cu'e

cu'i, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions

cu'o, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

cu'u, cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

cukta barja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cukta vasru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

cultural knowledge

example, Evidentials

cultural words

rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

culturally dependent lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

cunso, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cup's friend

example, Relative phrases

curious, Predication/sentence abstraction

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

curnu jalra, Some types of symmetrical tanru

cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

cutci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

cuxna, Non-logical connectives

cy, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Cy-form cmavo

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

cy., cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

cycles, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

Cyrillic alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da, Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with zo'e, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da poi, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi

da poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da prami de, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

contrasted with da prami da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

DA selma'o, Subscripts: XI

da viska mi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da zo'u, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

da'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

default number for, Indefinite numbers

da'amei, brivla

da'amoi terbasna, Syllabication And Stress

da'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

da'i, Discursives

da'inai, Discursives

da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions

for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

syntax of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

da'u, Pro-sumti summary

da-series

after third, Subscripts: XI

da-series pro-sumti

for bound variables, Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dadysli junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daGEC. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dai, cmene, Lojban names, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

dakfu, lujvo with more than two parts.

dalmikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

danlu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

daxivo, Subscripts: XI

de, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

de'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

de'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

de'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

de'u, Pro-sumti summary

decimal point

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

effect of different notations, Signs and numerical punctuation

in bases other than 10, Non-decimal and compound bases

decti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

deduction

example, Evidentials

default operator precedence

contrasted with mekso goal, Simple infix expressions and equations

deference

example, Attitudinal modifiers

definable pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

sequences of lerfu words as, Pro-sumti summary

definite numbers

combined with indefinite, Indefinite numbers

dei, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

dejni, Multiple compound bridi

dekto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

delno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

demonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

demonstrative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

DeMorgan's Law

and bridi-tail logical connection, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and internal naku negations, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and logically connected sentences, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

sample applications, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci genja, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denci pesxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

denpa, The universal bu

denpa bu, The universal bu

denpabu, The universal bu

denPAbu, The universal bu

dereferencing a pointer

with la'e, sumti qualifiers

derivational morphology

definition, Introductory

derogatory terms, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

descriptions

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

as based on first place of following selbri, Conversion: SE

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

components of, The three basic description types

importance of selbri first place in, The three basic description types

non-specific, The three basic description types

quick-tour version, Description sumti

specific, The three basic description types

types of, The three basic description types

use of SE in, Conversion: SE

descriptions with lo

teddy bear contrasted with real bear, The three basic description types

descriptor

as part of description, The three basic description types

descriptors

implicit quantifiers for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

purpose of, The three basic description types

Devanagari

example, Alien alphabets

dexivo, Subscripts: XI

di, cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, selbri variables, A few notes on variables

di'a, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

di'e, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives

effect of tu'e/tu'u on, More about non-logical connectives

di'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with la'edi'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with ta, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

diacritic marks

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

diacritical marks

as lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

considered as forming distinct letters, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

order of specification within tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem of position, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

problem with multiple on one lerfu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

specifying with tei…foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

dictionary

superior authority of, Disclaimers

die after living

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

digit questions, Number questions

digit string

definition of, Other uses of mekso

digits

cmavo for, Lojban numbers

names from, Miscellany

rafsi for, Miscellany

rationale for having 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

digits beyond 9

word pattern, Non-decimal and compound bases

dikca tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dimension

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

dimensionality

of walking, Dimensionality: VIhA

order with size in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensionality of interval

as subjective, Dimensionality: VIhA

dimensioned numbers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

dinju, fu'ivla

diphthongs

classification of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

contrasted with vowel pairs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

English analogues of, English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

IPA for, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

list of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

specific to cmene, cmene

specific to names, cmene

direct address, Vocative scales

direction

following interval in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interaction with movement specification in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

reference frame for, Movement in space: MOhI

specification with FAhA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

directions

multiple with movement, Movement in space: MOhI

disambiguated instance, The meaning of lujvo

disclaimers, Disclaimers

discourse

commentary on, Discursives

expressing utterance relation to, Discursives

gesture markers, Discursives

tone of voice markers, Discursives

discrete

of tense intervals, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

discursive indicator, Paragraphs: NIhO

discursives

as metalinguistic claims, Discursives

contrasted with attitudinals, Discursives

definition, Discursives

discourse commentary, Discursives

discourse management, Discursives

embedded, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

expressing how things are said, Discursives

knowledge, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

quick-tour version, Indicators

su'a as, Evidentials

word-level, Discursives

discursives for consecutive discourse, Discursives

contrasted, Discursives

discursives for managing discourse flow, Discursives

discuss in language

example, More about non-logical connectives

distance

order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

specification with VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distributing a negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

distribution of quantified sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

ditto

example, Discursives

diversified species, Notes on gismu place structures

djacu barna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu calkyguzme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

djacu dertu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

djacu dunda, Modal sentence connection: the causals

djedi, lujvo with more than two parts.

djica, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

djine, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

djinrnintegrale, fu'ivla

djuno, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

DNA

example, Acronyms

do, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

do brode, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

do klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

do nelci mi, Tenses versus modals

do'a, Discursives

do'anai, Discursives

do'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

compared with English "of", Modal tags: BAI

do'i, cmene, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

do'o, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

do'u, The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales

doctor and then rich

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

dog bites

example, Dropping the prenex

dog breathes, Restricted claims: da poi

dog house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

dog or cat

example, Truth questions and connective questions

doghouse

example, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo

dogs bite

example, Grouping of quantifiers

doi, Vocatives and commands, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, The syntax of vocative phrases, Lojban names, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

effect on pause before name, Vocative scales

doi .io, Vocative scales

doi .ionai, Vocative scales

doi frank., Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

doi ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

DOI selma'o, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

doinai, Vocative scales

Dong

example, Ordering lujvo places.

donma'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

donri nicte, Some types of symmetrical tanru

donta'a, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dotco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

double negation

and naku, Using naku outside a prenex

double negatives

effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, Negation boundaries

double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

doubled consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with single consonants, Consonant Clusters

Doyle

example, Lojban names

dream

example, Evidentials

du, Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary

as an exception within GOhA selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

compared with me in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

contrasted with dunli, The identity predicate: du

contrasted with mintu, The identity predicate: du

derivation of, The identity predicate: du

grammar of, Simple infix expressions and equations

meaning of, The identity predicate: du

rationale for selection of selma'o for, The identity predicate: du

with complex mekso on both sides, Simple infix expressions and equations

du'e, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

du'e ratcu, Special mekso selbri

du'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

du-, lujvo based on pro-sumti

dubjavmau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

dubjavme'a, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

ducks swim

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

dunda, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

dunda gi'abo lebna, Multiple compound bridi

dunli, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

dunra nicte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

dy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

dy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

dy.bu, Alien alphabets

dzipo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

E

e, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

contrasted with pi'u, More about non-logical connectives

e'e, Attitudinal modifiers

e'o, Vocative scales

contrasted with pe'u, Vocative scales

e'u, Syllabication And Stress, Evidentials

compared with ru'a, Evidentials

Earl

example, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

eat in airplane

example, Movement in space: MOhI

eat themselves

example, Indefinite numbers

editorial commentary, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

with "sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

ei, Non-decimal and compound bases

Einsteinian

space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, Dimensionality: VIhA

ek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

eks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in sumti forethought logical connection, sumti connection

elementary schools, Dependent places

Elgin

Suzette Haden and evidentials, Evidentials

elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

elidability of me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

elided tense

meaning of, Introductory

elimination process, Ordering lujvo places.

ellipsis

quick-tour version, Some simple Lojban bridi

elliptical pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

elliptical value

contrasted with typical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

embarrassment

example, Emotional categories

embedded bridi tenses

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

emotional categories, Emotional categories

emotional indicators

noticeable effects of, Tentative conclusion

emotional scale, Attitudes as scales

emotions

compound, The space of emotions

cultural bias of expression, Tentative conclusion

insights, The space of emotions

recording using indicators, Tentative conclusion

research using indicators, Tentative conclusion

when expressed, The space of emotions

empathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

emphasis

changing by using non-standard form of bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

marking

selma'o catalog,

end of file, No more to say: FAhO

endpoints

inclusion in interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

engineering

example, Some simple Lojban bridi

English "we"

contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

English prepositions

contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

Englishman in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

enough currency

example, Indefinite numbers

enough-th

example, Special mekso selbri

equivalents to brivla, Other kinds of simple selbri

erasure

multiple word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

names, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

quotes, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

total, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

word, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

error marking

metalinguistic, Miscellaneous indicators

ete, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

event abstractions, Event abstraction

types, Types of event abstractions

event contours

achievative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as characteristic portions of events, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

as timeless in perspective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

cessative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

completitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

continuitive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

definition, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

division of the event into, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

inchoative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

initiative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

interruption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

order with respect to TAhE and ROI, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pausative, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

points associated with, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumption, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

strings of, Sub-events

superfective, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

syntax of, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

temporal contrasted with spatial, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

event contours as sumti tcita

contrasted with direction and distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

event types

described, Types of event abstractions

event-relative viewpoint

contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

events

considered as a process, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

duration, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

everybody loves something

example, Negation boundaries

everyone

contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, The problem of “any”

everyone bitten by dog, Dropping the prenex

everything

expressing with "ro da", Universal claims

everything breathes

example, Restricted claims: da poi

everything loves everything

example, Universal claims

everything sees me

example, Universal claims

everything sees something

example, Universal claims

evidentials

ba'a scale, Evidentials

definition, Evidentials

grammar, Evidentials

in English, Evidentials

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

inspiration for, Evidentials

ja'o contrasted with su'a, Evidentials

ka'u contrasted with se'o, Evidentials

placement in bridi, Evidentials

quick-tour version, Indicators

rhetorical flavor, Evidentials

scales, Evidentials

se'o contrasted with ka'u, Evidentials

su'a contrasted with ja'o, Evidentials

exact number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

example of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples

structure of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

examples in this book, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

except from 10 to 12

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

existential

mixed claim with universal, Universal claims

existential claims

definition, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

existential variable

in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, The problem of “any”

in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, The problem of “any”

expanding "no" quantifier, Negation boundaries

experience abstraction, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

experience abstractor, Minor abstraction types

experienced

example, Evidentials

experimental cmavo

definition, cmavo

forms for, cmavo

exponential notation

with base other than 10, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

exporting negation to prenex

"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, Using naku outside a prenex

internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", Using naku outside a prenex

external bridi negation

compared to internal bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

extrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16

example, Non-decimal and compound bases

fa, Tagging places: FA

FA in selbri

compared with converted selbri in meaning, Conversion: SE

contrasted converted selbri with in structure, Conversion: SE

FA selma'o

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

as a reminder of place in place structure, Tagging places: FA

avoidance of complex usage of, Tagging places: FA

compared with zo'e for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure, Tagging places: FA

effect on place structure order, Tagging places: FA

effect on subsequent non-tagged places, Tagging places: FA

for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, Tagging places: FA

for putting more than one sumti in a single place, Tagging places: FA

syntax of, Tagging places: FA

FA tags and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

fa'a, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

fa'o, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

fa'u, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

compared to termsets, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, Non-logical connectives

face

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

fadni, Masses and sets

fagri, Why have lujvo?

fagri dapma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fagri festi, Why have lujvo?

fagyfesti, Why have lujvo?

FAhA selma'o, Tense negation

and direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

use in specifying space/time mapping direction, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fai, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo

as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

effect on numbering of place structure places, Modal conversion: JAI

false statement

implications of, Logical connection of bridi

fancy A

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy E

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy O

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

fancy U

notation convention, The Four basic vowels

far away from the nearby park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

fasnu, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

fast talker

example, tanru

fast-talker shoe

example, tanru

father

example, The concept of the bridi

father mother

example, lujvo

fau, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

faxixa, Subscripts: XI

fe, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fe'a, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

fe'e, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

fe'omi'e, Vocative scales

fe'u, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri

femti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

fenki litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

festi, Why have lujvo?

festi lante, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

fetsygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

fewsome

example, Special mekso selbri

fi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi

fi'a, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers

effect on subsequent untagged sumti, Tagging places: FA

fi'a do, Tagging places: FA

fi'e, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'i, Vocative scales

fi'o, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals

and modal conversion, Modal conversion: JAI

as modal tag, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on following selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

mixed modal connection with, Mixed modal connection

proscribed for sticky modals, Sticky modals

restriction on use, Other modal connections

use in adding places to place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o constructs

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o kanla le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o modal followed by selbri

effect on eliding fe'u, Modal selbri

fi'o modals

negation of by negating selbri, Modal negation

usage in relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

fi'o pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o pilno fe'u, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno, Modal tags: BAI

fi'o se pilno [fe'u], Modal tags: BAI

fi'o tag

relation of modal sumti following to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri

meaning of, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o-, Other modal connections, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Mixed modal connection, Modal conversion: JAI

fi'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany

Fido

example, Dropping the prenex

field rations

example, lujvo

figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

place structure, Miscellaneous indicators

figurative speech, Miscellaneous indicators

filso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

final syllable stress

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

finish

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finished

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

finpe nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

finti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

first rat

example, Special mekso selbri

firstly

example, Other uses of mekso

fish eat

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

fish on right

example, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

flashbacks in story time

example, Story time

fleas, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

flexible vocabulary, brivla

floating point numbers

expressing, Infix operators revisited

flow of discourse

managing with discursives, Discursives

fo, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri

fo'a, Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'e, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'i, Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series

fo'o, Pro-sumti summary

fo'u, Pro-sumti summary

foi, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

foldi smacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

folk quantifiers

expressing, Using Lojban resources within mekso

font

example, Alien alphabets

specifying for letters, Alien alphabets

food

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

foreman of a jury

example, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

forethought bridi connection

as grammatically one sentence, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi connectives

contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, Forethought bridi connection

forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule for tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connection

contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, Truth questions and connective questions

definition, Other modal connections

in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

observatives, Multiple compound bridi

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought connections

modal compared with tense in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connectives

as ungrammatical utterance, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with afterthought connectives, Forethought bridi connection

with tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought connectives and bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

forethought intervals

GAhO position, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

forethought logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

forethought logical connectives in tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

forethought modal sentence connection, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first bridi in, Other modal connections

relation to modal of second bridi in, Other modal connections

forethought modal sentence connection for causals

order of cause and effect, Other modal connections

forethought tanru connection, Logical connection within tanru

forethought tense connection

contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, Tenses versus modals

forethought tense connection of bridi-tails

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of sumti

order of, Tense relations between sentences

forethought termsets

logical connection of, Termset logical connection

formal requirement

example, Attitudes as scales

former market

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

former state, Comparatives and superlatives

formulae

expressing based on pure dimensions, Using Lojban resources within mekso

four "e"s

example, References to lerfu

Four score and seven

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

fourteen "e"s, What's a letteral, anyway?

fraction

meaning with elided numerator and denominator, Special numbers

fractions

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

numerator default, Signs and numerical punctuation

fragmentary text, Miscellaneous indicators

Frank is a fool

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

fraso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

free modifiers

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

friend's cup

example, Relative phrases

friko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

frinu, Miscellany

from one to two o'clock

example, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

fu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Tagging places: FA

fu'a, Reverse Polish notation

fu'e, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

fu'ivla

algorithm for constructing, fu'ivla

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as Stage 3 borrowings, fu'ivla

as Stage 4 borrowings, fu'ivla

categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, fu'ivla

considerations for choosing basis word, fu'ivla

consonant clusters in, fu'ivla

construction of, fu'ivla

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

diphthongs in, fu'ivla

disambiguation of, fu'ivla

form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

form of, fu'ivla

initial consonant cluster in, fu'ivla

method of including in lujvo, rafsi

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rules for formation of, fu'ivla

stress in, fu'ivla

uniqueness of meaning in, fu'ivla

use of, fu'ivla

with invalid diphthongs, fu'ivla

fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

for distinguishing fu'ivla form, fu'ivla

for distinguishing specialized meanings, fu'ivla

selection consideration for, fu'ivla

fu'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions

fukpi valsi, fu'ivla

fully reduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

function f of x

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

function name

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

future event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

futureward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, Truth-value abstraction: jei

fy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

fy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany

fy. le'u si si si, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GA selma'o, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ga'e, Upper and lower cases

ga'e .abu, Upper and lower cases

ga'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'icu'i, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'inai, Attitudinal modifiers

ga'o, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gadri, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti

GAhO position in forethought intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

GAhO selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

grammar of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

galfi, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

galtu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

ganai, Forethought bridi connection

ganlo, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

gapru, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures

gasnu lo citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

gau, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ge, lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

ge ... gi, Modal selbri

ge'a, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

ge'a gei, Reverse Polish notation

ge'e, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators

ge'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

ge'o, Alien alphabets

ge'u, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases

effect of following logical connective on elidability, Relative phrases

elidability of from relative phrases, Relative phrases

ge'u-zdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'urzdani, lujvo-making examples

ge'uzda, lujvo-making examples

gei, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

as a binary operator, Infix operators revisited

as a ternary operator, Infix operators revisited

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

gek

definition, Forethought bridi connection

gek bridi connectives

contrasted with ijeks, Forethought bridi connection

gekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

geks

connecting operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in forethought sumti connection, sumti connection

