cenj - changes

sf3v ri lojsk

18 vril 2003 / 18 April 2003

Lojsk is an absolutely regular, simple and logical 'Predicate Based' language. It is influenced heavily by: Loglan, Lojban, Universal Networking Language (UNL), Esperanto, Visual Basic, Dutton's Speedwords, Ceqli and Gua\spi.

The Morneau MTIL criteria (detailed overview can be found at: http://www.rick.harrison.net/langlab/mtil.html) are the guiding principles as Lojsk is developed. Lojsk is successful in meeting four of the five key criteria:

1 - self segregating vocabulary

2 - simple syntax

3 - flexible 'predicate argument' placement structure

4 - relationship morpheme

5 - minimal deviation from natural grammar

Lojsk meets these criteria by:

1 - all Lojsk words single syllable constructions

2 - standard Lojsk syntax:

function argument-1 argument-2 ... argument-n

3 - grammatical markers, known as 'grar' allow for extremely flexible predicate argument placement

4 - a powerful by-product of the grammatical markers allows for detailed descriptions of the relationships between keywords and between the Function and it's Arguments

The fifth criterion was not as easy to obtain without jeopardizing the other four criteria, and Lojsk's own internal criterion of being as absolutely regular as possible. Therefore, Lojsk maintains a very simple 'programming language' grammar instead. (Similar to say Visual Basic.) However, unlike existing programming languages and logical 'predicate based' languages (such as Loglan and Lojban), Lojsk doesn't maintain strict predicate argument positions. Instead, it provides for predicate arguments to be positioned at the discretion of the speaker utilizing the 'grar' grammatical markers to identify the argument's relation to the function.

Also, unlike other International Auxiliary Languages (IAL's), Lojsk is by no means shy of having an ever-enlarging, robust and detail specific vocabulary. As this is essential to meeting one of the language's goals of precise communication. At the first publishing of the language, the Lojsk Kfeirt (keyword) database had a total of 1945 entries. Continued updates will be made on a frequent and timely manner, and contributions to the language are greatly appreciated and credit duly noted.

An online vocabulary and overview can be found here:  https://www.quickbase.com/db/8gnc9xea

Please, download the PDF Language Overview (in three files):
part one (https://www.quickbase.com/up/8e2vm5qn/g/rc/eg/va/Lojsk.pdf )
part two (https://www.quickbase.com/up/8e2vm5qn/g/rd/eg/va/Lojsk.2.pdf)
part three (https://www.quickbase.com/up/8e2vm5qn/g/re/eg/va/Lojsk.3.pdf)

Communications with respect to corrections, editions or other textual alterations to this document should be made to: [email protected].

Please format the subject line as follows:
Lojsk - Edit Recommendation.

In the body of your e-mail please make note of the section title, page, and paragraph where the edit/correction is recommended.

Communications with respect to Language Alterations or Language Contributions should be made to: [email protected].

Please format the subject line as follows:
Lojsk - Language Recommendation.

Credit will be noted in the database for the contributor. 

changes/cenj

18 jun/June 2003, 16:50

-added an HTML version of vocabulary list to support lower bandwidth users.

-completed new HTML sections of language overview: Conditional Statements, Questions, Aspect Keywords.

2 jun/June 2003, 14:08

-completed new HTML sections of language overview: Basic Grammar, Subordinate Clauses, Punctuation.

20 meis/May 2003, 18:23

-completed new HTML sections of language overview: Grar Endings, Language Specific Exit / Re-entry Grar, Combining Grar Beginnings, Names.

18 meis/May 2003, 13:17

-completed new HTML sections of language overview: Keywords, Grammatical Markers.

8 meis/May 2003, 17:48

-completed new HTML sections of language overview: Morphology, Word Classes (subpages not yet completed).

1 meis/May 2003, 13:01

-began creating HTML version of language overview. It should be completed by the end of next week. There were some problems with the PDF version of the document. (Thanks to Mark Vines for pointing it out.)