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

General American, IPA For English Speakers

general sumti

contrasted with operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

general terms, Notes on gismu place structures

gento, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

gerku, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo

gerku bo kavbu, Complex tanru grouping

gerku zdani, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo

gerkyzda, lujvo-making examples

gerkyzdani, lujvo-making examples

German rich man

example, Grouping of afterthought connectives

gerselzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

gerzda, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

gerzdani, lujvo-making examples

Gettysburg Address

example, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

gi, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

GI selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

gi'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'e, Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'i, Questions and answers

gi'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gicmu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

gigdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

GIhA selma'o, Compound bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

gihek

definition, Compound bridi

giheks

syntax of, Compound bridi

gik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Forethought bridi connection

giks

syntax of, Forethought bridi connection

girls' school

little

example, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

girzu, lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

gismu, The concept of the bridi, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

algorithm for, lujvo-making examples

and cmavo

major, gismu

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as partitioning semantic space, gismu

basic rafsi for, rafsi

coined, The gismu creation algorithm

conflicts between, gismu

creation

and transcription blunders, The gismu creation algorithm

considerations for selection after scoring, The gismu creation algorithm

proscribed gismu pairs, The gismu creation algorithm

scoring rules, The gismu creation algorithm

cultural, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

definition, gismu

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

ethnic, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

examples of, gismu

exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, The gismu creation algorithm

for countries, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

for Lojban source languages, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

geographical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

length of, gismu

level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, rafsi

Lojban-specific, The gismu creation algorithm

place order

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

place structures, Notes on gismu place structures

rationale, Notes on gismu place structures

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for choice of, gismu

religious, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rules for, gismu

scientific-mathematical, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

selection of, gismu

source of, gismu

source-language weights for, The gismu creation algorithm

special, gismu

too-similar, The gismu creation algorithm

gisnu, gismu

give

example, The concept of the bridi

give or receive

example, Tagging places: FA

giving the horse

example, Property abstractions

gizmu, gismu

gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

glico, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

glottal stop

as pause in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

glue in lujvo

n-hyphen as, lujvo

r-hyphen as, lujvo

y-hyphen as, lujvo

go, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to Boston from Atlanta

example, Standard bridi form: cu

go to market

example, Introductory

go to Paris or Rome

example, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

go to the store

example, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

go'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'a-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'e ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i, Examples of brivla, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations

as affirmative answer to yes/no question, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with mo in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

contrasted with mi'u, Discursives

go'i cei broda, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i ra'o

contrasted with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'i with xu

quick-tour version, Questions

go'i-series pro-bridi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

as main-bridi anaphora only, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

assigning for permanent reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sub-clauses on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

effect of sumti of referent bridi on, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

referent of, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'ixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

go'u, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

goal of this book, What is this book?

gocti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

goer table

example, Simple tanru

goer-house

example, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

GOhA selma'o, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as component in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

as selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri

goi, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, Relative phrases

use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

use in assigning name, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti

use in speech contrasted with writing, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi for ko'a-series assignment

compared with cei for broda-series assignment, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

good house

example, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

gotro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

grammatical categories

use of upper case for, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

grammatical terms

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

grana mudri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grasp water

example, Other modal connections

great soldier

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

Greek alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Greek-Americans own restaurants, Descriptors for typical objects

gripau, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

grouping

of connection in abstractions, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

of connection in tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

grouping parentheses, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

grutrceraso, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

grutrceraso jbama, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

gu, cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'a, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'e, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'i, Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers

gu'o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

gugde ciste, Some types of symmetrical tanru

GUhA selma'o, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

guhek

definition, Logical connection within tanru

guheks

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

guheks for tanru connection

rationale, Logical connection within tanru

gy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

gy., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

H

had earlier

example, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

hands in pockets

example, Relative phrases

handwriting

example, Alien alphabets

han^{4}zi^{4}, What about Chinese characters?

happiness

example, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

happy face

example, The universal bu

has a heart

example, Property abstractions

have never

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

having

of properties, Property abstractions

healthy

example, Questions

hearsay

example, Evidentials

heartburn

example, Miscellaneous indicators

Hebrew alphabet

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

Helvetica font

example, Alien alphabets

hepatitis

example, rafsi

hereafter known as

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

hesitation sound, Hesitation: Y

hexadecimal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, The lujvo scoring algorithm

hiragana

contrasted with kanji, What about Chinese characters?

example, Alien alphabets

hit cousin

example, Discursives

hit nose

example, Discursives

hits

example, The concept of the bridi

Hollywood

example, Descriptors for typical objects

hospitality

example, Vocative scales

hours

minutes

seconds: example, Non-decimal and compound bases

huh?

example, Miscellaneous indicators

hundred

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

husband and wife

example, Evidentials

hyphen letter

definition, rafsi

hyphens

use of, rafsi

hyphens in lujvo

proscribed where not required, The lujvo-making algorithm

hypothetical world, Propositional attitude indicators

contrasted with real world

example, Discursives

hypothetical world point of view, Discursives

I

i, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball Orthographies, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

regarding forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection

I selma'o, Logical connection of bridi, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

i'a, Pure emotion indicators

i'e, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators

IBM

example, Acronyms

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

ice'o

contrasted with .ibabo, More about non-logical connectives

idea abstraction, Minor abstraction types

idea abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

identity

expressing with po'u, Relative phrases

identity predicate, The identity predicate: du

if

English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, Logical connection of bridi

expressing hypothetical world, Discursives

expressing real world, Discursives

meaning in logical connections, Logical connection of bridi

if coffee

bring tea

example, Truth questions and connective questions

if … then

compared with only if, Logical connection of bridi

logical connectives contrasted with other translations, Forethought bridi connection

ijek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

ijek bridi connectives

contrasted with geks, Forethought bridi connection

ijek logical connectives

connecting bridi, Logical connection of bridi

ijeks

syntax of, Logical connection of bridi

ijoik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, More about non-logical connectives

imaginary journey

and spatial tense, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

ending point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sentence connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin in tense forethought sumti connection, Tense relations between sentences

origin of in tense-connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

stages of in compound tenses, Compound spatial tenses

starting at a different point, Tenses as sumti tcita

starting point, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita

with interval direction, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

imaginary journey origin

with sticky tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

imperatives

and truth, Truth questions and connective questions

attitude, Attitudinal modifiers

English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

with ko, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implausible, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

implicit quantifier

for quotations, Quantified sumti

on quotations

discussion of, Quantified sumti

importance of point

scale with ra'u, Discursives

in the aftermath

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

inalienable

distinguishing from alienable, Relative phrases

inalienable possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

inchoative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

incidental association

expressing with ne, Relative phrases

incidental identification

expressing with no'u, Relative phrases

incidental relative clause

as a parenthetical device, Incidental relative clauses

definition, Incidental relative clauses

inclusion

property of sets, Masses and sets

indefinite description

as needing explicit outer quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, Indefinite descriptions

compared with restricted variable, Variables with generalized quantifiers

definition, Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers

indefinite numbers

combined with definite, Indefinite numbers

indefinite portions

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indefinite pro-bridi, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

indefinite sumti

as implicit quantification, Using naku outside a prenex

compared to sumti with lo, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

indefinite values

subjective, Indefinite numbers

indicator scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

indicators, What are attitudinal indicators?

evolutionary development of, Tentative conclusion

grammar for compounding, Compound indicators

meaning when compounded, Compound indicators

placement of, Propositional attitude indicators

quick-tour version, Indicators

ramifications, Tentative conclusion

rationale for selection, Tentative conclusion

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

types of, What are attitudinal indicators?

indirect question, Miscellaneous indicators

indirect question involving sumti, Indirect questions

indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

indirect questions without "kau", Indirect questions

indisputable bridi, Evidentials

individual

example, Special mekso selbri

individual descriptors

different implicit outer quantifiers among, Quantified descriptions

individual objects

multiple, Individuals and masses

individuals

expressing relation with mass formed, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set formed, Special mekso selbri

individuals into mass

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals into set

by non-logical connection, Non-logical connectives

individuals of set

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

indivisible, Types of event abstractions

induction

example, Evidentials

inexact numbers with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

inexact portions with bounds, Approximation and inexact numbers

infant ducks

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inferior

example, Attitudinal modifiers

infinity

example, Special numbers

infix notation mixed with Polish, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

inflammable

example, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

initial consonant pairs

list of, Initial Consonant Pairs

initiative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

innate capabilities

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate capability

expressing explicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

innate properties

extension of from mass to individuals, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

extension to individuals not actually capable, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

inner product, Vectors and matrices

inner quantifier

contrasted with outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

explicit, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

inner sumti

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

integral

architectural concept

example, fu'ivla

mathematical concept

example, fu'ivla

integrale, fu'ivla

interactions between quantifiers and negation

effect, Negation boundaries

interjections

quick-tour version, Indicators

intermediate abstraction, Lojban sumti raising

intermittently

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

internal bridi negation

compared to external bridi negation, Negation boundaries

definition, Negation boundaries

internal naku negations

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

internal world, Propositional attitude indicators

International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), Basic Phonetics

intersect, Minor abstraction types

intersection

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

intersection of sets

compared with and, More about non-logical connectives

interval

closed, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

followed by direction in tense construct, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

inclusion of endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

open, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with direction and distance in tense, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval continuousness

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

interval direction

specifying, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

interval properties

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

strings of, Sub-events

interval size

as context-dependent, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

meaning as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

unspecified, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

vague, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

interval spread

expressing English "intermittently", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

mutually contrasted, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negation with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

with unspecified interval, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intervals

effect of nai on, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as center and distance, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed as endpoints, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressing by endpoints with bi'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

forethought, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

spread of actions over, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

intrinsic possession

definition, Relative phrases

expressing by using place in some selbri, Relative phrases

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

introduce oneself, Vocative scales

invalid diphthongs

in fu'ivla, fu'ivla

invalid speech

marking as error with na'i, Miscellaneous indicators

inversion of quantifiers

definition, Negation boundaries

in moving negation boundary, Negation boundaries

inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary

rationale for, Negation boundaries

invertebrate, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

inverted tanru

effect on sumti after the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on sumti before the selbri, Inversion of tanru: co

inverting quantifiers

with movement relative to fixed negation, Using naku outside a prenex

with movement relative to naku, Using naku outside a prenex

IPA, Basic Phonetics

IPA pronunciation

description, IPA For English Speakers

irony

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

irrational number

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

irrelevant

specifying of sumti place, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

isomorphism

audio-visual, Orthography

IT

as notation convention in relative clause chapter, What are you pointing at?

italic

example, Alien alphabets

iy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

J

j-sound in English

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

ja, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

JA selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

ja'a, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

ja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ja'o, Evidentials

jai, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

for modal conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

jai with tense

as equivalent of SE in grammar, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

jai without modal

meaning, Modal conversion: JAI

jalra curnu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

James

example, Consonant Clusters

jamfu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jane

example, cmene

Japanese hiragana

example, Alien alphabets

Japanese katakana

example, Alien alphabets

jargon

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

jdari bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jdaselsku, Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo

jdika, Comparatives and superlatives

je, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives

je'a, Affirmations

je'e, Vocative scales

contrasted with vi'o, Vocative scales

je'enai, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

je'i, Questions and answers

je'o, Alien alphabets

je'u, Discursives

je'unai, Discursives

jegvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei

jek

definition, The six types of logical connectives

jeks

connecting abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

connecting operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

syntax of, Logical connection within tanru

jelca, Miscellaneous indicators

jenai, Tense questions: cu'e

jerxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Jesus, Minor abstraction types

example, Minor abstraction types

jgalu grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ji, Questions and answers

ji'a, Discursives

ji'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

effect of placement, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

ji'u, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'uku, Metalinguistic negation forms

ji'una'iku, Metalinguistic negation forms

jibni, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

Jim

example, cmene

jinvi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

jipci gunse, Some types of symmetrical tanru

jipci pimlu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jipci sovda, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jitro, Anomalous lujvo

jmive munje, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jo, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

jo'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

jo'e, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

jo'i, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso

precedence of, Vectors and matrices

jo'o, Alien alphabets

jo'u, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ce'o, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with joi, Non-logical connectives

result of connection with, Non-logical connectives

John and Sam

example, The concept of the bridi

John Brown

example, cmene

John is coming

example, What are attitudinal indicators?

John Paul Jones

example, Lojban names

John says that George goes to market

example, Tenses in subordinate bridi

joi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu

joi grammar

contrasted with eks, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with jeks, Non-logical connectives

JOI selma'o, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, The six types of logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

joibu, The universal bu

joigik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joigiks

connection types, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

joik

as name for compound cmavo, The six types of logical connectives

definition, Non-logical connectives

joiks

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

syntax of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

use of "se" in, Non-logical connectives

jokes, What is this book?

jordo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ju, Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

ju'a, Evidentials

ju'apei, Evidentials

ju'i .djan., Vocative scales

ju'i lobypli, Vocative scales

ju'o, Discursives

ju'u, Non-decimal and compound bases

grammar of, Non-decimal and compound bases

jubme tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

jundi, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

jungo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

junla dadysli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Jupiter life

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

juror 5

example, Possessive sumti

jy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

jy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

K

ka, cmene, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo

ka'a, Modal tags: BAI

ka'e, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

ka'o, Special numbers

as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, Special numbers

ka'u, Evidentials

kabri palta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

kadno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kai, Metalinguistic negation forms

kalri, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

kalselvi'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kalselvi'i gapci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kambla, Abstract lujvo

kanji, What about Chinese characters?

contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on romaji spelling, What about Chinese characters?

representing based on strokes, What about Chinese characters?

kanla, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

kanla denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanla velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kanro, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

karce, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce klama, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karce xislu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

karcykla, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

karda mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

katakana

example, Alien alphabets

Kate

example, cmene

Katrina

example, cmene

kau, Indirect questions

"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", Indirect questions

ke, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

for conversion of tanru, Conversion of simple selbri

for expanding scope of scalar negation, Scalar negation of selbri

ke in sumti grouping

where allowed, Grouping of afterthought connectives

ke'a, Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ambiguity when omitted, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

and abstract descriptions, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

as referent for relativized sumti, What are you pointing at?

contrasted with ri in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

effect of omission of, What are you pointing at?

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

non-initial place use in relative clause, What are you pointing at?

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

subscripting for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ke'a with subscript

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'axipa, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I

ke'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

etymology of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ke'o, Vocative scales

compared to ki'a, Vocative scales

ke'u, Discursives

contrasted with va'i, Discursives

ke'unai, Discursives

kei, Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo

KEI selma'o

eliding, The syntax of abstraction

kelvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kensa bloti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

kept on too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

kerfa silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ketco, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ki, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o

with no tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

ki ku, Sticky modals

ki'a, cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms

compared to ke'o, Vocative scales

ki'o, Signs and numerical punctuation

ki'u, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection

killing Jim, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

kilto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kismu, gismu

kissing Jane

example, Event abstraction

kisto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

kixipa, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

klama, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI

place structure of, Introductory

klama le zarci, Modal selbri, Compound bridi

klama zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

klamau, Comparatives and superlatives

klesi, lujvo-making examples

kliti cipni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

know

example, Predication/sentence abstraction

know who

contrasted with know that, Indirect questions

example, Indirect questions

knowledge discursives, Discursives

compared with propositional attitudes, Discursives

ko, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions

in later selbri place in imperative, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

in sub-clause of main bridi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for commands, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

use for imperatives, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ko'a, Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'a goi la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series

after tenth, Subscripts: XI

ko'a-series for pro-sumti

compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'a-series pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

as assignable, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

assignment with goi as symmetrical, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

ko'e, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti

ko'i, Pro-sumti summary

ko'o, Pro-sumti summary

ko'u, Pro-sumti summary

kobra, fu'ivla

kolme terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Korean

example, fu'ivla

kosta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

krasi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

krecau, selbri and tanru negation

krici, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

krinu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ksis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

ktraile, fu'ivla

ku, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumti tcita, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers

as elidable terminator for descriptions, The three basic description types

effect of following selbri on elidability of, The three basic description types

effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

effect on of omitting descriptor, Indefinite descriptions

quick-tour version, Description sumti

uses of, The three basic description types

with tense, Introductory

KU selma'o

quick-tour version, Description sumti

ku'a, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

ku'a'e, cmavo

ku'e, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

ku'i, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions

ku'o, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi

effect of vau on elidability, Possessive sumti

elidability for relative clauses, What are you pointing at?

kuarka, fu'ivla

kuldi'u, Dependent places

kurji, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

ky, Syllabication And Stress, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

ky. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ky.bu, Alien alphabets

Kzinti

communication with, Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen

use of, fu'ivla

la, Words that can act as sumti, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Acronyms, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

compared with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lai in implications, Individuals and masses

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, The three basic description types

la .alis., Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la .apasionatas, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .apasionatas., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la .atlantas., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA

la alis., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

la bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la bastn., Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

la betis., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la ckiipyris., Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la cribe, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses

la djan., Words that can act as sumti, Indirect questions, Pure emotion indicators, Multiple compound bridi, Other uses of mekso

la djan. nanmu, Logical connection of bridi

la djeimyz. ninmu, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection

la djein., sumti qualifiers

la djordj, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la djordj., Explicit magnitudes, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la frank. .e la djordj., Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

la lojban., The five kinds of simple sumti, Modal conversion: JAI

la me zoi, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

la meiris., Modal relative phrases; Comparison

la meris., Words that can act as sumti

la nu,IORK., Tagging places: FA

la pacac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la plas., cmene

la recac., Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

la rik., Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

LA selma'o, Conversion: SE

contrasted with LE in use of name-words, Lojban names

effect on necessity for pause before name-word, Lojban names

la tcarlis., Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

la'e, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le selsinxa bele selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

la'e di'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'e lu

compared with me'o, References to lerfu

la'edi'u, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

la'i, Rules for inserting pauses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as set counterpart of lai, Masses and sets

la'o, fu'ivla, cmene, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

interaction with bu, The universal bu

la'u, Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms

la-series descriptors

compared with le-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

Láadan evidentials, Evidentials

labmau, rafsi

ladru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru botpi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ladru denci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Lady

example, cmene

LAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lai, cmene, Rules for inserting pauses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as mass counterpart of lai, Individuals and masses

contrasted with la in implications, Individuals and masses

lambda calculus

operator and operand distinction in, Miscellany

lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lange'u, Anomalous lujvo

language shift

based on name + bu, Alien alphabets

choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, Alien alphabets

compound, Alien alphabets

effect on following words, Alien alphabets

formation of shift alphabet name, Alien alphabets

interaction with bu, Alien alphabets

rationale for, Alien alphabets

standardization of, Alien alphabets

languages

abbreviations for, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lanme, Anomalous lujvo

lanme gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

lantro, Anomalous lujvo

lanzu tumla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Laplace

example, cmene

large meal

example, Attitudinal modifiers

large-base decimal fraction

expressing, Non-decimal and compound bases

latent component, Anomalous lujvo

Latin

alphabet of Lojban, What's a letteral, anyway?

Latin alphabet, Orthography

language shift word for, Alien alphabets

latmo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lau, Punctuation marks

effect on following lerfu word, Punctuation marks

LAU selma'o

grammar of following BY cmavo, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

le, Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

and specificity, The three basic description types

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

compared with English the, The three basic description types

compared with la in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with lo in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with lo in truth requirement, The three basic description types

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

in false-to-fact descriptions, The three basic description types

meaning of in the plural, Individuals and masses

le bersa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le berti, Modal tags: BAI

le bi'u nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le bi'unai nanmu, Miscellaneous indicators

le blanu zdan., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le blanu zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le briju, Termset logical connection

le ci cribe, sumti-based descriptions

le ci nanmu, Quantified descriptions

le cribe, Acronyms

le ctuca, Miscellaneous indicators

le cukta, Other modal connections, Multiple compound bridi

le dargu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions

le gerku, Quantified descriptions, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of lujvo

le gerku poi blabi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

le go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le jai bau cusku, Modal conversion: JAI

le jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei

le karce, Incidental relative clauses, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE

le karce po mi, Possessive sumti

le li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

le mi karce, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti

le mi pendo, Relative phrases

le mlatu cu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le mlatu viska le finpe, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nanmu, The three basic description types, Miscellaneous indicators, Grouping of quantifiers

le nanmu joi, Non-logical connectives

le ni, Amount abstractions

le ni ... kei be, Amount abstractions

le ninmu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le ninmu cu morsi, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

le nu, Tenses as sumti tcita, Tense relations between sentences, Tenses versus modals, Event abstraction, Property abstractions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

definition, Event abstraction

le pluta, Conversion: SE

le re do, sumti-based descriptions

le remna, The three basic description types

le ri kumfa, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

le se du'u ..., Predication/sentence abstraction

le se go'i ku, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

le se nelci, Event abstraction

le selbri [ku], Varying the order of sumti

LE selma'o, Conversion: SE, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

contrasted with LA in use of name-words, Lojban names

le selsinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le si'o mi go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le si'o mi klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

le sutra tavla, Description sumti

le sutra tavla ku, Description sumti

le sutra te tavla ku, Description sumti

le tavla ku, Description sumti

le tcidu, The five kinds of simple sumti

le te jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le tricu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le ve jbena, Notes on gismu place structures

le ve klama, Conversion: SE

le ve klama be fo da, Conversion: SE

le vecnu, Description sumti

le verba, Tense relations between sentences

le vi rozgu, Tagging places: FA

le xekri mlatu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

le xekri zdani, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

le xunre cmaxirma, sumti qualifiers

le zarci, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, selbri and tanru negation, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers

le zdani, Inversion of tanru: co, The meaning of lujvo

le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau, Tagging places: FA

le zunle, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

le'a, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms

le'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to le'i, Descriptors for typical objects

le'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

le'i, Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

as set counterpart of lei, Masses and sets

relationship to le'e, Descriptors for typical objects

le'o, Attitudinal modifiers

le'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

le-series cmavo

as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

le-series descriptors

compared with la-series in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

learning Lojban

magnitude of task, gismu

lebna, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi

left-grouping rule

definition of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

legal jargon

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

legal system, Truth-value abstraction: jei

lei, cmene, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with loi in specificity, Individuals and masses

lei cinfo, Individuals and masses

lemon tree

example, Simple tanru

Length * Width * Depth = Volume

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

Lepidoptera

example, tanru

lerfu, fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?

as assignable pro-sumti, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

contrasted with lerfu word, What's a letteral, anyway?

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

reference to, References to lerfu

referring to with me'o, References to lerfu

lerfu as pro-sumti

contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

explicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

implicit assignment of antecedent, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu juxtaposition interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu shift scope

exception for mathematical texts, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu string

as function name, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as mathematical variable, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti

assumption of reference, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as pro-sumti assigned by goi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifier, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as selbri, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as subscript, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

as utterance ordinal, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

definition, lerfu words as pro-sumti

interpretation

contrasted with mathematical interpretation, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lerfu strings

as acronyms using "me", Acronyms

as pro-sumti

for multiple sumti separated by boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

as quantifiers

avoiding interaction with sumti quantified, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

in mathematical expressions, Simple infix expressions and equations

interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, Simple infix expressions and equations

uses in mathematics, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

with numerical selbri, Special mekso selbri

lerfu valsi, What's a letteral, anyway?

lerfu word

contrasted with lerfu, What's a letteral, anyway?

for "'", A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu word cmavo

list of auxiliary, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

lerfu word set extension

with bu, The universal bu

lerfu words

as a basis for acronym names, Acronyms

composed of compound cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

composed of single cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

consonant words contrasted with vowel words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

effect of systematic formulation, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for consonants, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

for vowels, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

formation rules, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

list of proposed

notation convention, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

Lojban coverage requirement, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

proposed for accent marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

proposed for diacritic marks, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

proposed for noisy environments, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

proposed for radio communication, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

table of Lojban, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

using computer encoding schemes with se'e, Computerized character codes

vowel words contrasted with consonant words, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words ending with "y"

pause after

rationale, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words for vowels

pause requirement before, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

lerfu words with numeric digits

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

lervla, What's a letteral, anyway?

less than

contrasted with more than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

less than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

letter

alphabet, What's a letteral, anyway?

contrasted with word for the letter, What's a letteral, anyway?

letter encoding schemes

application to lerfu words, Computerized character codes

letteral

definition, What's a letteral, anyway?

letters

non-Lojban

representation of diacritical marks on, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

representation with consonant-word + bu, Alien alphabets

representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, Alien alphabets

representation with language-shift, Alien alphabets

representation with names, Alien alphabets

sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, Alien alphabets

symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, Alien alphabets

li, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

as converter of mekso into sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

contrasted with me'o, Other uses of mekso

relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

terminator for, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

li ci, The five kinds of simple sumti

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mi, Quotation summary

li mu su'i li pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li mu su'i pa, Simple infix expressions and equations

li ro, Indefinite numbers

LI selma'o, Number summary

li'i, Minor abstraction types

li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

li'osa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

libjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lijda, Anomalous lujvo

lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

likes more than

example, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

likygau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

likyri'a, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lined up, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

linguistic behavior, Predication/sentence abstraction

linguistic drift, What is this book?

linguistic drift in Lojban

possible source of, Considerations for making lujvo

linji zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

linked arguments, Questions and answers

linked sumti

definition, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

in tanru, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and FA tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

linked sumti and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

Linnaean names

rules for, cmene

lion in Africa

example, Descriptors for typical objects

lions in Africa

example, Individuals and masses

list

as a physical object, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with sequence, Non-logical connectives

example, Non-logical connectives

list of things to do

example, More about non-logical connectives

liste, Non-logical connectives

listen attentively

example, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lists

use of tu'e/tu'u in, More about non-logical connectives

literally, Miscellaneous indicators

litki, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

litru, Dependent places

livgyterbilma, rafsi

living things

example, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

Livingston

example, Evidentials

LLG, Acknowledgements and Credits

lo, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

and truth of selbri, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implications, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in implicit quantification, Quantified descriptions

contrasted with le in specificity, The three basic description types

contrasted with le in truth requirement, The three basic description types

contrasted with loi and lo'i, Masses and sets

implications of, The three basic description types

implicit outer quantifier for, Quantified descriptions

omission of, Indefinite descriptions

lo cribe, Acronyms

lo forca, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo gerku zdani, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

lo klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo liste, Non-logical connectives

lo mitre be li mu, Explicit magnitudes

lo porsi, Non-logical connectives

lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

lo prenu noi blabi, Relative clauses and descriptors

lo rinka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

lo rupnu, Multiple compound bridi

lo se klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo smuci, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

lo xe klama, Notes on gismu place structures

lo zarci, The three basic description types

lo zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lo'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with na'a, Alien alphabets

lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions

relationship to lo'i, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'e cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri

as set counterpart of loi, Masses and sets

contrasted with lo and loi, Masses and sets

relationship to lo'e, Descriptors for typical objects

with elided quantifiers, Special mekso selbri

lo'i cinfo, Descriptors for typical objects

lo'i lei, lujvo-making examples

lo'i ratcu, Special mekso selbri

lo'ikle, lujvo-making examples

lo'irlei, lujvo-making examples

lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

effect of logical connective on elidability of, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

lo'u, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

lo'u ... le'u, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, No more to say: FAhO

lo-series cmavo

rationale for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

rule for implicit inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

lo-series description

caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, Quantified descriptions

logic

and attitudinals, What's wrong with this picture?

limits of, What's wrong with this picture?

resolving ambiguities of "nobody", What's wrong with this picture?

logic and Lojban

more aspects, Conclusion

logical connection

effect on elidability of lo'o, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in abstractions

inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

contrasted with unconnected version, Logical connection within tanru

expandability of, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with bo, Logical connection within tanru

grouping with ke, Logical connection within tanru

inside abstractions

contrasted with outside, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

interaction with tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, Logical connection within tanru

of bridi-tails

forethought, Multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

of forethought termsets, Termset logical connection

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of more than 2 sentences

all or none, More than two propositions

forethought, More than two propositions

things to avoid, More than two propositions

of observatives

relation of first places, Compound bridi

of selbri, Compound bridi

of sumti

grouping with parentheses, Grouping of afterthought connectives

restriction on ke, Grouping of afterthought connectives

of tanru

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, Logical connection within tanru

termsets, Termset logical connection

transformation between forms, sumti connection

with bo

precedence, Grouping of afterthought connectives

logical connection of abstractors, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

logical connection of more than 2 sentences

mixed "and" and "or", More than two propositions

logical connectives, Logical connection and truth tables

associative, More than two propositions

bridi-tail connection, Compound bridi

cmavo

format for each selma'o, The six types of logical connectives

effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, Relative phrases

equivalence relation on 3 sentences, More than two propositions

grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

more than 2 sentences, More than two propositions

negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, Forethought bridi connection

non-associative, More than two propositions

observative sentence connection, Compound bridi

pairing from left, More than two propositions

rationale for multiple sets in grammar, The six types of logical connectives

recipes

simplified for logic chapter discussion, bridi negation and logical connectives

relation to truth functions, The Four basic vowels

relative precedence with me'u, selbri based on sumti: me

right-grouping with bo, Grouping of afterthought connectives

selma'o

enumerated, The six types of logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

table by truth function value, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

tensed, Tensed logical connectives

logical connectives and bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives and negation

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

logical connectives in tanru, Logical connection within tanru

ambiguity of, Logical connection within tanru

effect on formal logical manipulations, Logical connection within tanru

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

usefulness of, Logical connection within tanru

logical connectives within negation

effects of expansion on, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logical language

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

Logical Language Group

example, lujvo-making examples

relation to Lojban, What is Lojban?

logical variables

creating more by subscripting, A few notes on variables

effect of global substitution, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

effect of order in prenex, Universal claims

effect of using multiple different, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

explicitly placing in outer prenex, The problem of “any”

for selbri, selbri variables

implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, The problem of “any”

notation convention, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

when not in main bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with multiple appearances in bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

with poi

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

with ro

in multiple appearances, Dropping the prenex

logically connected sentences

and DeMorgan's Law, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

logically connected tenses

definition, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

expansion to sentences, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

logji, Lojban names

logji bangu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

logji bangu girzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangri, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygir, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybangygri, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugir, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirz, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

logjybaugri, lujvo-making examples

Loglan, Informal Bibliography

logograms

words for, The universal bu

loi, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

as mass counterpart of lo, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lei in specificity, Individuals and masses

contrasted with lo and lo'i, Masses and sets

loi cinfo, Individuals and masses

loi jdini, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

Lojban

features of, What is Lojban?

history of, What is Lojban?

stability of, What is this book?

Lojban alphabet, Orthography

Lojban letters

IPA for pronouncing, Basic Phonetics

list with IPA pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

lojban., brivla

lojbangir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangri, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygir, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbangygri, lujvo-making examples

Lojbanistan, What is this book?

lojbaugir, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirz, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugirzu, lujvo-making examples

lojbaugri, lujvo-making examples

lojbo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

long ago and far away

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

long rafsi

definition, rafsi

long rafsi form

compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

long-sword

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

loose association

expressing with pe, Relative phrases

Lord

example, cmene

lotkle, lujvo-making examples

lotlei, lujvo-making examples

Lottie

example, Lojban names

love more

example, Property abstractions

lower case letters

use in Lojban, Upper and lower cases

lower-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

lower-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

lower-case word

effect on following lerfu words, Upper and lower cases

lu, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

lu do cadzu le bisli li'u, Quantified sumti

lu e'osai li'u, The five kinds of simple sumti

lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

lu'a, Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e, sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

as short for le sinxa bele sinxa be, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'e le du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

lu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'o, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

lu'u, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising

as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

lubno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

lujvo, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

abbreviated, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

abstract, Abstract lujvo

algorithm for, The lujvo-making algorithm

and consonant pairs, rafsi

and plausibility, Considerations for making lujvo

and seltau/tertau relationship, The meaning of lujvo

and the listener, Considerations for making lujvo

as a subtype of brivla, brivla

as suppliers of agent place, Notes on gismu place structures

asymmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

based on multiple tanru, Considerations for making lujvo

cmavo incorporation, Why have lujvo?

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

compared with tanru, Why have lujvo?

consideration in choosing meaning for, Considerations for making lujvo

considerations for retaining elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

construction of, lujvo

definition

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

design consideration for relationship, The meaning of lujvo

dropping elements of, Considerations for making lujvo

dropping SE rafsi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

examples of making, The lujvo scoring algorithm

from cmavo with no rafsi, rafsi

from tanru, lujvo

fully reduced, rafsi

guidelines for place structure, Why have lujvo?

interpreting, The meaning of lujvo

invention of, lujvo

meaning drift of, Considerations for making lujvo

meaning of, lujvo

multiple forms of, lujvo

place structure of figurative lujvo, Miscellaneous indicators

pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

quick-tour version, Examples of brivla

rationale for, Why have lujvo?

recognizing, rafsi

rules for formation of, lujvo

scored examples of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

scoring of, The lujvo-making algorithm

selection of best form of, The lujvo-making algorithm

shorter for more general concepts, Considerations for making lujvo

summary of form characteristics, rafsi

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguity of, Considerations for making lujvo

unambiguous decomposition of, lujvo

unreduced, rafsi

unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, fu'ivla

with zei, rafsi

zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, lujvo based on pro-sumti

lujvo creation

interaction of KE with NAhE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

interaction of KE with SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

use of multiple SE in, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

lujvo form

consonant cluster requirement in, rafsi

final letter of, rafsi

hierarchy of priorities for selection of, The lujvo scoring algorithm

number of letters in, rafsi

requirements for hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, rafsi

lujvo place order, Ordering lujvo places.

asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

based on 3-or-more part veljvo, lujvo with more than two parts.

comparatives, Comparatives and superlatives

rationale for standardization, Ordering lujvo places.