-completed the first part of the new HTML version of the language overview: Alphabet and Pronunciation

26 vril/April 2003, 21:53 [document version: 20030426@2324]

-added a Changes/Cenj section to this page.

-added 'h_' command grars to language. (see updated 'Grar' section.) These grars support one of lojsk's original design objectives of human-to-machine vocal communication facilitation. The command grar will allow the speaker to address and command the machine directly. Up to this point language development has focused primarily on human-to-human or human-to-machine dictation.

lojsk: !ha dyel q!
english: Delete previous (character)!

-added table of language specific exit and re-entry command grars. These command grars allow the user to exit lojsk and enter another language, and then re-enter lojsk. Up to this point, only one element allowed for exit/re-entry; the cmen (name) grar (cm_ ...ii) and the cmen (name) command grar (ii...ii). (see section on Names/Cmen.)

lojsk: :a cuts le hih xge ii6c.I didn't go to work.ii6c xgq:
english: He says, "I didn't go to work".

-changed the conjunction ("and") grar 'jm_' to 'j_'. Added an 'optional conjunction' ("and either") grar 'jm_' to be used with the disjunction/alternative ("or") grar 'm_'.

lojsk: :a godz le kat ji g3k tcwe has q:
english: The cat and dog go to the house.

lojsk: :a godz le kat jmi g3k mi smac tcwe has q:
english: The cat and either the dog or the mouse go to the house.

cenj - changes

Alphabet and Pronunciation

changes/cenj

N/A

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Morphology

key:

|           "or"
+          "and"
[ ]         "optional or special circumstances"
"..."       "actual letter"   

Morphology rules do NOT apply to Names

(see section on Names)

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Word Classes

Lojsk utilizes three classes of words:

key:

|           "or"
+          "and"
[ ]         "optional or special circumstances"
"..."       "actual letter"   

cmen	proper names of persons, animals, places or things this group may take on any morphology.
kfeirt	the core vocabulary of Lojsk. This category includes all (of what other languages would define as...) nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. this group (excepting numerical kfeirt) has the following morphological structure: c|cc|ccc + v|vv + c|cc|ccc numerical kfeirt have the following morphological structure (see section on Numbers): c|cc|ccc + [L] + v|vv + ["2"] + c|cc|ccc
grar	the grammatical markers of the language, holding it together and stringing together concepts to form logical phrases and sub-phrases. this group has the following 'base' morphological structure (see section on Grar): c|cc|ccc + [L|"r"] + v|vv

Using the symbols (c) to identify cmen, (k) to identify kfeirt, and (g) to identify grar, let us examine the following example: 

Mark eats the apple.

:a manj le ii.'ma2k.ii xe pom q:

 :a(g) manj(k) le(g) ii.'ma2k.ii(c) xe(g) pom(k) q:

Note the cmen in the phrase: 

ii.'ma2k.ii (Mark)

This is the proper name of this phrase's jba6k vi le6 or 'executive' or 'subject'.

Note the kfeirt of the phrase:

manj (eat)

pom (apple)

These two words, and the cmen, give us the core concepts of the phrase. Their actual functions are defined by their respective grar. 

The grar of the phrase:

a     (denotes the fanc or 'function', 'verb', 'action-in-focus', or 'state-in-focus' of the phrase)

le     ('le' denotes the jba6k vi le6 or 'executive'/'initiator'/'subject' of the activity)

xe     ('xe' denotes the jba6k vi bek or 'object' or 'recipient' of the activity)

These three words give us the 'structure' of the phrase. They are the 'string' that holds the phrase together in a logical manner.

The following sections expand on the various word types.

kfeirt / keywords

grar / grammatical markers

cmen / names

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N/A

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Word Classes: Keywords / kfeirt

Kfeirt or Keywords are the core vocabulary of Lojsk. This category includes all nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Kfeirt may be categorized into three groups based on their function within a phrase or sub-phrase. These functions are defined by the kfeirt’s respective Grammatical Marker (GRAR).