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

superlatives as exceptions, Comparatives and superlatives

symmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.

lujvo place structure

"ni" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

"nu" lujvo, Abstract lujvo

basis of, Selecting places

comparative lujvo, Comparatives and superlatives

cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dependent places, Dependent places

dropping "KE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping "KEhE", Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

dropping cross-dependent places, Dependent places

dropping dependent places

caveat, Dependent places

dropping dependent seltau places, Dependent places

dropping dependent tertau places, Dependent places

dropping redundant places, The meaning of lujvo

effect of "SE", Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

explicated walk-through, The meaning of lujvo

guidelines, Why have lujvo?

multi-place abstraction lujvo, Abstract lujvo

notation conventions, The meaning of lujvo

rationale for standardization, Selecting places

selecting tertau, Dependent places

superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

when first place redundant with non-first, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

when first places redundant plus others, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

lukewarm food

example, sumti qualifiers

lunra tarci, Some types of symmetrical tanru

ly, cmene, Lojban names, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ly'i, cmene, Lojban names

ly., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

Lyra

example, Lojban names

M

ma, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Questions and answers

as sumti question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

for tense questions, Tense questions: cu'e

ma'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

ma'i, Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri

ma'o, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany

potential ambiguity caveat, Miscellany

ma'o fy. [te'u], Miscellany

ma'o fy.boi, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ma'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

mabla, Attitudinal modifiers

magic square

example, Vectors and matrices

mai, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mo'o, Other uses of mekso

MAI selma'o

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

male sexual teacher

example, lujvo-making examples

mampa'u, lujvo

mamta, rafsi, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

mamta degji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mamta patfu, lujvo

man biting dog, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

man or woman

example, Logical connection and truth tables

man-woman

example, Logical connection within tanru

manhole

example, Compound spatial tenses

manskapi, Acknowledgements and Credits

manti zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

manysome

example, Special mekso selbri

maple sugar

example, fu'ivla

maple trees

example, fu'ivla

marathon, Types of event abstractions

Mars road

example, Conversion: SE

mass

compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with set in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with set forming, Special mekso selbri

joining elements into a, Non-logical connectives

mass contrasted with components

in properties of, Non-logical connectives

mass name

use of, Individuals and masses

mass object

and logical reasoning, Individuals and masses

as dependent on intention, Individuals and masses

contrasted with multiple individual objects, Individuals and masses

properties of, Individuals and masses

mass objects

peculiarities of English translation of, Individuals and masses

masses

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

mathematical equality

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical expression

referring to, Other uses of mekso

mathematical expressions

connectives in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

tensed connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

mathematical expressions in tanru, Other kinds of simple selbri

mathematical intervals, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mathematical notation

and omitted operators, Introductory

and operator precedence, Simple infix expressions and equations

infix, Simple infix expressions and equations

international uniqueness of, Introductory

mathematical operators, Simple infix expressions and equations

mathematical texts

effect on lerfu shift scope, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical variables

lerfu strings as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematics

use of lerfu strings in, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

matne, Individuals and masses

matrices

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

matrix

as combination of vectors, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, Vectors and matrices

with more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

matrix column operator, Vectors and matrices

matrix row operator, Vectors and matrices

mau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

Mayan mathematics

as a system with base larger than 16, Non-decimal and compound bases

me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri

compared with du in effect, selbri based on sumti: me

explicitly specifying, Vocative scales

place structure of, selbri based on sumti: me

used with names, selbri based on sumti: me

me dy ny. .abu, Acronyms

me la pinpan. bolci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

me'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

avoiding in favor of semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

me'i, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'i re, Approximation and inexact numbers

me'o, Number summary, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary

compared with la'e lu, References to lerfu

contrasted with li, Other uses of mekso

contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

relation to li compared with la/zo relation, Other uses of mekso

me'u, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri

relative precedence with logical connectives, selbri based on sumti: me

me'u moi, Special mekso selbri

me/du equivalence, selbri based on sumti: me

measurements

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

meat slice

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

medieval weapon, lujvo with more than two parts.

megdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mei, Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

place structure formed for objective indefinites, Special mekso selbri

mekso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

and literary translation, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

complex used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

design goals, Introductory

mekso chapter

completeness, Introductory

table notation convention, Introductory

mekso goal

coverage, Introductory

expandable, Introductory

for common use, Introductory

for mathematical writing, Introductory

precision, Introductory

unambiguous, Introductory

mekso goals

and ambiguity, Introductory

and non-mathematical expression, Introductory

mathematical notation form, Introductory

melbi, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping

melbi cmalu nixli ckule, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

meljo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

melting, Notes on gismu place structures

membership

property of sets, Masses and sets

mental activity, Predication/sentence abstraction

mental discomfort

example, Emotional categories

merko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms

metalinguistic comment

with embedded discursive, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic levels or reference, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

metalinguistic pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

metalinguistic words

quick-tour version, Indicators

mexno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mi, Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri

mi ba gasnu la'edi'e, More about non-logical connectives

mi bevri le dakli, Mixed modal connection

mi jo'u do, More about non-logical connectives

mi joi do, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi klama le zarci, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Tense relations between sentences

mi klama le zdani, Tense relations between sentences

mi nelci do, Mixed modal connection, Tenses versus modals

mi nelci la djein., Mixed modal connection

mi vasxu, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

mi'a, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'e, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales

contrasted with other members of COI, Vocative scales

effect of ordering multiple COI, Vocative scales

mi'enai, Vocative scales

mi'enai .djan., Vocative scales

mi'erxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mi'i, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

mi'o, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi'u, Discursives

contrasted with go'i, Discursives

mi-series

of pro-sumti, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mi-series pro-sumti

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

mice

example, Minor abstraction types

midju, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

mikce, Ordering lujvo places.

mikri, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

milti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

minde, Anomalous lujvo

minkemxanpli, Anomalous lujvo

mintu

contrasted with du, The identity predicate: du

mirli nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

misinterpretation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

misro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mitsubishi

example, What about Chinese characters?

mixed claim

definition, Universal claims

mixed modal connection

afterthought, Mixed modal connection

as proscribed in forethought, Mixed modal connection

definition, Mixed modal connection

of bridi-tails, Mixed modal connection

of sentences, Mixed modal connection

of sumti, Mixed modal connection

mixed with

example, Non-logical connectives

mlatu, Logical connection within tanru

mlatu kalci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mleca, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

mo, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers

as selbri question, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

mo'a, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

mo'e, Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

mo'i, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

mo'o, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI

contrasted with mai, Other uses of mekso

mo'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

modal bridi-tail connection, Other modal connections

modal causals

implication differences, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal cmavo

basis in gismu place structure, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

regular form for derivation, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

table with English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal cmavo table

format of, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

modal connection

simultaneous with logical, Mixed modal connection

modal connection of selbri

using bridi-tail modal connection, Other modal connections

modal connectives

fi'o prohibited in, Other modal connections

modal conversion

access to original first place with fai, Modal conversion: JAI

grammar of, Modal conversion: JAI

place structure of, Modal conversion: JAI

with no modal specified, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion with fi'o, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversion without modal

as vague, Modal conversion: JAI

modal conversions

in descriptions, Modal conversion: JAI

modal followed by selbri

compared with tanru modification in meaning, Modal selbri

contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, Modal selbri

effect on eliding cu, Modal selbri

modal operand connection, Other modal connections

modal place

definition, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

on description selbri, Modal tags: BAI

rationale for term name, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

relation of to selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal place relation

importance of first place in, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

modal sentence connection, Modal sentence connection: the causals

condensing, Other modal connections

effect on modal, Modal sentence connection: the causals

forethought, Other modal connections

relation to modal of first sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

relation to modal of second sentence in, Modal sentence connection: the causals

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

with other than causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals

modal sumti

and FA marking, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

as first place of modal tag selbri, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also seltcita sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

effect on place structure, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

leaving vague, Modal selbri

position in bridi, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

unspecified, Modal selbri

modal sumti connection, Other modal connections

modal tag

definition (see also sumti tcita), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

fi'o with selbri as, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

for vague relationship, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags

contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness, Modal tags: BAI

short forms as BAI cmavo, Modal tags: BAI

modal tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

modal-or-tense question

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

modal-or-tense questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

modals

compared with tenses in syntax, Tenses versus modals

contradictory negation of, Modal negation

contrasted with tenses in semantics, Tenses versus modals

expanding scope over inner modal connection, Modal selbri

expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e, Modal selbri

expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u, Modal selbri

expanding scope over non-logical connection, Modal selbri

for causal gismu, Modal sentence connection: the causals

importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

improving relative phrase preciseness with , Modal relative phrases; Comparison

making long-scope, Sticky modals

making sticky, Sticky modals

negation of, Modal negation

scalar negation of, Modal negation

termset connection, Other modal connections

modals often attached with relative phrases

list, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

modifier

seltau as, Simple tanru

modifying brivla (see also seltau), lujvo

moi, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary

MOI selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri

use of boi before, Special mekso selbri

mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mokca, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

moklu djacu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu skapi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

moklu stedu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

molro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Mon Repos

example, Dependent places

more than

contrasted with less than

at least, at most, Approximation and inexact numbers

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

more than two

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

morko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

morphology

conventions for, Introductory

definition, Introductory

derivational, Introductory

simplicity of, Introductory

symbolic conventions for discussing, Introductory

mother father

example, lujvo

movement

order in tense constructs, Movement in space: MOhI

time, Movement in space: MOhI

with multiple directions, Movement in space: MOhI

movement specification

interaction with direction in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

mrostu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mrostu mojysu'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

mu, Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation

mu'e, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

mu'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mu'onai, Vocative scales

mudri siclu, rafsi

mudri xarci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudri zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

mudsiclu, rafsi

mudysiclu, rafsi

mukti, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals

mulgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

multiple compound bridi

restriction on ke, Multiple compound bridi

multiple conversion

avoiding, Conversion: SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple indefinite sumti

effect of re-ordering in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

expressing with equal scope, Grouping of quantifiers

meaning, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indefinite sumti scope

in termset, Grouping of quantifiers

multiple indicators, The uses of indicators

multiple individual objects

contrasted with mass object, Individuals and masses

meaning of, Individuals and masses

multiple letters

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

multiple logical connectives

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

multiple ma

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple mo

as multiple questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple quantification

effect on selbri placement among sumti, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple questions in one bridi

expressing, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

multiple relative clauses

attaching with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

connecting different kinds with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

multiple SE

effect of ordering, Conversion: SE

multiple speakers, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

multiple sumti in one place

avoiding, Tagging places: FA

meaning, Tagging places: FA

multiple tanru inversion

effect on grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple tenses

effect of order in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

muslo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

mutce bo barda, Complex tanru grouping

my, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

example, Possessive sumti

my chair

example, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

my., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

myth

example, Evidentials

N

n people

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

n-hyphen

contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

na, Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

order in logical connectives with se, Logical connection of bridi

na and tense

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

na go'i, Questions

na writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

na'a, Alien alphabets

contrasted with lo'a, Alien alphabets

na'e, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms

before gu'e, Scalar negation of selbri

contrasted with na'e ke, Scalar negation of selbri

na'e barda bloti, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'e brablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

na'ebo, sumti qualifiers, sumti negation

na'eke, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions

na'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms

na'inai, Miscellaneous indicators

na'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

na'u, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

use in asking operator questions, Other uses of mekso

na'u mo, Other uses of mekso

na'u nu'a, Other uses of mekso

na'ujbi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

NAhE selma'o, sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Tense negation, Miscellany

effect of relative clause placement with, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

nai, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions

effect on intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

effect on joiks, More about non-logical connectives

placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, Forethought bridi connection

placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, Forethought bridi connection

naja, Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

naje, Tense questions: cu'e

nakni cinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakni ke cinse ctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

naknykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

naku, The three basic description types, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

as creating a negation boundary, Using naku outside a prenex

compared with sumti in grammar, Using naku outside a prenex

effect on moving quantifiers, Using naku outside a prenex

in linked sumti places, Using naku outside a prenex

multiple in sentence, Using naku outside a prenex

outside of prenex, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation

rationale for considering an advanced technique, Using naku outside a prenex

naku negation boundary

effect on conversion with se, Using naku outside a prenex

naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

as expansion of noda, Negation boundaries

naku zo'u, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

and negation boundary, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nakykemcinctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinctuca, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctu, lujvo-making examples

nakykemcinsyctuca, lujvo-making examples

nalbrablo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

nalmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

namcu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

name equivalent for typical

rationale for lack of, Descriptors for typical objects

name words

recognition of, Lojban names

name-words

limitations on, Lojban names

pause requirements before, Lojban names

permissible consonant combinations, Lojban names

names

algorithm for, cmene

alternatives for restricted sequences in, cmene

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

assigning with goi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

authority for, cmene

borrowing from other languages, Lojban names

examples of, cmene

from Lojban words, cmene

in vocative phrase, Lojban names

multiple, Lojban names

pause requirement in lerfu words, The universal bu

purpose of, cmene

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rationale for lojbanizing, cmene

requirement for pause after, cmene

restrictions on form of, cmene

rules for, cmene

rules for formation, cmene

stress in, cmene

stress on, Syllabication And Stress

two kinds of, Lojban names

unusual stress in, cmene

uses of, Lojban names

using rafsi, Lojban names

with LA descriptor, Lojban names

names from vowel-final base

commonly used consonant endings, Lojban names

names in Lojban (see also cmene), cmene

names with la

implicit quantifier for, Lojban names

naming predicate, The three basic description types

nan, cmavo

nanba spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, Logical connection within tanru, selbri variables

nanmu je ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

nanvi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

NATO

example, Acronyms

natural end

continuing beyond, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with actual stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

nau, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on sticky tenses, Tenses in subordinate bridi

syntax, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Navajo

example, fu'ivla

nazbi kevna, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ne, Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

compared with pe, Relative phrases

near the faraway park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

near the park

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

nearby in time

example, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

Nederlands

example, cmene

need any box, The problem of “any”

negated intervals

meaning of, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, Multiple compound bridi

negating a sentence

and truth value, Logical connection and truth tables

negation

complex examples, Scalar negation of selbri

form for emulating natural language negation, Using naku outside a prenex

of operand, Miscellany

of operator, Miscellany

of tenses, Tense negation

negation and logical connectives

caveat for logic chapter discussions, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation between sentences

compared with bridi negation, bridi negation and logical connectives

meaning of, bridi negation and logical connectives

negation boundary

and zero, Negation boundaries

effect of moving, Negation boundaries

negation cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

negation in prenex

effects of position, Negation boundaries

negation manipulation

"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, Using naku outside a prenex

negation of fi'o modals

by negating selbri, Modal negation

negation of modals, Modal negation

contradictory, Modal negation

scalar, Modal negation

negation of tenses

meaning of, Tense negation

negation sumti qualifiers

meanings of, sumti qualifiers

negations with logical connectives

effects on expansion of sentence, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

negative answer

quick-tour version, Questions

negative numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

negative sign

contrasted with subtraction operator, Special numbers

negator

movement from bridi to sumti, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

nei, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

nelci la djan., Compound bridi

nelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

new notation, The meaning of lujvo

New York city

example, Relative phrases

New York state

example, Relative phrases

Newport News

example, Lojban names

news

example, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

ni, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni citno, Comparatives and superlatives

ni klama, Abstract lujvo

ni'e, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence

terminator for, Using Lojban resources within mekso

ni'enu'a, Miscellany

ni'i, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ni'igi, Other modal connections

ni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

ni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'oni'oni'o, The basic structure of longer utterances, Paragraphs: NIhO

ni'u, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Indefinite numbers

nibli, Modal sentence connection: the causals

nicte ckule, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nilkla, Abstract lujvo

nimre, Simple tanru

ninmu, Logical connection within tanru

ninmu bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nitcu, The problem of “any”

nixli, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

nixli bo ckule, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

nixli tuple, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

no, Syllabication And Stress, IPA For English Speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases

no'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

no'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

no'ebo, sumti negation

no'i, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'ino'i, Paragraphs: NIhO

no'o, Indefinite numbers

no'u, Relative phrases

compared with po'u, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'u, Relative phrases

nobli, cmene

nobli bakni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nobody

ambiguous interpretations of, What's wrong with this picture?

interpretation of, What's wrong with this picture?

Lojban contrasted with English, What's wrong with this picture?

noda, Negation boundaries

expanding to naku su'oda, Negation boundaries

noi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

noi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

noi le mi pendo cu ponse, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

noi nanmu, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

noi sipna, Possessive sumti

noisy environments

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

nolraitru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nolraitru prije, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nolraitru ralju, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

non-, selbri and tanru negation

non-logical connection

and elidability of terminators, Non-logical connectives

in mathematical expressions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

in tanru

distinguishing from connection of sumti, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into mass, Non-logical connectives

of individuals into set, Non-logical connectives

of modals, Logical and non-logical connection of modals

of operands, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of operators, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

of sumti

distinguishing from connection in tanru, Non-logical connectives

of termsets, More about non-logical connectives

non-logical connectives

effect of nai on, More about non-logical connectives

grouping, More about non-logical connectives

including tense, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

sentence, More about non-logical connectives

syntax rules summary, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

un-ordered intervals, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

within tanru, Logical connection within tanru

non-logical forethought termsets

connecting tagged sumti, More about non-logical connectives

non-logically connected tenses, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

non-Lojban quotation, Quotation summary

non-Lojban text

rules for pause with, Rules for inserting pauses

non-restrictive relative clause

definition (see also incidental relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

non-specific descriptions, The three basic description types

non-standard orthographies

caveat, Oddball Orthographies

Cyrillic, Oddball Orthographies

Tengwar, Oddball Orthographies

nonagenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

nonce word

marking

selma'o catalog,

normal circumstances, Event abstraction

normle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

notation conventions

for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

nothing sits

example, Negation boundaries

nouns

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

Nth rat

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nth rat

example, Special mekso selbri

Nthly

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

nu, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI

definition, Event abstraction

place structure, Event abstraction

nu citka, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka kei gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu citka [kei], Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nu kalri kei gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nu klama [kei], Abstract lujvo

NU selma'o, Other kinds of simple selbri, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

nu'a, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso

use in answering operator questions, Other uses of mekso

nu'e, Vocative scales

nu'i, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

nu'o, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

nu'u, Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers

null operand

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

null operator

for infix operations with too many operands, Infix operators revisited

number article

explanation of use, Simple infix expressions and equations

number questions, Number questions

answers to, Number questions

number sumti

syntax of, Number summary

with li, Number summary

with li contrasted with me'o, Number summary

with me'o, Number summary

with me'o contrasted with li, Number summary

number words

pattern in, Lojban numbers

numbers

as compound cmavo, Lojban numbers

as grammatically complete utterances, Number questions

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

expressing simple, Lojban numbers

greater than 9, Lojban numbers

implicit quantifier for, Number summary

Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, Variables with generalized quantifiers

on logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

rafsi for, rafsi

special, Special numbers

talking about contrasted with using for quantification, Simple infix expressions and equations

using for quantification contrasted with talking about, Simple infix expressions and equations

numeric digits in lerfu words

grammar considerations, What about Chinese characters?

numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

undefined, Special numbers

numerical selbri

alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, Special mekso selbri

based on non-numerical sumti, Special mekso selbri

complex, Special mekso selbri

grammar, Special mekso selbri

restriction on numbers used for, Special mekso selbri

special, Special mekso selbri

with lerfu strings, Special mekso selbri

use of "me" with, Special mekso selbri

numerical tenses

effect on use of boi, Other uses of mekso

nuncti, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nuncti nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunctikezgau, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunkalri gasnu, Abstract lujvo

nunkalte, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunkla, Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI

nunklama, Abstract lujvo

nunpinxe, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nunsoidji, Abstract lujvo

nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

nunterji'a, Some types of symmetrical tanru

nuzba tanbo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ny, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

ny., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. lo prenu, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

ny. su'i pa, Special mekso selbri

ny.mai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

NYC

example, Acronyms

O

o, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

o'onai, Attitudinal modifiers

o'onaivu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

o'u, cmavo, Emotional categories

o'unaire'e, Emotional categories

o'unairo'u, Emotional categories

observation

example, Evidentials

observation evidential

contrasted with observative , Evidentials

observative

contrasted with observation evidential, Evidentials

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

observative form

contrasted with command, Standard bridi form: cu

observative with elided CAhA

convention, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

observatives

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

ocean shell

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

octal system

specifying numbers in (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

octogenarian, Comparatives and superlatives

Old McDonald

example, The Special Lojban Characters

old topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

omission of descriptor

effect on ku, Indefinite descriptions

omitting terminators

perils of, Scalar negation of selbri

on right

contrasted with toward right, Movement in space: MOhI

on two occasions

example, Sub-events

on verge

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

once and future king

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

One

the

example, cmene

one-third of food, Special mekso selbri

only

example, Discursives

only if

compared with if … then, Logical connection of bridi

only once

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

open interval, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

expressed with mi'i, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand

converting from operator, Miscellany

converting into operator, Miscellany

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting sumti into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operand connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operand modal connection, Other modal connections

operands

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

contrasted with general sumti, Simple infix expressions and equations

too few for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

too many for infix operation, Infix operators revisited

operator

converting from operand, Miscellany

converting into operand, Miscellany

converting into selbri, Other uses of mekso

converting selbri into, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator connection

afterthought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

forethought, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

operator derived from selbri

effect of selbri place structure on, Using Lojban resources within mekso

operator left-right grouping

as Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence

and mathematical notation, Simple infix expressions and equations

effect of pragmatic convention, Simple infix expressions and equations

generalized explicit specification, Simple infix expressions and equations

in Lojban default, Simple infix expressions and equations

plans for future, Explicit operator precedence

rationale for default left-grouping, Simple infix expressions and equations

scope modification with bi'e, Simple infix expressions and equations

specifying by parenthesis, Simple infix expressions and equations

operator precedence in other languages, Simple infix expressions and equations

operators

analogue of tanru in, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

connecting, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

list of simple, Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

operators of VUhU

grammar of operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

opinion

example, Evidentials

opposite-of-minus

example, Miscellany

order of variables

in moving to prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ordered sequence

by listing members, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with mass, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, Non-logical connectives

ordinal selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

ordinal tense, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

orthography

non-standard, Oddball Orthographies

relation to pronunciation, Orthography

outer product, Vectors and matrices

outer quantifier

contrasted with inner quantifier, Quantified descriptions

definition, Quantified descriptions

effect of on meaning, Quantified descriptions

implicit on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

in indefinite description, Indefinite descriptions

outer quantifiers

for expressing subsets, Quantified descriptions

rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, Quantified descriptions

outer sumti

prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, Relative clauses within relative clauses

owe money

example, Multiple compound bridi

P

pa, cmene, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri

pa da, A few notes on variables

pa no, Non-decimal and compound bases

PA selma'o

exception on use of boi with MOI, Special mekso selbri

members with rafsi, Miscellany

pa'e, Discursives

pa'enai, Discursives

pacraistu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacraistu zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pacru'i, Some types of symmetrical tanru

pagbu, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

pai, Special numbers

pamoi, Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri

pante tavla, rafsi

panzi nanmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

panzi ninmu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

paragraph separation

spoken text, Paragraphs: NIhO

written text, Paragraphs: NIhO

paragraphs

effects on scope, Paragraphs: NIhO

separator, Paragraphs: NIhO

parasitic worms

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

pareci, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

parentheses

for complex mekso used as quantifier, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

parenthesis

mathematical, Simple infix expressions and equations

partial quotation, Miscellaneous indicators

parts of speech, Introductory

paso, Non-decimal and compound bases

passive voice, Varying the order of sumti

past event

possible extension into present, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

pastward

as a spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

paternal grandmother

example, lujvo

patfu mamta, Some types of symmetrical tanru

patta'a, rafsi

patyta'a, rafsi

pau, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers

placement in sentence, Miscellaneous indicators

paunai, Miscellaneous indicators

pausative event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pause

and cmene, Rules for inserting pauses

and consonant-final words, Rules for inserting pauses

and Cy-form cmavo, Rules for inserting pauses

and final-syllable stress, Rules for inserting pauses

and non-Lojban text, Rules for inserting pauses

and vowel-initial words, Rules for inserting pauses

between words, Rules for inserting pauses

contrasted with stop, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with syllable break, The Special Lojban Characters

proscribed within words, Rules for inserting pauses

representation of in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

requirement between stressed syllables, cmavo

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

pause before name

effect of doi, Vocative scales

effect of vocatives of COI, Vocative scales

pauses

before vowels, cmavo

rules for, Rules for inserting pauses

pe, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

as loose association, Relative phrases

compared with ne, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a sranapoi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

pe mi, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

pe'a, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'anai, Miscellaneous indicators

pe'e, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

pe'i, Indicators, Evidentials

pe'ipei, Evidentials

pe'o, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

pe'u

contrasted with e'o, Vocative scales

peace symbol, Computerized character codes

pei, cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers

peipe'i, Evidentials

pelnimre, Simple tanru

pelnimre tricu, Simple tanru

pelxu, Simple tanru

percent

as numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

perfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

perils of omitting terminators, Scalar negation of selbri

period

definition of, The Special Lojban Characters

example of, The Special Lojban Characters

optional, The Special Lojban Characters

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

within a word, The Special Lojban Characters

Persian rug

example, rafsi

person's arm

example, Relative phrases

personal pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

personal pronouns

with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

with mi-series for I/you, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

personal pronouns for he/she/it/they

English contrasted with Lojban in organization, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

Pete

example, cmene

petso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pevrisnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

Pheidippides, Types of event abstractions

phonetic alphabet, Basic Phonetics

Phonetic Alphabet

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

physical distress

example, Emotional categories

pi, Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany

pi'a, Vectors and matrices

pi'e, Non-decimal and compound bases

pi'i, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation

pi'o, Modal tags: BAI

pi'u, Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives

contrasted with .e, More about non-logical connectives

use in connecting tenses, Sub-events

piano-moving

example, Individuals and masses

picti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pictures

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo

pilno-, Modal tags: BAI

pimu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pimu le'i nanmu, Quantified descriptions

pinca litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pino'o, Indefinite numbers

pinsi nunkilbra, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pinyin

as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

pirau, Indefinite numbers

piro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

piro la'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro le'i su'o, Quantified descriptions

piro lo'i ro, Quantified descriptions

piso'a, Indefinite numbers

piso'u, Indefinite numbers

pisu'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers

explanation of meaning, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lai su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o lei su'o, Quantified descriptions

pisu'o loi ro, Quantified descriptions

pixra cukta, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

place of eating

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

place structure

adding new places to with modal sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition, Introductory

definition of, The concept of the bridi

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

effect of modal conversion on, Modal conversion: JAI

empty slots in, Introductory

explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, Tagging places: FA

gismu, Notes on gismu place structures

instability of, Introductory

leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

notation conventions, Introductory

re-ordering by conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

place structure and tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

place structure of selbri

determining, Introductory

place structure order

effect of FA on, Tagging places: FA

place structure questions, Tagging places: FA

place structures

omitting places with FA, Tagging places: FA

omitting places with zo'e, Standard bridi form: cu

plant grows

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

plants

use of fu'ivla for specific, fu'ivla

plausibility

in abbreviated lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

playgrounds, Dependent places

pleases, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

plise tapla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

pluja valsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

pluka, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

plural

Lojban equivalent of, Approximation and inexact numbers

plural masses

possible use for, Quantified descriptions

plurals

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, The three basic description types

plurals with le

meaning of, Individuals and masses

pluta, Conversion: SE

contrasted with ve klama, Conversion: SE

po, Relative phrases

as restrictive possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a se steci sranapoi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with English possession, Relative phrases

contrasted with pe, Relative phrases

contrasted with po'e, Relative phrases

po do, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

po mi, Relative phrases

po'e, Relative phrases

as intrinsic possession, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci sranapoi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

contrasted with po, Relative phrases

po'o, Discursives

placement in sentence, Discursives

po'u, Relative phrases

as identity, Relative phrases

compared with no'u, Relative phrases

compared with poi ke'a dupoi ke'a du, Relative phrases

contrasted with no'u, Relative phrases

relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, Relative phrases

poi, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex

discussion of translation, What are you pointing at?

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

syntax of, What are you pointing at?

poi blabi, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

poi blanu, Incidental relative clauses

poi du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a du, Relative phrases

poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a se steci srana, Relative phrases

poi ke'a srana, Relative phrases

poi ninmu, Relative clauses and descriptors

poi prenu, Restricted claims: da poi

poi se cusku, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

poi-, Relative phrases

point

event considered as, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

point-event abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

point-event abstractor, Types of event abstractions

pointing

reference by, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pointing cmavo

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

police lineup, Number questions

Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

Polish notation mixed with infix, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

politeness

thank you and you're welcome, Vocative scales

you're welcome, Vocative scales

polno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ponse, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

portion

on set contrasted with on individual, Quantified descriptions

portion selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

porto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

positive numbers

explicit expression, Signs and numerical punctuation

positive sign

contrasted with addition operator, Simple infix expressions and equations

possessed in relative phrases

compared with possessor, Relative phrases

possession

expressing with po, Relative phrases

intrinsic

expressing with po'e, Relative phrases

Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, Relative phrases

quick-tour version, Possession

possession not ownership

quick-tour version, Possession

possessive sumti

compared with relative phrase, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

effect on elidability of ku, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on, Possessive sumti

syntax allowed, Possessive sumti

with relative clauses on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti and relative clauses

development history, Possessive sumti

possessive sumti with relative clauses

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

possessor in relative phrases

compared with possessed, Relative phrases

possessor sumti

definition, Possessive sumti

posydji, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

potential

expressing in past/future, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

potential events

expressing implicitly, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

prayer

example, Ordering lujvo places.

precedence

mathematical default, Simple infix expressions and equations

precise erasures, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

predicate answers, Questions and answers

predication

as a relationship, The concept of the bridi

compared with bridi, The concept of the bridi

Preem Palver

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

pregnant sister

example, Discursives

prenex

considerations for dropping, Dropping the prenex

dropping for terseness, Dropping the prenex

effect of order of variables in, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

internal to a bridi, The problem of “any”

purpose of, Dropping the prenex

removing when numeric quantifiers present, Variables with generalized quantifiers

syntax of, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

use for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

prenex manipulation

exporting na from left of prenex, bridi negation and logical connectives

importing na from selbri, bridi negation and logical connectives

moving naku past bound variable, bridi negation and logical connectives

rules, bridi negation and logical connectives

prenex scope

for sentences joined by .i, A few notes on variables

for sentences joined by ijeks, A few notes on variables

in abstractions, A few notes on variables

in embedded bridi, A few notes on variables

in relative clauses, A few notes on variables

informal, A few notes on variables

prenu, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations

prenu so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

prepositions

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

pretty

English ambiguity of, Complex tanru grouping

pretty little girls' school

forty ways, “Pretty little girls' school”: forty ways to say it

previous topic, Paragraphs: NIhO

pride of lions

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

primitive roots

gismu as, brivla

principle of consistency

of logical-if statements, Logical connection of bridi

pritu, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

pro-bridi

as abbreviation for bridi, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

pro-bridi assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-bridi rafsi

as producing context-dependent meanings, lujvo based on pro-sumti

pro-sumti

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

classes of, Pro-sumti summary

compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

contrasted with description, The five kinds of simple sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

for listener(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

for relativized sumti in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

for speaker(s), Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

ko'a-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu as, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

lerfu string

effect on reference to lerfu itself, References to lerfu

lerfu strings

interaction with quantifiers and boi, lerfu words as pro-sumti

mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

quick-tour version, Words that can act as sumti

rafsi for, lujvo based on pro-sumti

referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

series, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

typical, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

unspecified, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

pro-sumti assignment

explicit cancellation of with da'o, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

no'i effect on, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

pro-sumti for "we"

contrasted with English "we", Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others

as masses, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

relation to joi, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

pro-sumti for utterances, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pro-sumti rafsi

anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, lujvo based on pro-sumti

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

probability .5

example, Special mekso selbri

probability selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

values, Special mekso selbri

process abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

process abstractor, Types of event abstractions

process event

described, Types of event abstractions

pronouncement

example, Evidentials

pronouns

as anaphora, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronouns in English

as independent of abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

as noun abbreviations, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

pronunciation

IPA for Lojban, Basic Phonetics

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

relation to orthography, Orthography

standard, Basic Phonetics

properties

place structure, Property abstractions

property abstraction

specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

property abstractions

specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, Property abstractions

specifying determining place with ce'u, Property abstractions

sumti ellipsis in, Property abstractions

use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

property description, Property abstractions

property of loving

example, Property abstractions

proposed law, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

proposed lerfu words

as working basis, Proposed lerfu words – introduction

propositional

of attitudinals, Propositional attitude indicators

propositional attitudes, Predication/sentence abstraction

compared with knowledge discursives, Discursives

protocol

computer communications using COI, Vocative scales

parliamentary using COI, Vocative scales

using vocatives, Vocative scales

psis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

pu, Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

meaning as a sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

meaning when following interval specification, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

pu bajra, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

pu ge, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

pu naje ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

PU selma'o, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tense negation

compared with FAhA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

PU tenses

contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'i, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

pu'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

as pastward of event, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

derivation of word, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

explanation of derivation, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

pu'u, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

puba, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puki, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

puku, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

punai, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punai je ca, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

punctuation

in numbers, Signs and numerical punctuation

punctuation lerfu words

interaction with different alphabet systems, Punctuation marks

mechanism for creating, Punctuation marks

rationale for lau, Punctuation marks

punctuation marks

cmavo as Lojban equivalents, cmavo

purci, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

purdi bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

purdi vorme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

puxipa, Subscripts: XI

puxire, Subscripts: XI

py, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

py., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

py. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

Q

quack

example, Alien alphabets

quadratic formula

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

qualified sumti

contrasted with unqualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

quality and quantity

example, Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

quantification

before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, Quantified descriptions

quantificational pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantification rules, Pro-sumti summary

quantified space, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified sumti

different types contrasted for scope for distribution, Grouping of quantifiers

quantified temporal tense

definition, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

negating with nai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tense with direction

Lojban contrasted with English in implications, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified temporal tenses