Kfeirt are broken down into three basic types:

fanc the ‘function’, ‘verb’, ‘action-in-focus’, or ‘state-in-focus’ of the phrase
jba6k the ‘arguments’ of the fanc
tcait the ‘properties’ or ‘states’ of a jba6k, or of a ‘parent’/’higher order’ tcait

Using the symbols (f) to identify fanc, (j) to identify jba6k, and (t) to identify tcait, let us examine the following example:

The boy eats a very red apple.
:a manj le botc xe pom vi xun kfo gal q:
:a manj(f) le botc(j) xe pom(j) vi xun(t) kfo gal(t) q:

The fanc of the example is:

a manj (eat)

The fanc is identified by the grar vi fanc or the ‘function marker’. The grar vi fanc ends in “_a” or “._a” (where ‘_’ is the appropriate grar beginning). (Note: those grar vi fanc that end in “._a” identify fanc vi dam or ‘low functions’. These are the functions of sub-ordinate clauses, or sub-phrases, and thus the manner of creating a sub-ordinate clause or sub-phrase. The fanc of the main clause or main phrase is thus officially labeled the fanc vi gal or ‘high function’. See the section titled “Subordinate Clauses / Subordinate Phrases”)

The jba6k of the example are:

le botc (the boy, where the boy is identified as the ‘executive’ or ‘subject’ of the phrase)

and

xe pom (the apple, where the apple is identified as the ‘object’ or ‘recipient’ of the phrase)

The jba6k are identified by their respective grar vi jba6k or ‘argument markers’. The grar vi jba6k ends in “e”. (Note: as discussed above, sub-ordinate clauses or sub-phrases are created by introducing a fanc vi dam. This is accomplished by adding “._a” to a grar (where ‘_’ is the appropriate grar beginning). This is most commonly done on grar vi jba6k. Thus you should expect to see grar vi jba6k that end in “e.a”. Meaning, of course, that the sub-ordinate clause / sub-phrase is acting as the jba6k.)

The tcait of the example are:

vi xun (red, where red is identified as a ‘restricting’ or ‘modifying’ property of the apple)

and

kfo gal (high, where high is identified as the degree of red of the apple)

The tcait are identified by their respective grar vi tcait or ‘property markers’. There are ten degrees of tcait. ‘First degree’ tcait are properties of a jba6k, ‘second degree’ tcait are ‘fine tuning’ properties of a ‘first degree’ tcait, ‘third degree’ tcait ‘fine tune’ second degree tcait, and so on. See the grar / grammatical markers section for all the grar endings.

The following sections expand on the various word types.

kfeirt / keywords

grar / grammatical markers

cmen / names

changes/cenj

N/A

cenj - changes

Word Classes: Grammatical Markers / grar

Grar or Grammatical Markers in Lojsk serve an extremely vital role in proper functioning of the language. They not only denote the function of the keywords, they mark the beginning and ending of phrases and sub-phrases, and serve in the capacity that prepositions (and copulas) serve in other languages.

The morphology of a Grar consists of three parts, and has the following structure:

c|cc|ccc + [S|"r"] + v|vv

The three parts can be defined as follows:

Grammatical Marker Beginnings

Base	Main Vocation	Sub Vocation	English Equivalents	Definition	Examples
s	affirmation		yes	affirming the previous statement when used with '_a.q'.	:sa.q: :a raid le hih xe buk q:   Yes, he reads the book.   :sa.q:   Yes.
d	association	passive, temporary (or near temporary) possession	my, your, 's	possessor of a thing	:a zut le hih tce c3s di mih q:   He sits in my chair.
dj	association	component	my, your, 's	concept of which a focused thing is a part, component or characteristic	:a seis le herf dji mih ste gris q:   My hair is gray.
dv	association	active	of	thing/state/attribute/event actively associated with another thing/state/attribute/event	:a turk le mih xve frem dvi ii.'ma2k.ii q:   I work with the friend of Mark.
dw	association	ownership, permanent (or near permanent) possession	my, your, 's	owner of a thing	:a raid le xih xe buk dwi mih q:   They read my book.
dy	association	origin	by, from	thing/event whose activity is the cause of origin of an object or event or state	:a raid le mih xe buk dyi ii.'an_rais.ii q:   I read the book by Anne Rice.
zb	condition	conditioned	thus, so	conclusion	:a seis le hih xe spen dvi cih zbe.a seis le cih xe spen dvi hih 'q:   He is her spouse, thus she is his spouse.
zbw	condition	conditioned next-in-sequence	then	combination of 'zb' and 'w' bases, meaning 'conditioned next-in-sequence'	:zbwa dzo2 le mih zve.a seis ste criin le liit 'q:   I [will] walk if the light is green.
zmw	condition	conditioned alternate next-in-sequence	otherwise, else	conditioned alternate next-in-sequence   else if = 'zmwe.zva'	:zva cauv le hfet zbwe.a godz le mih xre tren q, zmwe.a dzo2 le mih 'q:   If it rains, (then) I will go home via the train, otherwise (else) I will walk.
zv	condition	conditioning	if	event or state which conditions another event or state	:zva seis ste criin le liit zbwe.a dzo2 le mih 'q:   I [will] walk if the light is green.
cf	state	equivalent	this is, that	an equivalent concept, used also in the form 'cfe', or 'cfe.a' on diagrams or in clipped speak or declarations (to mean 'this is')   used in the form 'cfi.a' to create a 'generic' subordinate phrase (to mean 'that')	:a tav le mih ve lojsk cfi len vo loj q:   I speak Lojsk, the logical language.   :cfe pom:   (This is an) apple.   :a manj le botc xe pom cfi.a sitc tle ken tce lol 'q:   The boy eats the apple that was on the floor.
cm	state	label, proper name	this is, that	name or label of a thing or event (see CMEN)   used also in the form 'cma' or 'cme' in clipped speak or introductions (to mean 'this is')	:a tav le mih xve botc cmi 'ta,mas.ii q:   I speak with the boy named Thomas.   :cma [a,ri,'an,o] le mick q:   I [am; my name is] Ariano.   :cme ['ma2k]:   (This is) Mark.
h	command	computer do	do	agent is the machine	:ha dyel q:   Delete previous (character).
hn	command	computer do not	don't	agent is the machine	:hna madz xe h'pelj q:   Do not load (internet) page.
hr	command	computer redo	redo	agent is the machine	:hra.q:   Redo
hy	command	computer undo	undo	agent is the machine	:hya.q:   Undo (last command).
hs	command	computer stop/arrest	stop, terminate	agent is the machine	:hsa madz xe h'pelj q:   Stop loading the (internet) page.
g	imperative	do	do	agent is implied to be audience   politeness, inferred from tone and manner of speaking	:ga raid xe buk q:   Read the book.   :ga.q:   Go Do
gn	imperative	do not	don't	agent is implied to be audience   politeness, inferred from tone and manner of speaking	:gna raid xe buk q:   Don't read the book
gr	imperative	redo	redo	agent is implied to be audience   politeness, inferred from tone and manner of speaking	:gra raid xe ptratc ri le6k q:   Re-read the chapter on electricity.
gy	imperative	undo	undo...	agent is implied to be audience   politeness, inferred from tone and manner of speaking	:gya baind xe mih q:   Un-bind me
gz	imperative	stop/arrest	stop..., terminate...	agent is implied to be audience   politeness, inferred from tone and manner of speaking	!gza manj xe pom q! :a seis le lih ste ven q:   Stop eating the apple! It's poisoned.
c	interrogative		what..? did..?	derived from the 'cuh' kfeirt; used to ask a yes/no question when in the 'grar di fanc' position (at beginning of phrase); may also be used to question specific elements of a statement when used as part of a grar vi luj (complex grammatical marker)	?ca raid le vih xe buk q?   Are you reading the book?   ?a raid le mih x.ce buk q?   Is the thing I'm reading a book?   ?ca.q?   What?