"once" contrasted with "only once", Interval properties: TAhE and roi

caveat on implication of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

quantified tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

quantifier

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

on previously quantified variable, A few notes on variables

quantifier scope

in multiple connected sentences, bridi negation and logical connectives

quantifiers

effect of moving naku, Using naku outside a prenex

with logical variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

with sumti, Quantified sumti

quark

example, fu'ivla

question pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

implicit quantifier for, Pro-sumti summary

questions

answering with go'i, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

connection, Truth questions and connective questions

digit, Number questions

fill-in-the-blank, Questions and answers

marking in advance, Miscellaneous indicators

multiple, Questions and answers

number, Number questions, Questions and answers

operator, Other uses of mekso

place structure position, Tagging places: FA

quick-tour version, Questions

rhetorical, Miscellaneous indicators

selbri, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

sumti, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers

truth, Questions and answers

with "xu", Miscellaneous indicators

quick runner

example, Simple tanru

quotation

contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, References to lerfu

contrasted with sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction

four kinds, Quotation summary

implicit quantifier for, Quotation summary

quotations

as possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

implicit quantifier for, Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen

contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, rafsi

use of, lujvo, rafsi

ra, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'a, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'e, Signs and numerical punctuation

ra'i, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ra'o, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ra'u, Discursives

scale of importance, Discursives

ra'ucu'i, Discursives

ra'unai, Discursives

ractu mapku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

radio communication

proposed lerfu words for, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

radix

decimal (see also base), Non-decimal and compound bases

radno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rafsi, gismu, lujvo

as fu'ivla categorizer, fu'ivla

based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti

considerations restricting construction of, rafsi

contrasted with cmavo in usage, rafsi

contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, lujvo

contrasted with words, rafsi

conventional meaning for cu'o, Miscellany

conventional meaning for frinu, Miscellany

definition, lujvo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

forms of, rafsi

four-letter

requirement for y-hyphen, rafsi

lack of

effect on forming lujvo, rafsi

level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, rafsi

long, rafsi

multiple for each gismu, Considerations for making lujvo

multiplicity of for single gismu, rafsi

possible forms for construction of, rafsi

rationale for assignments of, rafsi

rules for combining to form lujvo, lujvo

selection considerations in making lujvo, rafsi

short, rafsi

uniqueness in gismu referent of, rafsi

use of, rafsi

rafsi assignments

non-reassignability of, rafsi

rafsi for numbers, rafsi

rafsi form

effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, lujvo

rafsi fu'ivla, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

rafsi space, rafsi

rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

rakso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ralju, cmene

ralju zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Ralph

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

ranti bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

rat eats cheese

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumti tcita

rat eats cheese in park

example, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

ratni nejni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rats are brown

example, Masses and sets

rats in park

example, Special mekso selbri

rau, Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri

re, cmavo, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation

re ci gerku cu blabi, Indefinite descriptions

re da, A few notes on variables

re karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re le ci mlatu, Grouping of quantifiers

re le mu prenu, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lei djacu, Quantified descriptions

re lo karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re lo ro karce, Relative clauses and descriptors

re nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers, selbri variables

re prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

re'i, Vocative scales

re'imi'e, Vocative scales

re'inai, Vocative scales

re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

re-ordering logical variables with se, Dropping the prenex

real world

contrasted with hypothetical world

example, Discursives

real world point of view, Discursives

reboi ci pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

Received Pronunciation, IPA For English Speakers

reciprocal

expression of mathematical, Signs and numerical punctuation

reciprocal pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

reciprocity

expressing with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

recital rooms, Dependent places

Red Pony

example, sumti qualifiers

red pony

example, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

redundancy

effect on vocative design, Vocative scales

reference

ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, What are you pointing at?

and discursive utterances, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

quick-tour version, The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

to relativized sumti with ke'a, What are you pointing at?

use of relative clause for, What are you pointing at?

reference frame

specifying for direction tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference frame for directions in tenses, Movement in space: MOhI

reference grammar, What is this book?

referent

of operand, Miscellany

referring to with la'e, sumti qualifiers

referent of pro-bridi

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

referent of pro-sumti

definition, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

reflexive pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

regularly

example, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

relation of first places in logical connection of observatives

rationale, Compound bridi

relationship

active/static/attributive compared, The concept of the bridi

as basis of sentence, Introductory

objects of, Introductory

relationship abstraction, Property abstractions

relative clause

compared with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with tanru, Incidental relative clauses

effect of omission of ke'ake'a on, What are you pointing at?

restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), Incidental relative clauses

use for reference, What are you pointing at?

relative clause scope

extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses

as part of name, Relative clauses and descriptors

effect of commas in English, Incidental relative clauses

effect on elidability of be'o, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

impact of indefinite sumti on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of la on placement, Relative clauses and descriptors

impact of LAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

impact of NAhE on placement, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

kinds of, Incidental relative clauses

list of cmavo for, Index of relative clause cmavo

on connected sumti, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on names, Relative clauses and descriptors

on number, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

on quotation, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

on vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

placement with vocative phrases, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

relative clauses within, Relative clauses within relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental, Incidental relative clauses

restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, Incidental relative clauses

syntax with indefinite sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors

use in restricting existential claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use in restricting universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi

use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

relative clauses and indefinite sumti

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and LAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and NAhE

placement considerations, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses and names

placement considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses and possessive sumti

development history, Possessive sumti

relative clauses on complex sumti

Lojban contrasted with English, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

relative clauses on indefinite sumti

syntax considerations, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses on lo

syntax suggestion, Relative clauses and descriptors

relative clauses with possessive sumti

effect of placement, Possessive sumti

relative phrase

as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, Relative phrases

compared with possessive sumti, Possessive sumti

connecting to relative clause with zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

rationale for, Relative phrases

syntax of, Relative phrases

relative phrases

contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, Possessive sumti

contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

improving preciseness with modals, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative phrases with modals

compared to relative clauses in preciseness, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

relative pro-sumti, Pro-sumti summary

relativity theory

relation to Lojban tense system, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relativized sumti

definition, What are you pointing at?

in relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses

remei bruna, Non-logical connectives

remembered

example, Evidentials

remna fetsi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

remna girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

remna nakni, Some types of symmetrical tanru

repeating decimals

expressing with numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation

marking start of repeating portion, Signs and numerical punctuation

representing lerfu

lu contrasted with me'o, References to lerfu

reroi, Sub-events

respectively

example, Non-logical connectives

specifying with fa'u, Non-logical connectives

with different relationships, More about non-logical connectives

restricted claims

definition, Restricted claims: da poi

restricted variable

compared with indefinite description, Variables with generalized quantifiers

restrictive relative clause

definition, Incidental relative clauses

resume

contrasted with begin, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

resumptive event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

revelation

example, Evidentials

reverse Polish notation

and mekso goals, Introductory

definition, Reverse Polish notation

marker, Reverse Polish notation

number of operands, Reverse Polish notation

operands of, Reverse Polish notation

parentheses in operands of, Reverse Polish notation

terminator, Reverse Polish notation

use of parentheses in, Reverse Polish notation

with too few operands, Reverse Polish notation

with too many operands, Reverse Polish notation

reviewers of this book, Acknowledgements and Credits

rhetorical question, Miscellaneous indicators

ri, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

ri goi ko'a, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation

ri'a do, Modal sentence connection: the causals

ri'agi, Other modal connections

ri'e, Attitudinal modifiers

ri-, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ri-series pro-sumti, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in narrative about quotation, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotation series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

in quotations, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ricfu, Compound bridi

rich and German

example, More about non-logical connectives

ricrxaceru, fu'ivla

right-grouping in tanru

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

right-grouping rule

definition of, Complex tanru grouping

righteous indignation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

rinka, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection

rirxe xirma, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi dakli, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rismi patxu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

risna, Miscellaneous indicators

risnyjelca, Miscellaneous indicators

riximu, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

rixire, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ro, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, Dropping the prenex

effect of order when multiple in sentence, Grouping of quantifiers

ro da, Universal claims

ro da poi klama, The problem of “any”

ro DA poi prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro la su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le nanmu, Grouping of quantifiers

ro le su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro le'e su'o, Quantified descriptions

ro prenu, Variables with generalized quantifiers

ro rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

ro'anai, Emotional categories

example, Emotional categories

ro'e, Emotional categories

ro'inre'o, brivla, rafsi

ro'ire'o, rafsi

ro'irre'o, rafsi

ro'o, More about non-logical connectives

ro'ole'o, Attitudinal modifiers

ro'u, Compound indicators

rock face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

roger

example, Vocative scales

roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso

ROI selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

exception on use of boi before, Other uses of mekso

scalar negation of, Tense negation

rokci bitmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokci cinfo, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci derxi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

rokci renro, rafsi

rokci zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

rokre'o, rafsi

romai, Utterance ordinals: MAI

romaji

as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?

Roman Empire, Types of event abstractions

example, Types of event abstractions

room which he built

example, Relative clauses within relative clauses

ropno, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

rounded down

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded numbers

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded up

example, Approximation and inexact numbers

rounded/unrounded vowels, Basic Phonetics

RP

as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation

ru, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

ru'a, Indicators, Evidentials

compared with e'u, Evidentials

ru'e, Attitudes as scales

ru'i, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'inai, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ru'o, Alien alphabets

ru'o.abupyky, lerfu words as pro-sumti

rug

Persian

example, rafsi

runner shoe

example, tanru

rusko, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

ry, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ry., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

S

sa, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with li'o, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with sei, Miscellaneous indicators

interaction with to'i, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'asa'a, Miscellaneous indicators

sa'enai, Discursives

sa'i, Vectors and matrices

sa'unai, Discursives

sadjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sai, More about non-logical connectives

saicli, The lujvo-making algorithm

said John

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sakli, rafsi

saktrxaceru, fu'ivla

salad ingredients

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

salci, rafsi

samex. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sanli, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

Sapir-Whorf effects

and emotional indicators, Tentative conclusion

sarcasm

example, Discursives

expressing, Discursives

saske, fu'ivla

sau'e, cmavo

scalar attitude, Attitudes as scales

scalar negation

effect on selbri, Scalar negation of selbri

scalar negation of modals

explanation of meaning, Modal negation

scalar negation of non-logical connective, More about non-logical connectives

scalar negation of tenses

selma'o allowed with, Tense negation

scale

granular contrasted with continuous, Special mekso selbri

scale of redness

example, Special mekso selbri

scale selbri

definition, Special mekso selbri

place structure, Special mekso selbri

place structure effect from subjective numbers, Special mekso selbri

school building

example, Dependent places

schooner

example, Lojban content words: brivla

scientific names

rules for, cmene

scientific notation

rationale for order of places, Infix operators revisited

with gei, Infix operators revisited

score

as 20-year span, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

as alternate base for years, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

se, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI

as grammatical in JOI compounds, Non-logical connectives

in logical connective to exchange sentences, Logical connection of bridi

order in logical connectives with na, Logical connection of bridi

use with operators, Miscellany

using to re-order logical variables, Dropping the prenex

se batci, Dropping the prenex

se du'u, Predication/sentence abstraction

se dzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se gasnu, Implicit-abstraction lujvo

se jbopli, Selecting places

se kanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se ke blanu zdani [ke'e], Conversion: SE

se ke te, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se klama, tanru, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

place structure of, Conversion: SE

se pilno, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI

se pinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se pinxe be zi'o, lujvo based on pro-sumti

se remei, More about non-logical connectives

se se gleki, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

SE selma'o, Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI, Subscripts: XI

after 5th place, Subscripts: XI

effect of multiple on a selbri, Conversion: SE

effect on place structure numbering, Conversion: SE

effect on selbri place structure, Conversion: SE

extending scope of, Conversion: SE

for converting place structure, Conversion: SE

rationale for no 1st place conversion, Conversion: SE

scope of, Conversion: SE

word formation of cmavo in, Conversion: SE

se te, Conversion: SE, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

se te klama, Conversion: SE

se writing convention

in eks, sumti connection

se xance minde, Anomalous lujvo

se zdani, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

se zmadu, Comparatives and superlatives

se'a, Attitudinal modifiers

se'e, Computerized character codes

and number base convention, Computerized character codes

se'i, Attitudinal modifiers

se'o, Evidentials

se'u, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

as elidable terminator for soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

elidability considerations, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

se.u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seba'i, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

section numbering, Other uses of mekso

see with eye

example, Modal selbri

see with left eye

example, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

segi'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

segu'u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

sei, Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

sei ... se'u, A sample dialogue

seja'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seju, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

seka'a, Modal tags: BAI

sel-, Anomalous lujvo

selbri, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as part of description, The three basic description types

brivla as, Lojban content words: brivla

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting into an operator, Using Lojban resources within mekso

converting operator into, Other uses of mekso

definition, Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

omitting with co'e, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

place structure of, Introductory

place structure of converted operator, Other uses of mekso

relation to bridi, Lojban content words: brivla

scalar negation of, Scalar negation of selbri

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

selbri from sumti, selbri based on sumti: me

selbri list for quick tour, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

selbri logical variables, selbri variables

selbri place structure

effect on operator formed by, Using Lojban resources within mekso

selbri placement among sumti

effect of multiple quantification on, Using naku outside a prenex

selbri questions

quick-tour version, Questions

selbri variables

form when not in prenex, selbri variables

prenex form as indefinite description, selbri variables

quantified, selbri variables

selbri-first bridi

effect on sumti places, Standard bridi form: cu

effect on use of cu, Tagging places: FA

specifying first sumti place in with fa, Tagging places: FA

selcadzu klama, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selci lamgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

seldzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

self-orientation

example, Attitudinal modifiers

selgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

seljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selkanla, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

selkemdzukla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkemsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

selma'o, cmavo

cross-reference list of

selma'o catalog,

definition, cmavo

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

selnelcymau, Comparatives and superlatives

selsel, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selsel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Anomalous lujvo

selselgekmau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selseljdasku, Anomalous lujvo

selsinxa, sumti qualifiers

selsku, Anomalous lujvo

seltau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

compared with English adjective, lujvo

compared with English adverb, lujvo

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

filling sumti places in, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

seltcita sumti, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

definition (see also modal sumti), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

selter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

selti'i, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

selzda, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

semau, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

seme'a, Modal relative phrases; Comparison

semto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sentence

basic Lojban, Introductory

sentences

close grouping, Sentences: I

connecting non-logically, More about non-logical connectives

connecting with tense, Tense relations between sentences

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

separator for joining, Sentences: I

tenseless

quick-tour version, Tenses

separate questions

quick-tour version, Questions

separately tensed sentences

contrasted with tense connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

sepi'o, Modal tags: BAI

sequence

as an abstract list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with list, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with set, sumti qualifiers

sequence of events

expressing non-time-related sequences, More about non-logical connectives

sequence of tense rules

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

seri'a, Modal sentence connection: the causals

seri'agi, Other modal connections

set

as specified by members, Non-logical connectives

by listing members with ce, Non-logical connectives

compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, Masses and sets

contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, Non-logical connectives

contrasted with ordered sequence, Non-logical connectives

expressing measurement standard for indefinites, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with individuals forming set, Special mekso selbri

expressing relation with mass formed from set, Special mekso selbri

set of all rats

example, Special mekso selbri

set of rats

example, sumti qualifiers

set operations, More about non-logical connectives

setese, Conversion: SE

sets

properties of, Masses and sets

rule for implicit outer quantifier, Quantified descriptions

use in Lojban place structure, Masses and sets

sexixa, Subscripts: XI

sexual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

sexual teacher

male

example, lujvo-making examples

sfofa, IPA For English Speakers

sfofy, IPA For English Speakers

shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

shell worm

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

shellfish, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

Sherman tank

example, rafsi

shift

single-letter

grammar of, Upper and lower cases

shift word

for single letter, Upper and lower cases

scope, Upper and lower cases

shift words

canceling effect, Alien alphabets

for face, Alien alphabets

for font, Alien alphabets

ship sank

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

shoehorn, Dependent places

shook stick

example, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

short rafsi, rafsi

short rafsi form

compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, lujvo

si, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

si'a, Discursives

si'e, Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary

si'o, Minor abstraction types

signed numbers

expressing, Signs and numerical punctuation

signs on numbers

grammar, Signs and numerical punctuation

sikcurnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sikcurnu silka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silka curnu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

silna jinto, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

Simon says

example, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti

simultaneously

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

since, fu'ivla

sinful

example, Attitudinal modifiers

single consonants

contrasted with consonant clusters, Consonant Clusters

contrasted with doubled consonants, Consonant Clusters

single-letter shift

as toggle, Upper and lower cases

single-word quotation, Quotation summary

singular me

example, Special mekso selbri

sinso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sinxa, sumti qualifiers

sirxo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

sister pregnant

example, Discursives

sisti, Metalinguistic negation forms

six-shooter

example, Sub-events

size

order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

skami pilno, lujvo

skari, Metalinguistic negation forms

skoto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slaka, The universal bu

slaka bu, The universal bu

slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

slinku'i test

definition, fu'ivla

slovo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

slowdown, Types of event abstractions

smacu terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

smiley face

example, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

sneak in

example, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

snime nanmu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

snow falls

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

snowball's chance

example, Special mekso selbri

so'a, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'e, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'i, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'imei, Some types of symmetrical tanru

so'o, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

so'u, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany

social butterfly

example, tanru

Socrates

example, Modal sentence connection: the causals

softo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi sai, lujvo

soi vo'a vo'e, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soi with one following sumti

convention, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

soidji, Abstract lujvo

solji carce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji djine, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji junla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solji kerfa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solji sicni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

solri, cmene

solxrula, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

solxrula grasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

some do not go to school

example, Using naku outside a prenex

some relationship

example, selbri variables

somebody

contrasted with somebody else, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves self