pc	Invitation	request grant	let's, let us	if no agent is explicitly identified then it is implied to be audience and speaker [vmih]	:pca raid xe buk q:   Let us read the book.
pn	invitation	grant not	you may not, he may not	refuse consent to do	:pna kran le vih xe ka2c q:   You may not drive the car.
ps	invitation	positive grant	you may, he may	give consent to do	:psa kran le vih xe ka2c q:   You may drive the car.
j	junction	conjunction additional	and	NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item to denote "and".   When acting as a conjunction between two separate phrases it may take the forms "ja.q", "je.a"	:a vis le mih xe botc je nil q:   I see a boy and a girl.   :a bait le mih xe gom je.a dzo2 te moc ksi mit 'q:   I chew gum and walk at the same time.
jm	junction	conjunction optional	and either	NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item to denote "and either".   When acting as a conjunction between two separate phrases it may take the forms "jma.q", "jme.a"	:a vis le mih xe botc jme nil me fem q:   I see a boy and either a girl or a woman.
w	junction	conjunction next in sequence	[and] then	NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item to denote "and then".   When acting as a conjunction between two separate phrases it may take the forms "wa.q", "we.a"	:a godz le mih tcwe has we.a tcwe pa2k 'q:   I go to the house, and then to the park.
y	junction	conjunction previous in sequence	after	NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item to denote "after".   When acting as a conjunction between two separate phrases it may take the forms "ya.q", "ye.a"	:a godz le mih tcwe has ye.a tcwe pa2k 'q:   I go to the house after [I go to] the park.
m	junction	disjunction alternative	or	NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item to denote mutual exclusivity.   When acting as a disjunction between two separate phrases it may take the forms "ma.q", "me.a"	:a manj le mih xe pom me no2j q:   I eat the apple or the orange.   :a lik me.a bait le mih xe pom 'q:   I lick or bite the apple.   :a godz le mih tcwe has me.a kran xe ka2c 'q:   I go to the house, or I drive the car.
v	Modification	modification restricting attribute manner method	type, that is..., of which..., how, using, with, by	thing/state/attribute which restricts the meaning/definition of a focused thing/event/state/attribute (a defining/identifying characteristic)	:a raid le mih xe buk vi xun q:   I read the red book.   :a dzo2 ve kruk le mih tcwe has q:   I walk quickly to the house.   :a godz le mih tcwe has ve.a dzo2 le mih 'q:   I go home by means of walking.   ?va.q?   How? What type?
n	negation	contradiction exclusion (XOR)	no and not, and not	contradicting a previous statement when used with '_a.q'.   negates an element when used in a simple or complex grar structure.   See section on Combining Grar Beginnings.   NOTE: this grar must immediately follow after the first item when used to denote exclusion.	:na.q: :a raid le xih xe buk q:   No, he is reading the book.   :na raid le xih xe buk q:   He isn't reading the book.   :a raid l.ne xih xe buk q:   It isn't HE that reads the book.   :a vis le mih xe botc ne nil q:   I see the boy but not the girl.
kc	number	accuracy	about, circa	the degree of accuracy	:a pos le mih xe rand vi dat ki cwat kco jiix q:   I have approximately three hundred data discs (CDs).
k	number	static	quantity, cardinal number   proportion, rate, distribution, per a	quantity of a thing or unit   basis or unit of proportion, rate or distribution (when used in combination with Time/Via 'tr-')	:a manj le mih xe pom ki twan q:   I eat the two apples.   :a manj le mih xe pom ki twan tre ho2t ko cwan q:   I eat two apples in three hours.
kf	number	degree	like, as	degree expressing similarity or difference	:a seis le mih ste feih kfe dun kfe g3k q:   I'm as ugly as the dog.
kfy	number	basis, comparison	as, like, in comparison to	thing/state/attribute used as a basis for expressing degree, and is also an important element of mathematical expressions	:a seis le mih ste feih kfe dun kfye g3k q:   I am as ugly as the dog.
ks	number	order or rank of position, state, quality, importance	first, second, etc.	ordinal state of a thing/event/state	:a raid le mih xe buk ksi mwan q:   I read the fifth book.
kt	number	occurrence	once, twice	number of times an event occurs	:a raid le mih xe buk kte twan q:   I read the book twice.
kw	number	final	to	final quantity of a thing or unit	:a muv le hih xe vrag kye twan kwe xwan q:   He moves the lever from two to six.
ky	number	initial	from	initial quantity of a thing or unit	:a muv le hih xe vrag kye twan kwe xwan q:   He moves the lever from two to six.
x	object	passive		object that is a passive participant in the event/state/value	:a raid le mih xe buk q:   I read the book.
xb	object	purpose/reason	to (do), for, because	purpose or reason of an event or agent of an event or a purpose of a thing which exists	:a godz le mih tcwe res pe.a manj 'q:   I go to the restaurant to eat.
xg	object	quote		He said (that)...   (use xge.a ... 'xgq)   He said, "..." (use xge ... xgq)	:a cuts tle kqn le hih xge.a godz tcwe has di ii.'ma2k.ii 'xgq:   He said he is going to Mark's house.
xr	object	instrument (tool)	with, using	concrete instrument to carry out an event (or establish a state)	:a manj le mih xe stas xre sput q:   I eat the soup with the spoon.
xv	object	active	with	object that is an active participant in the event/state/value	:a kamd le mih xve ii.'ma2k.ii q:   I fight with Mark.
xw	object	final	to	object toward which the activity is indirectly directed	:a raid le mih xe buk xwe ii.'ma2k.ii q:   I read the book to Mark.
xz	object	beneficiary	for	indirect related beneficiary of an event or state	:a dons le mih xe din xbe tceirt q:   I give money for the charity.
tc	place	static	at, on, in	place an event occurs or a state is true or a thing exists	:a valt le kat tce xaf dji tab q:   The cat jumps [while] on (not onto) the table.
tcr	place	via	via, through, by	intermediate place of an event	:a dzo2 le mih tcwe has tcre tuln q:   I walk to the house via the tunnel.
tcw	place	final	to	place an event ends or a state becomes false, destination of a thing	:a valt le kat tcwe xaf dji tab q:   The cat jumps onto the table top.
tcy	place	initial	from, of	place an event starts or a state becomes true, origin of a thing	:a valt le kat tcye xaf dji tab q:   The cat jumps from the table top.
ts	scene	static	in, on	virtual/metaphysical/abstract world/scene where an event occurs or state is true or a thing exists	:a seis le mih ste feih tse fot q:   I'm ugly in the photograph.
tsr	scene	via	via, through	via virtual / metaphysical / abstract world / scene where an event occurs or state is true or a thing exists	:a godz le hih tswe kinz tsre xreit q:   He goes to movies via the theatre.
tsw	scene	final	in, on, to	final virtual / metaphysical / abstract world / scene where an event occurs or state is true or a thing exists	:a godz le hih tsye tiv tswe kinz q:   He goes from television to movies.
tsy	scene	initial	in, on, from	initial virtual / metaphysical / abstract world / scene where an event occurs or state is true or a thing exists	:a godz le hih tsye tiv tswe kinz q:   He goes from television to movies.
st	state	static	is	state/attribute/value of an object or event	:a seis le liit ste criin q:   The light is green.   :sta criin q:   [It] is green.   :sta.q: :ma.q: :st.na.q:   [To] be. Or, not [to] be.
str	state	via		intermediate state/attribute/value of an object or event	:a tceinj le liit stye criin stwe xun stre pel q:   The light changed from green [to] yellow to red.
stw	state	final	to	final state/attribute/value of an object or event	:a tceinj le liit stye criin stwe xun q:   The light changed from green to red.
sty	state	initial	from	initial state/attribute/value of an object or event	:a tceinj le liit stye criin stwe xun q:   The light changed from green to red.
l	subject			agent/executive/subject/thing with attribute	:a manj le mih q:   I eat.
t	time	static	at, when	time an event occurs or state is true	:a dzo2 le mih tcwe has te nict q:   I walk to the house at night.
tl	time	relative time temporal aspect	[future, present, past]	"tense" of the function, denotes time of the function with respect to the speaker and point of the event on which the speaker is focused (used with 'temporal aspect' kfeirt)	:a dzo2 tle ten le mih tcwe has di mih q:   I will soon walk to my house.
tr	time	via	during, for	period of time during which an event occurs or a state exists as true	:a dzo2 le mih tre hort ki tyan q:   I walk for two hours.
tw	time	final	until, to	time an event ends or a state becomes false	:a dzo2 le mih twe.a tair tle tqf le mih 'q:   I walk until I become tired.
ty	time	initial	at, when, since	time an event starts or a state becomes true	:a dzo2 le mih tcwe has tye.a mul le mih xe.a raid xe buk 'q:   I [will] walk to the house when I finish reading the book.
r	topic		about, concerning, with respect to	topic of the event/state/thing	:a raid le mih xe buk ri len cmo 'lojsk.ii q:   I read the book about a language called Lojsk.