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody loves somebody

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

somebody's dog

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something

contrasted with someone, Restricted claims: da poi

expressing using "su'o", Variables with generalized quantifiers

unspecified definite with "zo'e", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

something is loved by everybody

example, Negation boundaries

something sees everything

example, Universal claims

something sees me

example, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers

sonci, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sonci manti, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sonci tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sounds

clarity of, Basic Phonetics

complex, Basic Phonetics

difficult, Basic Phonetics

sounds for letters

Lojban contrasted with English, Basic Phonetics

source languages

use in creating gismu, The gismu creation algorithm

south face

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sow grain

example, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

sowed grain

example, Tense questions: cu'e

space

as time-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with time in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

space intervals

compared with time intervals in continuity, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

space location

as part of tense system (see also tense

spatial tense), Introductory

space tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

space/time metaphor

expressing direction mapping for, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spageti, fu'ivla

spaghetti, fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

Spanish ch

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Spanish ll

example, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

spano, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

spatial contours

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with temporal event contours, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

expressing, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial directions

list of, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

spatial information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

spatial interval modifiers

order in tense, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial intervals

expressing degree of continuity over, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

spatial tense

4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

as an imaginary journey, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as optional in English, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

compared with temporal tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, Dimensionality: VIhA

definition, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

direction, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

four-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

linear, Dimensionality: VIhA

one-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

order relative to temporal, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

planar, Dimensionality: VIhA

reference frame, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

referent of, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

three-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

two-dimensional, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tense intervals

order of size and dimensionality in, Dimensionality: VIhA

order of VEhA and VIhA in, Dimensionality: VIhA

spatial tenses

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

order of direction and distance specifications, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

spatrkoka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

spatrkoka lanka, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

speaker's state of knowledge, Discursives

speaker-listener cooperation, Questions

speaker-relative viewpoint

contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

specific descriptions, The three basic description types

specific terms

use of fu'ivla for, fu'ivla

specificity

expressing with po, Relative phrases

speech rhythm

for grouping in English, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

spelling out words

Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

speranto, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

spiritual discomfort

example, Emotional categories

spraile, fu'ivla

SQL

example, Acronyms

square brackets

use of in notation, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

sralo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

srana, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

srito, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

stali, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

standard bridi form

definition, Standard bridi form: cu

standard for subjective numbers

specifying, Special mekso selbri

standard pronunciation, Basic Phonetics

starting marker, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

state abstractions

definition, Types of event abstractions

related tense contours, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

state abstractor, Types of event abstractions

state event

described, Types of event abstractions

steady speed, Types of event abstractions

steci, Relative phrases

stereotypical

as not derogatory in Lojban, Descriptors for typical objects

compared with typical, Descriptors for typical objects

stereotypical objects, Descriptors for typical objects

stero, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

Steven Mark Jones

example, lerfu words as pro-sumti

sticky modals

canceling, Sticky modals

definition, Sticky modals

fi'o proscribed from, Sticky modals

sticky tenses

and CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

canceling, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

definition, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect of nau on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

effect on future tense meaning, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

from part of a multiple tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

stidi, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stidi flalu, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

stop

contrasted with finish, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

contrasted with pause, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

stories

flow of time in, Story time

story tense

Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, Story time

story time

as a convention for inferring tense, Story time

definition, Story time

rationale for, Story time

tenseless sentences in, Story time

with no initial sticky time, Story time

stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

effect of buffer vowel on, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

effect of syllabic consonants on, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

example, Emotional categories

final syllable

rules for pause after, Rules for inserting pauses

irregular marked with upper-case, Upper and lower cases

levels of, Syllabication And Stress

on cmavo, cmavo

primary, Syllabication And Stress

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

secondary, Syllabication And Stress

showing non-standard, Orthography

stressed syllable

compared with stressed vowel, Syllabication And Stress

stressed vowel

compared with stressed syllable, Syllabication And Stress

stroke cat then rabbit

example, Tensed logical connectives

structure of examples, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

structure of this book, What is this book?

structure words, cmavo

stura, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

su, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

su'a, Evidentials, Discursives

su'anai, Evidentials

su'e, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'i, Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

su'i zy, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'i zy., Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

su'o, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany

as implicit quantifier for quotations, Quantified sumti

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'o bu'a, selbri variables

su'o ci cutci, Indefinite descriptions

su'o le ro, The syntax of vocative phrases

su'o lo ro, Quantified descriptions

su'o lo'e ro, Quantified descriptions

su'opa, Variables with generalized quantifiers

su'ore, Approximation and inexact numbers

su'u, Minor abstraction types

su'u jenai ni, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

su'ujeninai, Negation of minor grammatical constructs

sub-subscripts, Subscripts

subjective amounts

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subjective numbers

effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for portion selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for probability selbri, Special mekso selbri

effect on place structure for scale selbri, Special mekso selbri

rationale for effect on place structure, Special mekso selbri

specifying standard for, Special mekso selbri

subjective portions

expressing, Indefinite numbers

subordinate clause tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Esperanto, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban compared with Russian, Tenses in subordinate bridi

Lojban contrasted with English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subordinate clauses

tense usage rules in English, Tenses in subordinate bridi

subscripted topics, Paragraphs: NIhO

subscripting, Subscripts: XI

subscripts

and fuzzy truths, Subscripts: XI

and names, Subscripts: XI

and paragraph separators, Subscripts: XI

and pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI

and sumti re-ordering, Subscripts: XI

and tense, Subscripts: XI

before main expression, Subscripts

effects on elidability of terminators, Subscripts

external grammar of, Subscripts

for sticky tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

internal grammar of, Subscripts

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

mathematical, Subscripts: XI

multiple as sub-subscript, Subscripts

multiple for same base word, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

on ke'a for nested relative clauses, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

terminator for, Subscripts

to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, Vectors and matrices

use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, Relative clauses within relative clauses

use with logical variables, A few notes on variables

subscripts on lerfu words

effect on elidability of boi, Subscripts

subsets

expressing with outer quantifiers, Quantified descriptions

subtraction operator

contrasted with negative sign, Special numbers

subtypes of words, brivla

sudysrasu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cunmi, Some types of symmetrical tanru

sudysrasu cutci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

sumti, The concept of the bridi, Introductory

as having implicit quantifiers, Quantified sumti

as objects in place structure slots, Introductory

beginning with "ke", Grouping of afterthought connectives

between descriptor and description selbri, Possessive sumti

classified by types of objects referred to, Individuals and masses

converting into an operand, Using Lojban resources within mekso

definition, The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

descriptions as, The five kinds of simple sumti

dropping trailing unspecified, Standard bridi form: cu

explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, Tagging places: FA

for individual objects, Individuals and masses

for mass objects, Individuals and masses

for set objects, Individuals and masses

forethought tense connection of, Tense relations between sentences

irrelevant to relationship, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

kinds of, The five kinds of simple sumti

multiple in one place with FA, Tagging places: FA

names as, The five kinds of simple sumti

numbers as, The five kinds of simple sumti

omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri, Standard bridi form: cu

order in selbri-first bridi, Standard bridi form: cu

pro-sumti as, The five kinds of simple sumti

quotations as, The five kinds of simple sumti

re-ordering with FA, Tagging places: FA

relation with bridi, The concept of the bridi

sumti cmavo, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

sumti connection

afterthought, sumti connection

forethought, sumti connection

sumti into selbri, selbri based on sumti: me

sumti logical connection, sumti connection

compared with bridi logical connections, sumti connection

contrasted with tanru logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

rationale for, sumti connection

sumti modal connection, Other modal connections

sumti place

additional

selma'o catalog,

sumti placement

variant

quick-tour version, Variant bridi structure

sumti qualifiers

as short forms for common special cases, sumti qualifiers

elidable terminator for qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

external syntax of, sumti qualifiers

for negation, sumti qualifiers

internal syntax of, sumti qualifiers

list of, sumti qualifiers

sumti questions

quick-tour version, Questions

sumti reordering

quick-tour version, Varying the order of sumti

sumti tcita, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

based on event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on spatial contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense direction, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tense distance, Tenses as sumti tcita

based on tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

definition (see also modal tag), Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita and linked sumti, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and modal tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita and tense tags, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

sumti tcita based on dimension, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on event contours

relation of main bridi to sumti process in, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval properties, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on interval size, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, Tenses as sumti tcita

sumti with lo

compared to indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

sumti with tense

effect of main bridi tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti with tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

sumti-based description

definition, sumti-based descriptions

inner quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

outer quantifier on, sumti-based descriptions

sumti-based descriptions with le

as increasing restricting to in-mind, sumti-based descriptions

Sun

the

example, cmene

sunburn

example, Property abstractions

superfective event contour, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

superscripts, Subscripts

supervising

as a contribution to mass action, Non-logical connectives

supper

example, rafsi

supplementary information, Dependent places

Susan

example, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

susu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

sutra, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri

sutra cadzu, selbri and tanru negation

sword blade, lujvo with more than two parts.

sy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

sy., brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one

syllabaries

lerfu word representation, What about Chinese characters?

syllabic consonant

effect on stress determination, cmene

syllabic consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

effect on stress, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

final in word, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

syllabic l

considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic m

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic n

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabic pronunciations of consonants

in fu'ivla

example, fu'ivla

in fu'ivla category attachment

example, fu'ivla

syllabic r

as a consonant for morphological discussions, Introductory

syllabication

and names, Syllabication And Stress

definition of, Syllabication And Stress

examples of, Syllabication And Stress

rules for, Syllabication And Stress

variants of

example, Syllabication And Stress

syllable break

contrasted with pause, The Special Lojban Characters

representation in Lojban, The Special Lojban Characters

symbol for, The universal bu

word for, The universal bu

symbol

for operand, Miscellany

referring to with lu'e, sumti qualifiers

symmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical tanru types

both separately true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

one or other true, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using crucial/typical parts, Some types of symmetrical tanru

using more inclusive class, Some types of symmetrical tanru

symmetrical veljvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

sympathy

example, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

ta, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

contrasted with di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

ta'apei, Vocative scales

ta'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation

ta'onai, Discursives

ta'u, Discursives

ta'unai, Discursives

tables

format of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

tadni girzu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tagged sumti termsets

connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, More about non-logical connectives

TAhE selma'o

effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

scalar negation of, Tense negation

tai, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tail-terms

definition, Compound bridi

Take care!

example, Vocatives and commands

Talk!

example, Vocatives and commands

talker

example, tanru

taller

example, The concept of the bridi

tamdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tamsmi, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tan(pi/2) = infinity

example, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tanjo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso

tank

Sherman

example, rafsi

tanru, tanru, Simple tanru

ambiguity in, lujvo

ambiguity of, lujvo, Simple tanru

and abstractions, The syntax of abstraction

and conversion

quick-tour version, tanru

and creativity, lujvo

as ambiguous, Simple tanru

asymmetrical, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

combination of, lujvo

containing mathematical expressions, Other kinds of simple selbri

default left-grouping of, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

definition, Simple tanru

quick-tour version, Lojban grammatical terms

expanding, Discursives

explanation of, lujvo

explicating, Discursives

explicitly defining, Discursives

expression of, lujvo

meaning of, Simple tanru

place structure of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

place structures of, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

possible meanings of, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

primary meaning of, Simple tanru

purpose, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

quick-tour version, tanru

reducing logically connected sumti to

caveat, Logical connection within tanru

simple, Simple tanru

to lujvo, lujvo

with GOhA, Other kinds of simple selbri

tanru and conversion, Conversion of simple selbri

tanru connection

connotation of non-logical, Non-logical connectives

tanru connection grouping

guheks unmarked tanru, Logical connection within tanru

tanru conversion

effect on place structure

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru default grouping

quick-tour version, tanru

tanru grouping

complex, Complex tanru grouping

effect of jeks, Logical connection within tanru

effect of tanru inversion on, Inversion of tanru: co

guheks compared with jeks, Logical connection within tanru

three-part, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

with bo, Complex tanru grouping

with ke, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

with ke and bo, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

tanru grouping with JA+BO

effect on tanru grouping, Logical connection within tanru

tanru inversion, Inversion of tanru: co

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

effect on tanru grouping, Inversion of tanru: co

in complex tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

multiple, Inversion of tanru: co

rule for removing, Inversion of tanru: co

where allowed, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru inversion and place structure, Inversion of tanru: co

tanru logical connection

contrasted with sumti logical connection, Logical connection within tanru

tanru nested within tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo

tarmi, fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tarmi simsa, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

tarmrnintegrale, fu'ivla

tatru litki, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tau, Upper and lower cases

tavla, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti

tavla be do, lujvo based on pro-sumti

taxfu dadgreku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcarlis. bu, Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

tcati kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tcys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

te, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

te klagau, Selecting places

te klama, Conversion: SE

te se klama, Conversion: SE

te'a, Simple infix expressions and equations

te'o, Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers

te'u, Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

technical terms, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

teci'e, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tei, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

tei .abu .ebu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei .ibu jy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei fy. ibu foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

tei sy. zy. foi, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

teka'a, Modal tags: BAI

telephone conversation

hello, Vocative scales

television, IPA For English Speakers

template, Minor abstraction types

temporal direction

exception in meaning when following ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

temporal information

adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

temporal tense

as mandatory in English, Introductory

compared with spatial tense in elidability, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

historical definition, Introductory

interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, Dimensionality: VIhA

Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, Introductory

order relative to spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

quantified with direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

real relationship to time in English, Introductory

temporal tense elision

compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

temporal tenses

compared with spatial tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ten

expressing as number, Lojban numbers

tense

aorist, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

as observer-based, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

as subjective perception, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

connecting sentences in with, Tense relations between sentences

contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, Tense negation

effect of different position in sentence, Introductory

effect of sticky tense on, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

emphasizing by position in sentence, Introductory

explanation of presentation method, Introductory

expressing movement in, Movement in space: MOhI

handling multiple episodes, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

in forethought bridi-tail connection

special rule, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

interval contrasted with point, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

Lojban contrasted with native languages, Introductory

numerical, Other uses of mekso

on embedded bridi, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

order of direction

distance and interval in, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

order of direction specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of distance specification in, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

order of movement specification in, Movement in space: MOhI

order of spatial interval modifiers in , Space interval modifiers: FEhE

order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

overriding to speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

point contrasted with interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

position in sentence alternative, Introductory

position of in sentence, Introductory

quantified, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

relative order with bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation

scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, Tense negation

scalar negation of with NAhE, Tense negation

scope effect of new paragraph, Paragraphs: NIhO

scope of, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

selbri types applicable to, Introductory

space-time dimension for intervals, Dimensionality: VIhA

speaker's current, Tenses in subordinate bridi

specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

static contrasted with moving, Movement in space: MOhI

subscripting, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, Tense relations between sentences

with both temporal and spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

with ku, Introductory

tense afterthought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense and na

multiple, Tenses and bridi negation

tense as sumti tcita

contrasted with tense inside sumti, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense cmavo

position relative to selbri, Tenses and bridi negation

tense connected sentences

contrasted with separately tensed sentences, Tense relations between sentences

forethought mode, Tense relations between sentences

importance of bo in, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection

equivalent meanings, Tense relations between sentences

expansions of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of bridi-tails

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sentences

contrasted with sumti tcita form, Tense relations between sentences

order of, Tense relations between sentences

tense connection of sumti

meaning of, Tense relations between sentences

tense conversion

accessing original first place with fai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

accessing tense of bridi with jai, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

of temporal tenses, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

use in sumti descriptions, Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI

with jai, Conversion of simple selbri

tense direction

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

implications on scope of event, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

tense direction/distance as sumti tcita

contrasted with event contours, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense distance

as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense forethought connection forms

selma'o allowed, Tense relations between sentences

tense in scope of sticky tense

compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense inside sumti

contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

tense on main bridi

effect on embedded bridi tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

effect on embedded sumti with tenses, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

tense questions

by using logical connective question, Tense questions: cu'e

methods of asking, Tense questions: cu'e

tense questions with ma, Tense questions: cu'e

tense selma'o

summary of, Summary of tense selma'o

tense sentence connection

table of equivalent schemata, Tenses versus modals

tense specification

effect on "cu", Introductory

effect on elidability of terminators, Introductory

tense system

and space location, Introductory

tense tags and sumti tcita, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o

tense with sumti tcita

asymmetry of, Tense relations between sentences

tense-or-modal questions

pre-specifying some information, Tense questions: cu'e

with cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e

tensed connectives

in mathematical expressions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in gihek…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijek…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in ijoik…tu'e, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in jek…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…bo, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

in joik…ke, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

with ke…ke'e, Tensed logical connectives

with tu'e…tu'u, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected bridi-tails, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sentences, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed logically connected sumti, Tensed logical connectives

with grouping, Tensed logical connectives

tensed non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

tenseless sentences in story time, Story time

tenses

compared with modals in syntax, Tenses versus modals

connected

with negation, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

contradictory negation of with nai, Tense negation

contrasted with modals in semantics, Tenses versus modals

forethought connection in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

forethought logical connections, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

grouping of connectives in, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, Tenses versus modals

logically connected with JA, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

multiple in sentence, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

negating, Tense negation

non-logical connection of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

non-logical connection of for sub-events, Sub-events

possible groupings of, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

use as sumti tcita, Tenses as sumti tcita

viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

tenses with elided CAhA

meaning, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

terbi'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terbi'a jurme, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terci'e, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

tergu'i, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergu'i ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tergusni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkakpa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terkavbu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

terklamau, Comparatives and superlatives

terlanme jitro gerku, Anomalous lujvo

terlantroge'u, Anomalous lujvo

term

definition, Termset logical connection

terminators

eliding ku in non-logical connections, Non-logical connectives

termset

effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, Grouping of quantifiers

formation, Termset logical connection

termset logical connection

unequal length, Termset logical connection

termset modal connection, Other modal connections

termsets

compared to fa'u, Non-logical connectives

non-logical connection of, More about non-logical connectives

tertau, Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

definition, Inversion of tanru: co

definition of, Simple tanru

effect on meaning of tanru, Simple tanru

terter-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

terto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

tesete, Conversion: SE

texete, Conversion: SE

text

division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

sub-division numbering with -mai, Other uses of mekso

text quotation

as internally grammatical, Quotation summary

syntax of, Quotation summary

tezu'e, Modal sentence connection: the causals

thank you

example, Vocative scales

the

contrasted with a/an, Miscellaneous indicators

example, Miscellaneous indicators

for talking about numbers themselves, Simple infix expressions and equations

the destination

example, Conversion: SE

the go-er

example, Conversion: SE

The men are women

example, The three basic description types

the two of you

example, sumti-based descriptions

thingy

example, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

this

adjective expression with ti noi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective expression with vi, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as utterance reference in English, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

pronoun expression with ti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this boat

example, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

this book

author of, Acknowledgements and Credits

contributors to, Acknowledgements and Credits

credits for, Acknowledgements and Credits

examples of, What are the typographical conventions of this book?