The following sections expand on grar and various uses.

Grammatical Marker Endings / Tags

Language Specific Exit and Re-entry Grar

Combining Grar Beginnings

changes/cenj

22 dec/December 2003, 12:02

-corrected object/origin xy_ to association/origin dy_

18 jun/June 2003, 18:02

-corrected a number of mistakes concerning simple commands and statements. ALL phrases in lojsk must begin with a function grar (_.a) and end in an ending grar (_q). Thus, the lojsk equivalent of 'Do!' is '!ga.q!'; and so on.

cenj - changes

Grammatical Marker Endings / tcit vi grar

Grammatical Marker Endings / Tags (simple)

Grammatical Marker Endings / Tags (complex)  

changes/cenj

N/A

cenj - changes

Word Classes: Grammatical Markers/ grar

Language specific Exit and Re-Entry Command Grar

These grar allow the speaker to exit Lojsk and enter (begin to speak in) a specific language. Used primarily for dictation, quotes, or native names/titles.

changes/cenj

N/A

cenj - changes

Word Classes: Grammatical Markers/ grar

Combining Grar Beginnings

There are certain times when it becomes necessary to utilize the meaning of two (or more) grar beginnings. In these cases we must fuse or combine the grar beginnings. It is usually understood that the first grar beginning is 'enhanced' or modified by the second (and so on). Take the following example:

ex1[ENG]:        Mark is not quick.

ex1[LOJ]:         :a seis le ii.'ma2k.ii st.ne kruk q:

The combined grar beginnings are demonstrated with 'st.n_'. The '_.n_' construct contradicts the preceding grar beginning.

The following examples show us how combining grar beginnings provides for more precise communication.

ex2[ENG]:        Is Mark fast?

ex2a[LOJ]:       ?ca seis le ii.'ma2k.ii ste kruk q?

ex2b[LOJ]:       ?a seis le ii.'ma2k.ii st.ce kruk q?

ex2c[LOJ]:       ?a seis l.ce ii.'ma2k.ii ste kruk q?

These examples show how to question only parts of a statement or phrase. In English, as in most languages, this is accomplished by altering the tone or pitch of the phrase to focus attention on a particular component of the phrase. The first Lojsk example questions the entire concept of Mark being fast. The second questions only the 'fast-ness' of Mark. The third questions whether it's Mark that is fast.

Please note: the period between the grar beginnings is a full and complete stop in speech.

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Word Classes: Names / cmen

Names in Lojsk are outside the standard language. They represent labels applied to persons, places or things. Lojsk provides for minimal modification of names' pronunciation by 'exiting' and 're-entering' Lojsk through special grar and kfeirt structures. Take the following examples: 

ex1[ENG]:      Thomas has the dog. 

ex1[LOJ]:       :a pos le ii.'ta,mas.ii xe g3k q:

ex2[ENG]:      The dog named Harvey bites the boy named John.

ex2[ENG]:      :a bait le g3k cmi 'ha2,vii.ii xe botc cmi 'djan.ii q:

ex3[ENG]:      Mr. Boyles teaches French at the university.

ex3[ENG]:      :a ditc xe len vi ii.'frants.ii le tlan 'boils.ii tce sem q:

The names are preserved with their original pronunciations. Capitalization is used to denote the 'stressed' syllables. Comma marks are used to denote the boundary of syllables (where appropriate), and represent a pause in speech. (It should be noted also, that periods are used in the first example above when we 'exited' Lojsk with "ii." and when we 're-entered' Lojsk with ".ii".) 

Thus the three constructions available to denote names are: 

ii.NAME.ii

cm_ NAME.ii

tlan NAME.ii

The first construct is more properly translated as just 'NAME'. The second construct should be translated '... properly named NAME'. The third should be translated as 'Mr./Mrs./Ms./Madame/Senior/etc. NAME'.

For names emanating from languages that utilize tones, the following symbols may be used instead of the comma between (and before) syllables: 

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Basic Grammar

Lojsk grammar is extremely simple. The basic unit of communication is a fraz (a phrase or sentence). A 'well formed' fraz begins with a grar vi tiin dji fraz (a phrase 'beginning' grar) which you can identify because it ends in the vowel "a". The 'well formed' fraz terminates with a grar vi kiin dji fraz (a phrase 'ending' grar), which you can identify because it begins in the vowel "q". Lojsk is based on Predicate Logic. Thus the 'well formed' fraz consists of a fanc (a function), and a number of supporting jba6k (arguments), along with their respective grar (grammatical markers) that designate their relationships within the fraz. 

Let us example the following example of a simple fraz: 

ex1[ENG]:      I walk to the house.

ex1[LOJ]:       :a dzo2 le mih tcwe has q:

This simple phrase is formed from one function, and two arguments.

Utilizing the symbols (f) for function and (ar) for argument, we can identity them in the phrase: 

:a dzo2(f) le mih(ar) tcwe has(ar) q:

Note the function in the phrase: 

dzo2 (motion by means of one's limbs)

This is the function of the phrase. It communicates the main activity being undertaken, and 'in focus'. The function is ALWAYS the first keyword of a phrase.

Note the arguments of the phrase:

mih (first person singular pronoun, me, I)

has (house, domicile, structure whose primary purpose is as a domicile)

These two words are the arguments of the "dzo2" function word. Arguments restrict the meaning of the function by supplying such things as the initiator of the activity, the recipient of the activity, the place the initiator started from, the place the initiator ended up at the end of the activity, the time the activity took place, or even if the activity spanned a period of time. 

The order of arguments is not restricted in Lojsk, and no special constructs or words are necessary if they happen to be rendered in an 'unconventional' order. Typically, arguments are arranged with the 'executive' or 'subject' argument first, followed by the 'object' or 'recipient' argument and then other arguments are added as needed. 

Some constructed languages utilize a SVO system of symbols to illustrate syntax rules. If we loosely apply this convention to Lojsk, the typical syntax of a simple 'well formed' phrase would be:

V S O