goal of, What is this book?

reviewers of, Acknowledgements and Credits

structure of, What is this book?

this/that in English

compared with ti-series pro-sumti, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

three bears

example, sumti-based descriptions

three cats white

and two big

example, A few notes on variables

three dogs bite two men

example, Grouping of quantifiers

Three Kings

example, selbri based on sumti: me

three of four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three or four people

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

three rats

example, Special mekso selbri

thus

example, Evidentials

ti, Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

as pronoun expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti mlatu, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

ti noi

as adjective expression for this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

ti'e, Evidentials

ti'ifla, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

ti'o, Explicit operator precedence

ti'otci, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ti-series pro-sumti

3 degrees of distance with, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

as pointing referents only, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

compared with English this/that, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

conversational convention for, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

lack of pro-bridi equivalent, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

problems in written text, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tilde

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

time

as part of tense system (see also tense

temporal tense), Introductory

as space-based metaphor, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

contrasted with space in number of directions, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

time tenses

quick-tour version, Tenses

time travel, Movement in space: MOhI

times

explicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

implicit expression of, Indefinite numbers

tinju'i, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

tirna, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

title

specifying with tu'e…tu'u, Sentences: I

title of book

example, sumti qualifiers

tixnu be mi, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

to, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, No more to say: FAhO

to movie

house

office: example, Tagging places: FA

to the market from the office, Termset logical connection

to'a, Upper and lower cases

to'e, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation

to'ebo, sumti negation

to'i, Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'i ... toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

to'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

to'u, Discursives

to-do list

example, More about non-logical connectives

toi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

Tolkien

and non-standard Lojban orthography, Oddball Orthographies

tolmle, Expressing scales in selbri negation

tolvri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tomorrow

example, lujvo with more than two parts.

too

example, Discursives

too long

example, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumti tcita

too many rats

example, Special mekso selbri

topic-comment

description, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

topic/comment

multiple sentence, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tosmabru test, The lujvo-making algorithm

toward her right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward my right

example, Movement in space: MOhI

toward right

contrasted with on right, Movement in space: MOhI

traji, Comparatives and superlatives

transfinite cardinal

example, Special numbers

transformations with logical connectives

steps, Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law

traveling salesperson

example, Modal tags: BAI

tricrxaceru, fu'ivla

tricrxaceru sakta, fu'ivla

tricu, fu'ivla

tricu stedu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

triumph, Types of event abstractions

trkaile, fu'ivla

troci, Inversion of tanru: co

troci co klama, Inversion of tanru: co

truncation of number

expressing, Approximation and inexact numbers

truth

in imperative sentences, Truth questions and connective questions

truth functions, Logical connection and truth tables

16 possible, Logical connection and truth tables

commutative, The Four basic vowels

creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, The Four basic vowels

fundamental 4 in Lojban, The Four basic vowels

relation to logical connectives, The Four basic vowels

table of logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

truth questions, Miscellaneous indicators

answering "no", Truth questions and connective questions

answering "yes", Truth questions and connective questions

as yes-or-no questions, Truth questions and connective questions

contrasted with connection questions, Truth questions and connective questions

simple, Truth questions and connective questions

truth table

explanation, Logical connection and truth tables

truth tables

abbreviated format, Logical connection and truth tables

for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, The Four basic vowels

list of 16 in abbreviated form, Logical connection and truth tables

notation convention, Logical connection and truth tables

truth-value abstractions

place structure, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction

try the door

example, Lojban sumti raising

try to go

example, Inversion of tanru: co

ts-sound in Russian

representation in Lojban, Basic Phonetics

tsadik. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

tsys. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

tu, Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

archaic English yon as equivalent of, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

tu'a, sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising

as being deliberately vague, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for forming abstractions, sumti qualifiers

tu'a le vorme, Lojban sumti raising

tu'e, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

effect on di'e, More about non-logical connectives

use in lists, More about non-logical connectives

tu'o, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation

for infix operations with too few operands, Infix operators revisited

tu'o va'a, Reverse Polish notation

tu'u, Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

tumla spisa, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

tumla vacri, Some types of symmetrical tanru

tuple birka, Some types of symmetrical tanru

turdu'i, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

twice today

example, Tenses as sumti tcita

two brothers

example, Other kinds of simple selbri

two dogs are white

example, Quantified descriptions

ty, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

ty., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

ty.bu, Alien alphabets

types and subtypes of words, brivla

typical

compared with stereotypical, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Englishman

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Lojban user

example, Masses and sets

typical objects

and instantiation, Descriptors for typical objects

determining characteristics of, Descriptors for typical objects

typical Smith

example, Descriptors for typical objects

typical sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

typical value

contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

u, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

u'e, cmavo

u'u, Propositional attitude indicators

ugh

example, More about non-logical connectives

UI selma'o, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

umlaut

a diacritical mark, Accent marks and compound lerfu words

unabridged dictionary, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

unconditional signal, No more to say: FAhO

unconnected tanru

contrasted with logically connected version, Logical connection within tanru

undemonstrated potential

expressing, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

under compulsion

example, Modal selbri

under conditions

example, Event abstraction

underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter, The concept of the bridi

unequal termset connection

compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, Termset logical connection

unfilled places of inverted tanru, Inversion of tanru: co

Unicode, Computerized character codes

union

of sets, More about non-logical connectives

union of sets

compared with or, More about non-logical connectives

units of measurement

expressing, Simple infix expressions and equations

universal

mixed claim with existential, Universal claims

universal claims

dangers of using, Dropping the prenex

explanation, Universal claims

restricting, Restricted claims: da poi

unqualified sumti

contrasted with qualified sumti, sumti qualifiers

unreduced fractions

use in granular scales, Special mekso selbri

unreduced lujvo

definition, rafsi

unspecified breed

example, Dependent places

unspecified direction

temporal contrasted with in spatial, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

unspecified emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified level of emotion, Compound indicators

unspecified route

example, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified sumti

non-trailing, Standard bridi form: cu

using zo'e as place-holder for, Standard bridi form: cu

unspecified trailing sumti

dropping, Standard bridi form: cu

unstated emotion, Compound indicators

unusual characters

words for, The universal bu

unvoiced consonants

contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

unvoiced vowel glide

apostrophe as, The Special Lojban Characters

upper-case

lerfu word for, Upper and lower cases

upper-case letters

English usage contrasted with Lojban, Upper and lower cases

Lojban usage contrasted with English, Upper and lower cases

utterance

expressing relation to discourse, Discursives

utterance ordinal

lerfu string as, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

utterance pro-sumti

stability of, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

utterances

non-bridi, Questions and answers

uy diphthong

in cmene, cmene

V

V

as a symbol for a single vowel, Introductory

va, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

VA selma'o

and distance, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

relation of words to ti

ta, tu, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

va'a, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso

va'e, Special mekso selbri

va'i, Discursives

contrasted with ke'u, Discursives

va'inai, Discursives

vague abstraction, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractions

place structure, Minor abstraction types

vague abstractor, Minor abstraction types

vague relationship

modal tag for, Modal tags: BAI

valid speech

marking as error with jo'a, Miscellaneous indicators

vanju kabri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

variables

logical, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

vau, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

effect on elidability ku'o, Possessive sumti

vau for shared bridi-tail sumti

avoiding, Other modal connections

ve, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

ve klama, Conversion: SE

contrasted with pluta, Conversion: SE

ve'abe'a, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

ve'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ve'o, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

vecnu, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI

vector

components of, Vectors and matrices

definition, Vectors and matrices

vector indicator, Vectors and matrices

terminator for, Vectors and matrices

vectors

use as operands, Vectors and matrices

use of parentheses with, Vectors and matrices

vei, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

veka'a, Modal tags: BAI

veljvo, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

symmetrical, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

velmikce, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

velvel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

vemau, Comparatives and superlatives

veme'a, Comparatives and superlatives

vensa djedi, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verba jamfu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

verbs

brivla as Lojban equivalents, brivla

veterinarian

example, Ordering lujvo places.

vexixa, Subscripts: XI

vi, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses

as adjective expression for English this, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

vi'a, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'e, Dimensionality: VIhA

vi'o

contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

vi'u, Dimensionality: VIhA

vice versa

English

expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vindu firgai, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

vinji rebla, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

virtue

example, Attitudinal modifiers

viska, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

viska le, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

viska lo, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

vo, Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation

vo'a, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'a-series pro-sumti

use in expressing reciprocity with soi, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'e, Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

vo'i, Pro-sumti summary

vo'o, Pro-sumti summary

vo'u, Pro-sumti summary

voboi mu pi'i, Reverse Polish notation

voboi renomei, Four score and seven: a mekso problem

vocative phrase

effect of position on meaning, The syntax of vocative phrases

elidable terminator for, The syntax of vocative phrases

explicit quantifiers prohibited on, The syntax of vocative phrases

forms of, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit descriptor on, The syntax of vocative phrases

implicit quantifiers on, The syntax of vocative phrases

purpose of, The syntax of vocative phrases

with complete sumti, The syntax of vocative phrases

with sumti without descriptor, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase terminator

elidability of, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocative phrase with name

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrase with selbri

placement of relative clause on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative phrases

as a free modifier, The syntax of vocative phrases

relative clauses on, Relative clauses in vocative phrases

vocative word

phrase following, The syntax of vocative phrases

vocatives

and definition of "you", Vocative scales

contrasted with "la", Vocative scales

definition, Vocative scales

grammar overview, Vocative scales

notation convention symbol "X", Vocative scales

quick-tour version, Vocatives and commands

rationale for redundancy, Vocative scales

voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voiced consonants

contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, Initial Consonant Pairs

voiced/unvoiced consonants

restrictions on, Consonant Clusters

vorme, Lojban sumti raising

vowel

buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel buffer

contrasted with y sound, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

vowel pairs

contrasted with diphthongs, Vowel Pairs

definition of, Vowel Pairs

grouping of, Vowel Pairs

involving y, Vowel Pairs

list of, Vowel Pairs

use of apostrophe in, Vowel Pairs

vowel-initial words

necessity for pause before, Rules for inserting pauses

vowels

contrasted with consonants, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

definition of, Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants

length of, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

pronunciation of

quick-tour version, Pronunciation

vu, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

vu'e, Attitudinal modifiers

vu'i, sumti qualifiers

effect of on meaning, sumti qualifiers

use for creating sequence, sumti qualifiers

vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

vu'u, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

VUhU operands, Simple infix expressions and equations

vukro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

VV string

as a symbol for a double vowel, Introductory

vy, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

vy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one

vy.bu, Alien alphabets

W

walk to market

example, Conversion of simple selbri

want to be a soldier

example, The syntax of abstraction

wash self

example, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

weapon against self

example, Dropping the prenex

went and bought

example, Tenses, modals, and logical connection

what is your name

example, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

when

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when else

example, Tense questions: cu'e

when/where/how

example, Tense questions: cu'e

where

example, Tense questions: cu'e

whether criminal

example, Truth-value abstraction: jei

whole time interval

expressing, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

window

example, The six types of logical connectives

wine-dark sea, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

word "abu"

example, References to lerfu

word "bu", The universal bu

word classes, Introductory

word forms

as related to grammatical uses, Introductory

in Lojban (see also morphology), Introductory

word quotation

as morphologically valid, Quotation summary

internal grammar of, Quotation summary

words not in the dictionary, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

wrong concept, Dependent places

X

x sub b,d

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

x sub k

example, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

X-ray

example, rafsi

x-sub-3

example, Subscripts

x1

in place structure notation, Introductory

notation convention

quick-tour version, Some words used to indicate selbri relations

xa rairgugde, Indefinite numbers

xaceru, fu'ivla

xagmau, Comparatives and superlatives

xagrai, Comparatives and superlatives

xamgu, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Comparatives and superlatives

xampo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xamsi gerku, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xance, Anomalous lujvo

xancypliminde, Anomalous lujvo

xanmi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xanplimi'e, Anomalous lujvo

xarci, lujvo with more than two parts.

xaroi, Sub-events

xaskemcakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xasycakcurnu, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xatsi, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xazdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xe, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI

xe klama, Conversion: SE

xebro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xecto, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xeka'a, Modal tags: BAI

xekri, Notes on gismu place structures

xelklama, Tenses as sumti tcita

xelso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xelxel-, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

xetexe, Conversion: SE

xexso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xi, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI

xindo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xirma zdani, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

xismu, gismu

xispo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xo, Number questions, Questions and answers

xrabo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xriso, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xrula tricu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

xu, The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers

xunre, Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation

xunre pastu nixli, The syntax of vocative phrases

xurdo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

xutla bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

xy, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

xy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

xy. bu, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

Y

y

considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, Introductory

letter

between letters of consonant pair, brivla

prohibition from fu'ivla, fu'ivla

use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, Consonant Clusters

y sound

contrasted with vowel buffer, Buffering Of Consonant Clusters

y-hyphen

and consonant cluster determination, lujvo

and stress determination, lujvo

use of, lujvo

yes/no questions, Miscellaneous indicators

quick-tour version, Questions

yielding the floor, No more to say: FAhO

yon

as archaic English equivalent of tu, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

you

defining, Vocative scales

you're welcome

fi'i contrasted with je'e, Vocative scales

je'e contrasted with fi'i, Vocative scales

you-cmavo

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

you-talk

example, lujvo based on pro-sumti

younger

example, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

za'a, Indicators, Evidentials

za'e, Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

interaction with bu, The universal bu

use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, Considerations for making lujvo

za'i, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'o, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

za'u, Approximation and inexact numbers

with elided number, Approximation and inexact numbers

zabna, Attitudinal modifiers

ZAhO selma'o, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumti tcita

contradictory negation of, Tense negation

effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, Space interval modifiers: FEhE

zai, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks

zarci, Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types

zbasu, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zdani, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be-bei-be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zdani co blanu, Inversion of tanru: co

zdani lijgri, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani linji, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zdani tcadu, Some types of symmetrical tanru

zdani turni, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

ze'e, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

effect on following PU direction, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eba, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'eca, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'epu, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

meaning of, Interval properties: TAhE and roi

ze'i, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

ze'o, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zei, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zemo'o, Utterance ordinals: MAI

zenba, Comparatives and superlatives

zepti, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zerle'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zerle'a nunte'a, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zernerkla, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

zero

relation to negation boundary, Negation boundaries

zero to one

example, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

zetro, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

zgike nunctu, Some types of asymmetrical tanru

zi, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

ZI selma'o

compared with VA, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

compared with English and, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

contrasted with logical connectives, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'o, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti

as creating new selbri, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zi'o rafsi

effect of on place structure of lujvo, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilpavypinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

zilrelselpinxe, lujvo based on pro-sumti

Zipf's Law, Considerations for making lujvo

zmadu, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

zo, The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zo .bab., More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zo .djan., Other uses of mekso

zo .djan. si .djordj., Erasure: SI, SA, SU

zo le'u, List of cmavo interactions

zo'e, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as a translation for "something", Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

as place-holder for sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

as place-holder for unspecified sumti, Standard bridi form: cu

compared with FA for omitting places, Tagging places: FA

contrasted with da, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

zo'e-series

compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'e-series pro-sumti, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zo'i, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

special note on direction orientation, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

zo'o, Discursives

zo'obu, The universal bu

zo'u, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

zoi, The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, YACC Grammar of Lojban

interaction with bu, The universal bu

zoi X. text .X, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

zu'a, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes

derivation of word, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

zu'a ca'u, Movement in space: MOhI

zu'aku, Tense relations between sentences

zu'i, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

zu'o, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

zukte, Notes on gismu place structures

zuljamfu, rafsi

zuljma, rafsi

zunle, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

zunle jamfu, rafsi

zunlyjamfu, rafsi

zunlyjma, rafsi

zy, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

zy., A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)